Thomas Dreher
History of Computer Art
Lulu
Press, Inc.
Thomas Dreher
History of Computer Art
Lulu Press, Inc.
Morrisville / North Carolina 2020
Impressum
Thomas Dreher
History of Computer Art
First published on IASLonline Lessons/Lektionen in NetArt.
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October 2011–December 2012, 1st update September 2015; English
version: August 2013-2014, 1st update September 2015; 2nd update June
2020 for the eBook, with a modified chapter II.1.1.
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Cover Illustrations:
Draves, Scott: Electric Sheep, internet-connected personal
computers, screensaver, 1999. Screenshots of succesive phases,
March-April 2012.
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
II. Cybernetics
II.1 Basics of Cybernetics
II.1.1 Ballistics
II.1.2 Stochastics
II.1.3 Information
II.1.4 Feedback
II.1.5 Homeostasis
II.2 Cybernetic Models
II.2.1 Homeostat
II.2.2 Memory
II.2.3 Path Finding
II.3 Cybernetic Sculptures
II.3.1 Pioneer Works
II.3.1.1 Gordon Pask´s “Musicolour System”
II.3.1.2 Nicolas Schöffer´s “CYSP 1”
II.3.2 “Cybernetic Serendipity”
II.3.2.1 The Exhibition in London
II.3.2.2 Edward Ihnatowicz´s “SAM” and “Senster”
II.3.2.3 Gordon Pask´s “Colloquy of Mobiles”
II.3.3 Light and Sound Installations of James
Seawright and Vladimir Bonacic
II.3.4 Nicolas Negroponte, the Architecture
Machine Group and “Seek”
9
15
22
23
24
25
31
33
34
38
43
45
45
50
55
63
III. Information aesthetics
III.1 Computer Literature
III.1.1 Word Processing
III.1.2 Christopher Strachey´s “Love-letters”
III.1.3 Stochastic Texts
III.2 Computer Graphics
III.2.1 Analog Graphics
III.2.2 Digital Computer Graphics
IV. Images in Motion
IV.1 Video Tools
IV.1.1 Video Cultures
IV.1.2 Video Synthesizers
IV.2 Computer Animation
IV.2.1 The Development from the Sixties to the Eighties
IV.2.1.1 An Outline
IV.2.1.2 The Sixties
IV.2.1.3 The Seventies
IV.2.1.4 The Eighties
IV.2.1.4.1 Film Sequences
IV.2.1.4.2 Music Videos
IV.2.1.4.3 Demoscene
IV.2.1.4.4 The Techno-Imaginary
IV.3. Evolutionary Art
IV.3.1 Biomorphs
IV.3.2 Evolution and Processing
IV.3.3 Fractal Flames
IV.3.4 Emergence
V. Reactive Installations and Virtual Reality
V.1 Operations of Observers on the Interface to the
Image Simulation
V.2 Seamless Total Simulation versus Interface
Architecture
74
75
77
87
91
119
126
170
171
180
189
201
216
220
239
241
248
251
257
276
VI. Net Art: Networks, Participation, Hypertext
VI.1 Computer Networks
VI.1.1 From Timesharing to the Internet
VI.1.2 Participation in Networks of the Eighties
VI.2 Hypertext
VI.2.1 “As We May Think”: From Vannevar Bush to
Ted Nelson
VI.2.2 Hyperfiction for CD-ROM and the Web
VI.2.3 Collaborative Writing Projects in the Web
VI.3 Net Art in the Web
VI.3.1 Web: Hypertext, Protocols, Browsers
VI.3.2 HTML Art
VI.3.3 Browser Art
VI.3.4 Net Art, Context Art, and Media Activism
VII. Games
VII.1 Computer and Video Games
VII.1.1 Early Computer Games
VII.1.2 Arcade Games and Consoles
VII.1.3 First Person Shooter & Third Person View
VII.1.3.1 Ego Shooter
VII.1.3.2 God Games
VII.2 Pervasive Games
VII.2.1 Spatialization
VII.2.2 Game-oriented World-Interface
288
294
314
321
336
356
361
375
384
398
411
418
430
453
465
VIII. Summary
VIII.1 Three Modes
VIII.2 Interface-Model
471
478
IX. Bibliography
486
X. Image Sources
554
I. Introduction
Books on the history of computer art discuss either the developments being
contemporary at the time of their publication 1, or they integrate computer
art into histories of new media art. 2 After five decades of computer art more
detailed reconstructions of the development lines of the use of computers and
computing processes in artists´ projects are helpful for being able to recognize
computer art as a distinct field of media art.
Computer experts experimented in the fifties and sixties for the first time
with mainframe computers and developed several ways to use them in art and
entertainment. Several projects of pioneers have been developed further by
younger artists profiting from the progress of technology producing smaller
and smaller computers. These works constitute a dense field of possibilities that
contemporary artists can take up and evolve further. Meanwhile in the sixties
and seventies information aesthetics offered a goal turning working with computing processes into a project shared by many artists, after the postmodern
criticism of such dominant `projects´ a plurality of technological configurations has been developed complicating the effort to present an overview: We
are faced with an advanced stage of the differentiation of computer art.
This overview integrates animation and games as relevant development lines of
computer art and doesn´t avoid confrontations between corporative organized
and distributed arts on one side and on the other side artistic developments
beside the interest of investors and corporative organized production methods,
because both sides realize different aspects of “computational aesthetics”. 3 To
avoid artificial separations between three-dimensional visual simulations in
digital film animations and computer games on the one hand and in computer
art on the other hand these developments are discussed as being equivalent,
complementary, or paradigmatic.
Computer art evolves partially in simultaneous development lines: The evolution of computer art is multilinear. Each of the chapters features one of these
lines. The sequence of the chapters results from the dates of the early mature
9
projects being examples for the main characteristics of a line in a trailblazing
manner. The successors of the first mature projects are not included in this
outline of the history of computer art. Some development lines have longer
evolution phases provoked by the evolution of computer technology from
mainframe computers to personal computers (see chap. IV.2.1, VI and VII).
The development lines are sketched out hereinafter, and the succession of the
chapters helps to get a survey of the overal development.
Cybernetics thematise characteristics common to technic and biologic systems
(see chap. I.1). William Ross Ashby´s “homeostat” and the self navigating
robots constructed by William Grey Walter are technical models whose characteristics to react to external factors are to find in biological systems, too (see
chap. I.2). These cybernetic models are technical demonstrations for systems
navigating themselves in environments under changing conditions. Ashby´s
und Walter´s models prefigured cybernetic sculptures. Cybernetic sculptures
differ from three-dimensional kinetic art with moving parts 4 in its capabilities
to react to environmental influences with programmed elements (see chap.
II.3).
The capabilities of mainframe computers to combine signs following programmed rules demonstrate texts that have been generated for the first
time in the fifties (s. Kap. III.1). The combinations of letters to build words,
combinations of words, parts of sentences, and sentences prefigure a method
to organize computing processes that was used and modified in the sixties in
computer graphics to generate configurations with a repertory of visual signs.
Computers are used as instruments to generate partial realisations of the possible combinations of a visual system´s elements. The results of the computing
processes are printed by plotters.
The cybernetics-based information aesthetics offer ciriteria for combinations
of visual elements avoiding over- as well as undercomplexity of a print´s
appearance. Meanwhile works of Serial-Concrete Art are composed by rules
combining visual elements without derivations 5, computer graphics combine
serial with pseudo-random procedures (algorithmic procedures to generate
non-serial events). Information as a measure for visual perception (see chap.
10
II.2.2) is added to “information” as a measure for technical procedures (see
chap. II.1.3).
In the seventies the arising video cultures follow political and formal experimental tendencies. A part of the last tendency are the developments of video
synthesizers beginning with analogue components and using digital components since the end of the seventies. Artist use the video synthesizers for the
production of 2D-video films (see chap. IV.1). Simultaneously in the seventies
methods for 3D simulations with digital mainframe computers are developed
and at the beginning of the eighties it is possible for the first time to produce
the figures and spaces of sequences for movies exclusively with computer
animation (see chap. IV.2).
In the eighties animation procedures for virtual bodies and surfaces are integrated in Evolutionary Art by borrowing from theories on evolution (see chap.
IV.3).
Since the end of the eighties reactive installations offer interfaces for real-time
navigation in simulations of three-dimensional worlds to visitors of art exhibitions (see chap. V). In the eighties on one side mainframe computers offer
3D real-time animations, meanwhile on the other side personal computers
are used (simultaneously with consoles) for games with still rudimentary 3D
simulations (see chap. VII.1.3).
In the eighties programs are developed in the demoscene for introductions
(intros) to cracked games using codes for scroll texts and moving graphics to
control directly the graphic chips of personal computers (see chap. IV.4.3).
In the nineties on one side the 3D animation for personal computers in games,
demos and others becomes usual, on the other side a culture of linked (parts
of) texts is created by the web´s combination of hypertext and telecommunication (see chap. VI.2.2, VI.2.3) with possibilities to embed low resolution images
and short films. In the web of the nineties images and films can get no other
than accompanying functions because the transmission time still stretches the
users´ patience.
11
The personal computer culture in bulletin board systems was a precursor of the
web in the nineties. The development of net art starts with the internet of the
eighties (see chap. VI.I.2), meanwhile the basics of computer networks and the
hypertext have been worked out much earlier (see chap. VI.2.1).
In relation to their precursors in the fifties and sixties (see chap. III.1.2, III.1.3,
III.2.2) the mutual influences between literature and art are intensified in the
networks of the eighties (see chap. VI.1.2) and in the internet of the nineties
(see chap. VI.2.2, VI.2.3) because net literature as well as net art use and thematise hypertext structures.
Projects of HTML art (see chap. VI.3.2) and projects of browser art (see chap.
VI.3.3) thematise the web conditions of the nineties. Some source codes of
these projects don´t operate after the disappearance of the early web conditions.
The easy availability of data via web access, its storability and their repeatability
in follow-on projects provoke artistic projects demonstrating and thematising
(apparent) transgressions of copyright restrictions. The American copyright
permits in the “Doctrine of Fair Use” to repeat parts of art works for comments. Artists criticise a certain kind of commercialized culture by using
montages and modifications of copyrighted works. These re-uses provoke
the proprietors of copyrights (and its exploiters) to strengthen their efforts to
restrict the applicability of the “Doctrine of Fair Use” via jurisdiction. 6 Two
websites from 2002-2003 are selected as examples presenting texts and artistic
projects as critical studies of this important aspect of the net culture (see chap.
VI.3.4) offering pleas for a Copyleft and Creative Commons culture.
In the forties computer games were not only a side-line of experts but a means
to demonstrate the performance of computers to a lay public (see chap. VII.1).
The arcade games for amusements centers and the consoles for consumer TVs
made it possible to play video games with a hardware constructed for specific
needs. In the seventies they became a branch of the entertainment industry
(see chap. VII.1.2).
12
In the eighties personal or home computers are are not only used for EDP
(electronic data processing), but with games they become a device for leisure
activities. In the nineties strategy games offer an alternative to the popular
shooting games. Both kinds of games integrate players in different ways into
3D simulations (see chap. VII.1.3).
Contrary to the multiplayer online games (MMOG), pervasive games are
played with and against participants in real environments. Characteristics of
pervasive games are short play times without levels and the players´ task to
coordinate informations received via mobile devices with conditions as they
are found in the environment (see chap. VII.2).
The game-oriented interface-model presented in the chapter on pervasive
games is developed further to a method for discourses on interactions between
humans and computers (see chap. VIII.2). The developments of computer art
are systematized as three modes to organize computing processes: Hypertextual, modular and generative procedures are the main ways to organize computing processes in projects realised by artists (see chap. VIII.1).
Annotations
1 Franke: Computergraphik 1971 on computer art of the fifties and sixties;
Goodman: Visions 1987 with priority for the eighties; Paul: Art 2003 with
priority for the nineties.
Taylor: Machine 2005 presents the history of computer graphics until the
eighties. According to Taylor “the real legacy of the computer art phenomenon” (Taylor: Machine 2004, S.236) ended with a questionnaire of the art
journal Leonardo (Supplemented Issue 1989) on the actual state of computer
art and critical evaluations in the artists´ answers. For Taylor the key aspects
of computer art are presented by computer graphics. The projects presented
in the chapter VI, VI and VII can be used as examples to demonstrate that
computer graphics lost this role in the seventies and eighties.
13
For improved readability masculine forms stand for the female forms as well:
“He” or “his” are short forms for “she/he” and “her/his”.
2 Davis: Art 1973; Lovejoy: Currents 1997; Popper: Art 1993; Shanken: Art
2009.
Stephen Wilsons adds in “Information Arts” (Wilson: Information 2002) many
short descriptions of many projects to many short chapters. His waiver of
creation dates demonstrates that he didn´t intend a historical overview with a
characterisation of central aspects.
3 The use of the term aesthetics for artistic developments for and with computing processes makes sense only if its meaning is not restricted to visual
phenomena. Hardware functions, interfaces, programs (software codes) and
computing processes need to be taken into consideration as components of
“computational aesthetics”.
4 In Kinetic Art parts of the works are moved by either engines or by
movements of the air. On Kinetic Art: Buderer: Kinetische Kunst 1992,
p.45-78; Burnham: Modern Sculpture 1968, p.262-284; Davis: Art 1973,
p.53ss,123-135; Popper: Kinetische Kunst 1975, p.28-40.
5 Compare series of works (and series in works) by Richard Paul Lohse,
François Morellet and Marcello Morandini. On a Concrete Art organized by
mathematics: Crone: Order 1978; Guderian: Parallelen 1997.
6 Without author: United States Code, o.J.
14
II. Cybernetics
II.1 Basics of Cybernetics
II.1.1 Ballistics
In the fifties and sixties the pioneers of computer art either participated in
efforts to develop cybernetic methods (like Gordon Pask) or they were influenced by cybernetics (like Nicolas Schöffer, Georg Nees, Frieder Nake and
Herbert Werner Franke).
The basics of cybernetics were presented by technically constructed models
(see chap. II.2). These models became fundamental for the development of
cybernetic sculptures (see chap. II.3), meanwhile the information aesthetics
based on cybernetics offered criteria for the artists programming computer
graphics (see chap. III.2). This shows: There is no alternative to an introduction
to cybernetics.
In the summer of 1947 Norbert Wiener tried to find a title for a book in preparation. He decided to use the term “kybernetes”, the “steersman”: In controlling
the movements of the ship the steersman communicates simultaneously with
the ship and with its environment. “Cybernetics Or Control And Communication In The Animal And The Machine” was the name of the book published
in 1948: The title points the readers´ interest to features of machines as well as
animals. Wiener´s term “cybernetics” for a new research field became established.
For the first time cybernetics and computer technology have crossed each
other during the Second World War. In the early years of cybernetics their
researchers proposed solutions to control information processes in using
circuit diagrams and applications of mathematical laws. In this way the
researchers provided foundations for the development of analogue and digital
technologies. Cybernetics began with a search for new ways to apply math15
ematics in the development of solutions for technical tasks, and evolved to a
generalising science.
Left: Norbert Wiener (Cover of “Cybernetics”, second edition, 1962). Right:
Claude Elwood Shannon with “Theseus” (1952) and the mouse navigating itself
through the labyrinth (compare chap. II.2.2).
(Credit: MIT Museum, Boston / Nixdorf MuseumsForum, Paderborn)
In 1948 two texts provide the basics of cybernetics. Both inform about the
research that made them possible: In the already noted “Cybernetics Or Control And Communication In The Animal And The Machine” Norbert Wiener
mentions the war research in the United States of America, and Claude Elwood
Shannon integrates reports on results of this research in “A Mathematical
Theory of Communication”. 1 With Wiener´s and Shannon´s contributions to
the prediction of flight paths in fire control systems the American research for
an anti-aircraft technology became the initiator of cybernetics.
During the Second World War computing capacities were necessary not only
in fire control systems, but also in the cryptography, for whom computers were
developed. Via computer-aided cryptography the code of the German Enigma
code machine was deciphered.
16
The probability theory is useful for predictions if the possibilities of a system
and the statistic frequency of previous occurrences of these possibilities are
known. The probability theory became fundamental in the cryptography as
well as in Wiener´s and Shannon´s research for predictions of the flight paths
chosen by pilots to approach a destination. Anti-aircraft systems and cryptography became new fields for the application of mathematics. 2
Ballistics in the Second World War: Predicted fire against moving targets (Gustin:
WWII 1998-99).
An anti-aircraft system receives input data on a moving target and delivers the
navigation of a bullet to the target as output. In the time period from input
to output the target continues its course. Via computing processes the system
must determine possible movements of the target to aggrandize the chances to
hit the target. The calculators in anti-aircraft systems of the Second World War
were referred to as computers.
17
Left: Pursuit of a goal (one operator) and its localisation (two operators) without
radar. Right: Pursuit of a goal with radar and the localisation, the calculation of
the goal´s flight line for predictions and their transfers to cannons.
In the circuit of a fire control system the “negative feedback” was important for
the control of informations. Great distortions caused by erroneous target tracking were eliminated via filters and a continuous flight path was reconstructed
with data smoothing. Thus the data recognized by “negative feedback” were
prohibited to initiate the generation of an ouput. 3
18
Negative feedback (Apter: Cybernetics 1969, p.259).
Since 1940 Norbert Wiener had the task 4 to improve the possibilities to predict
the flight path of enemy flying objects. Efforts to refine the precision of the prediction tried to fulfill the goal to increase the hit rate of the anti-aircraft in the
Battle of Britain. Wiener divided the motion of a flying object in time phases.
This procedure allowed to recognise the repetitions and modifications between
the phases. 5
Data produced by soldiers tracking flight objects were used by Wiener as an
input of his prediction system. These data were supplied by subjects in a test
model – the “antiaircraft predictor” constructed by Julian Bigelow and Paul
Mooney. 6 Wiener’s application of the theory of probability and statistics was
transferred by Shannon to an analysis of relations between time phases in using
stochastics’ “measurable transition probabilities.” 7
19
Wiener, Norbert/Bigelow, Julian/Mooney, Paul: Antiaircraft Predictor. Ill. in:
Wiener, Norbert: Summary Report for Demonstration (to D. I. C. 5980 A. A. Directors), 10 June 1942, Record Group 227, Office of Science and Research Development, National Defense Research Committee Contractors‘ Technical Reports,
Division 7, MIT, NDCrc-83, National Archives, Library of Congress, Washington,
D. C. (Galison: Ontology 1994, p.239).
Wiener‘s “theoretical model” 8 for the command devices of anti-aircraft guns
takes attacker and persecutor resp. airplane pilot and gun pointer as elements
of one system. Airplane pilots and the gun pointers following their traces
are reduced to the characteristics relevant for the antiaircraft system. This
constitutes a level without differences between humans and machines. In 1956
Norbert Wiener sums up:
Therefore, in order to obtain as complete a mathematical treatment as possible
of the over-all control problem, it is necessary to assimilate the different parts
of the system to a single basis, either human or mechanical. Since our understanding of the mechanical elements of gun pointing appeared to us to be far
ahead of our psychological understanding, we chose to try to find a mechanical
analogue of the gun pointer and the airplane pilot. 9
20
During the course of the Second World War the prediction of the airplane
pilot´s behavior became increasingly difficult because the airplanes became
ever faster and more manoeuvrable. 10 In search for a solution of this problem
a research group of the Bell Laboratories – with Shannon as one of the participants – developed the project “Nike-Ajax” as a system for constant corrections
of the gun flight path. In 1953 the system was ready to use 11: The answer to an
airplane pilot‘s flight path was the missile‘s automated recursion of the changing tracking data.
Automated feedback in Nike-Ajax, 1953 (Roch: Shannon 2009, p.158).
Communication diagram Nike, 1945 (Roch: Shannon 2009, p.159).
21
Since 1937 it was possible to track the target with radar: Thus the amount of
incorrect data was reduced. In “Nike-Ajax” the tracking of the target via radar
was integrated into the feedback system of a missile reacting in the course of its
flight to new input data with changes in direction. 12
At first the integration of mathematics into engineering was discussed controversal by researchers of ballistics and cryptography. 13 “It was only in 1945,
when the usefulness of mathematics was upgraded for strategic and technic
tasks.” 14 Before 1945 Wiener and Shannon investigated the fields of convergences between mathematics and engineering, and in their later published
writings they laid down the basics for an understanding of the term information as integrating the opposing research poles (see chap. II.1.3). For mainframe computers the American and British army developed simultaneously
uses in ballistics, early warning systems, and cryptography. 15
II.1.2 Stochastics
Stochastics combine calculations of probabilities and statistics of frequencies.
The possibilities of a system to combine its elements with each other can be
restricted to probabilities by statistics informing about the frequency of their
earlier occurrences. Predictions indicate the probability of a systems´ elements
by indicating how often they appeared in the past and how these occurrences
relate to all possible combinations: The reappearance of a more frequent used
element is more probable than the reappearance of a seldom used element.
Shannon used stochastics as a means to construct the English language for a
second time by generating combinations of its elements and their combinations
– following the frequencies of their occurrences. The computer calculates the
possibilities of combinations fast and the frequency statistic of letters in units
of a selected language serves to restrict these possibilities. In the course of this
selection procedure the probability rises that the calculated possibilities and
the chosen language coincide (see chap. III.1.3).
The approximation to a language by the recombination of its elements in regard to the frequencies´ statistics of their occurrences in the everyday language
22
recalls procedures of the cryptography: The signs appearing often in a code
are compared with the frequencies of signs in the language of the message to
be decoded. Shannon won the characteristics of a not decryptable code with
cryptographic methods: It should be constructed only by chance operations, it
should be as extensive as the urtext, and it has to be kept secret. 16
II.1.3 Information
For Shannon and Wiener the term information serves to denote a measure of
a technical system´s capacity. A system´s technology can be able to transfer
a certain amount of information. There is a distinction to be made between
this measurement of its transmission capacity and the “semantic information”
(see chap. III.1.3). 17 The basis of a definition of “information” is formed by the
probable distribution of physical elements in a closed system with its tendency
to entropy (“particular disorder, mixture”), as elaborated by Ludwig Boltzmann
in his statistical thermodynamics 18, and its opposite, the “segregation” and
“demixing” 19: information as negentropy. Cybernetics use the negation of
entropy (negentropy) to develop a theory of information.
The alternative between two values is measured as 1 “bit”. The relais of calculating machines and computers switch between the two values “0” and “1”. 20 The
possibilities to select are calculated as 2n. “n” stands for a number of decisions
to choose one of the values “0” and “1”. “Probabilities of selection” p1, p2...pn belong to any independent, selectable sign. The probability of selection specifies
the probability of an element´s occurrence (see chap. II.1.2). The probability
of selection is multiplied by the logarithm with the base 2 of the probability of
selection (pnlog2pn). The products calculated with each probability of selection
are added. The sum is negated to obtain the negentropy resp. the information
“I”:
I = – (p1log2p1 + p2log2p2 + ...pnlog2pn)
I = – Σ pnlog2pn (Σ = sum for n = 1 until n) 21
23
II.1.4 Feedback
The system-internal transmission, its disturbances (“noise”) and the feedback
of the output into the system belong to the processing of input: The system
controls the output by detecting the deviations and by reacting to them. This
control procedure is called “feedback” 22 and the correcting technical element
is named “observer”. The “observer” couples the output to a circuit integrating
the output data and correcting the subsequent output. In the case of deviations
above a certain threshold this corrective “observer” is activated. 23
The connection between a system with an internal “observer” and its environment is recognized by an “external observer” 24 integrated by second- order
cybernetics as part of a more extensive system. This more extensive system
contains the environment of the first system as well as its observer orienting
himself by perceptions and moving himself in this environment. 25 The external
observer of the first system becomes an internal observer of the more extensive
system.
24
Shannon, Claude Elwood: A Mathematical Theory of Communication. In: Bell
System Technical Journal, Vol. 27/Nr.3, 1948, p. 409.
II.1.5 Homeostasis
A system communicates with its environment by trying to use the internal
structures for accomodations to disturbances being caused externally. William
Ross Ashby´s cybernetic model of a “homeostasis” (see chap. II.2.1) presents
a system with internal functions seeking equlibrium. 26 A multipartite system
uses its internal variability to react to external disturbances with balancing
moves by other parts than the disturbed part. In its stable overall condition
all parts are either in the middle or at the extreme states balancing themselves
reciprocally. This internal differentiation constitutes the capability to react
self-regulatory to external disturbances: The “Homeostat” is a model for the
“law of requisite variety”. 27
25
William Ross Ashby beside the “Homeostat”, realised in 1946-47.
Niklas Luhmann´s “autopoiesis” 28 presupposes Ashby´s “law of requisite variety”. The evolution of system-internal differentiations improves the capabilities
of social, biologic and cognitive systems to react to the environment. 29 Because
systems are not as complex as their environment they develop their complexity
reducing “selection strategies” 30 for the observation of the environment. These
developments presuppose a “requisite variety” emerging in differentiations of
“inter system relations”. 31
26
Annotations
1 Shannon/Weaver: Theory 1949/1998; Wiener: Cybernetics 1948.
On Shannon´s report of the results of his scientific research for military goals
in “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” (Shannon/Weaver: Theory
1949/1998): Roch: Shannon 2009, p.145: “Shannon worked out first the
answer for the discrete case of a secure communication in `A Mathematical
Theory of Cryptography´ ([Shannon: Theory 1945]), then he prepared the
continuous case of a disturbed transmission for `Transmission of Information´
([manuscript ]1947, [publication: Shannon: Communication 1949]). In 1948
Shannon brought the methods and results of all preparatory works together
in `A Mathematical Theory of Communication´ [Shannon/Weaver: Theory
1949/1998]. Shannon problematised not only the question of an effective
communication, but concretely the theoretical basics of a secure and effective navigation of electronic air defence systems.” (Translation by the author)
Roch: Shannon 2009, p.104, citing Shannon: “`When I came out with my
paper in 1948, part of that was taken verbatim from the cryptography report,
which had not been published at that time.´ [Shannon in Price: Conversation
1985, p.170] For the scientific public Shannon simply devided his 114 pages
long `cryptography report´ in two parts: one part more about communication
theory and another one on codes.” (Translation the author).
Cf. Roch: Shannon 2009, p.82,120ss.,128ss.,144s.,159.
Norbert Wiener on feedback and the theory of prediction in its use in
antiaircraft fire in the Second World War: Wiener: Cybernetics 1948, p.1114,23s.,55; Wiener: I 1956, p.249-255,260-265.
On Wiener´s anti-aircraft research and its pioneering role in cybernetics: Bluma: Wiener 2005, p.108ss.,116; Mindell: Human 2004, p.381-389; see ann.6.
2 Bluma: Wiener 2004, p.78ss.; Kittler: Intelligenz 1990/2013,
p.234,241,245ss.; Roch: Shannon 2009, p.55-66.
On Enigma‘s decipherment: Hodges: Turing 1983/1992, p.222-255.
3 Rosenblueth/Wiener/Bigelow: Behavior 1943, p.19 (cf. Wiener: I 1956,
S.252). Data smoothing was developed by Claude Shannon, Hendrik Bode,
Richard B. Blackman and Ralph Stackman in the Bell Laboratories´ research
(Bluma: Wiener 2004, p.105s.; Mindell: Human 2004, p.435s.; Roch: Shannon
27
2009, p.80ss.).
4 On behalf of the NDRC (National Defence Research Committee) Norbert
Wiener worked under the direction of Vanevar Bush (Bluma: Wiener 2004,
p.53-69,99-117; Galison: Ontology 1994, p.241s.; Roch: Shannon 2009, p.5570,74ss.,79ss.).
5 Roch: Shannon 2009, p.63,69; Galison: Ontology 1994, p.242. Cf. Wiener:
Extrapolation 1949, p.1: “Time series are sequences, discrete or continuous,
of quantitative data assigned to specific moments in time and studied with
respect to the statistics of their distribution in time.”
6 On the “the antiaircraft predictor”: Bluma: Wiener 2004, p.104-109; Galison: Ontology 1994, p.229,236-240,244; Masani: Wiener 1990, p.184-191;
Mindell: Human 2004, p.382-387,391s.; Roch: Shannon 2009, S.60ss.; Wiener: I 1956, p.249-252. The efforts failed, to use data from one test person
for predictions of the behavior of other test persons (Galison: Ontology
1994, p.237).
7 Roch: Shannon 2009, p.78,81; Roch/Siegert: Maschinen 1999, p.222s.
8 “Theoretical models”: Rosenblueth/Wiener: Role 1945, p.320.
9 Wiener: I 1956, p.251s. Cf. Galison: Ontology 1994, p.233,240.
10 Bluma: Wiener 2004, p.103.
11 Roch: Shannon 2009, p.156.
12 Mindell: Human 2004, p.335-356; Roch: Shannon 2009, p.158-161; Shannon/Weaver: Theory 1949/1998, p.68.
13 Roch: Shannon 2009, p.57-64.
14 Roch: Shannon 2009, p.63. Cf. Wiener: Cybernetics 1949, p.20s.
28
15 Augarten: Bit 1984, p.109-112,120-131,210ss.,195-202; Gere: Culture
2008, p.46-50,65ss.; Roch: Shannon 2009, p.34; Wiener: Cybernetics 1949,
p.22.
Chapter II.1.1 is modified for this eBook version: It includes now parts of the
first two chapters of Dreher: Cybernetics 2016.
16 Shannon on the reconstructability of languages using stochastics: Bense:
Aesthetica 1982, p.335s.; Roch: Shannon 2009, p.26s.; Shannon: Communication Theory 1949, p.656s.; Shannon: Redundancy 1950, p.249; Shannon/
Weaver: Theory 1949/1998, p.39-44; Wardrip-Fruin: Media 2007, p.236-239.
Shannon on cryptography: Shannon: Communication Theory 1949. The
unpublished “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” of 1945: see ann.1.
Cf. Roch: Shannon 2009, p.96-123; Rogers/Valente: History 1993, p.39,42ss.
For antiaircraft systems the security of the transmission of control signals was
crucial: Roch: Shannon 2009, p.144-152.
17 Shannon: Redundancy 1950, p.123/248; Wiener: Cybernetics 1949, p.18.
18 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.153,160,211,325; Roch: Shannon 2009, p.115s.
19 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.213.
20 Cf. Roch: Shannon 2009, p.33s.; Wiener: Cybernetics 1949, p.22s.,139ss.
(with comparisons between relais and nerve cells).
21 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.212s.; Porr: Systemtheorie 2002, p.6; Shannon/
Weaver: Theory 1949/1998, p.14,32s.
22 Wiener: Cybernetics 1949, p.13,113-136.
23 Roch: Shannon 2009, p.160s.; Shannon/Weaver: Theory 1949/1998, p.68.
24 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.364s.
25 Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead in Brand: God 1976.
29
26 Ashby: Design 1960, p.100-121; Ashby: Introduction 1957, p.73-85. Cf.
Wiener: Cybernetics 1949, p.134ss.
27 Ashby: Introduction 1957, p.202-219; Ashby: Variety 1958; Porr: Systemtheorie 2002, p.11ss.
28 Luhmann: Systeme 1984, p.60s.
29 Porr: Systemtheorie 2002, p.13s.,18,41s.,51. Cf. Ashby: Variety 1958,
chap. Operational Research.
30 Luhmann: Systeme 1984, p.47s.
31 Luhmann: Systeme 1984, p.249.
30
II. Cybernetics
II.2 Cybernetic Models
II.2.1 Homeostat
In 1946/47 William Ross Ashby realised a technical system as a model for
his theory of homeostasis (see chap. II.1.5). This system offering a theory´s
test case inspired in the fifties and sixties artists constructing cybernetic
sculptures (see chap. II.3). “Homeostat” is a technical model demonstrating a
system´s limited capabilities to adapt itself to environmental conditions. The
flow of energy in the technical model is used to demonstrate how the system/
environment relation functions in biological systems, for example to maintain
the body heat. Cybernetic scientists develop theories valid across systems,
construct technical models for them, and compare them with characteristics of
creatures: from theory to machine to creature – and back. 1
31
Ashby, William Ross: Homeostat, 1946-47 (Ashby: Design 1960, p.101).
Four units being sensitive to disruptions and compensating them are connected by Ashby to build the system of “Homeostat”. On each unit a magnet controls the deflections of a needle. Placed in a conductive liquid the needle reacts
to the system´s voltage fluctuations. “Uniselectors” introduce system-internal
disturbances by chance-operations. Controllers (“commutators and potentiometers”) on the four units make the regulation of energy possible. The system
reacts to changing energy flows within its possibilities to execute compensation
movements: The output of one unit becomes the input of the next unit. This
results in a system behaviour keeping the needle stable in the midst of its
swinging possibilities. Ashby designates this self-regulation as “ultrastability”. 2
32
Ashby, William Ross: Homeostat, circuit diagram (Ashby: Design 1960, p.102).
II.2.2 Memory
In his presentation of the “Homeostat” in 1952 at the ninth Macy Conference
in New York Ashby was faced with expectations that his system should have a
“memory” 3 to be able to store previous processes and to use the store to learn
not to repeat them. For the participants of the Macy Conferences was a consequence of this expectation and the assertion to be able to realize technically the
functions of a concept 4 to ask how the capabilities of memorizing and learning
can be implemented technically.
In 1951 Claude Elwood Shannon presented a system with memory at the
eighth Macy Conference: The “sensing finger” of the “Maze Solving Machine” 5
memorized previous paths and returned to them if it moved to a blind end.
The way to the goal became shorter because after failure the search had not to
be started from the beginning, meanwhile Ashby´s “Homeostat” compensated
deviations each time as if it had never before done that in the same situations.
But Shannon could not present a model with the ability to draw conclusions
from elder experiences for new navigation strategies.
33
Shannon, Claude Elwood: Maze-Solving Machine, plan (Shannon: Presentation
1951, p.174, figure 8).
II.2.3 Path Finding
In 1948 William Grey Walter constructed his first roboter “Elmer” finding his
path between obstacles by self navigation. To construct the robot Walter used
radio tubes, switching relays, photocells, and little microphones. Three years
later he constructed “CORA” as a robot memorizing obstacles: In its search for
a path “CORA” circumvented the positions of obstacles or of test persons. A
test person could signal with a whistle to the robot: Don´t move in this not any
further leading direction.
34
Walter, William Grey: Elmer, 1948.
The three-wheel robot construction was not only sensitive to sounds and
touch contacts but to light, too: It reacted to reflexes of the light mounted on
its covering. A mirror´s reflexes of its own light provoked a dance because the
mechanism to change its direction caused repeated, staggered motions. 6 The
progress from the “Machina Speculatrix” “Elmer” to the “Machina Docilis” 7
demonstrated “CORA” with its capability to memorize obstacles and to find
itself the path to its garage with electricity supply: “CORA” is seen as a precursor of “artificial intelligence”. 8
35
Walter, William Grey: Cora, model for demonstrations on a table, 1951 (constructed by Bunny Warren for the Festival of Britain in London, Exhibition of
Science, Science Museum, South Kensington, 1951).
In the book “The Living Brain”, published in 1953, Walter compared “an
electrical oscillation at low frequency” of “CORA” with “feedback circuits from
cell-group to cell-group” in the brain. 9 He measured brain events as electroencephalogram in sequential phases of time. So it became recognizable if an
event was forgotten, memorized, or processed. 10
In the forties and fifties Shannon, Ashby and Walter developed technical
constructs for cybernetic theories anticipating later developed programs for
computers.
Wiener designated processes of calculators from the abacus to the digital
computer as “computing”. 11 The cybernetic models featured in this chapter
present concepts of computing processes in systems reacting to external events
in a state of differentiation becoming relevant for early artistic projects for
computers (see chap.II.3.1, chap. II.3.2.3).
36
Annotations
1 Ashby: Design 1960, p.98s. on the “homeostat” as an “analogue computer” for the research of “ultrastable systems”, and Ashby: Variety 1958, chap.
The Message of Zero Entropy on “the homeostatic mechanism” to maintain
the body heat.
2 Ashby: Design 1960, p.98s.,103s.; Pickering: Brain 2010, p.101-106.
3 Ashby: Homeostasis 1952, p.104/615s.; Bluma: Wiener 2005, p.156s.
4 Ashby: Homeostasis 1952, S.107f./618 includes the following discussion
contribution by Walter Pitts: “At the very beginning of these meetings, the
question was frequently under discussion of whether a machine could be
built which could do a particular thing, and, of course, the answer, which
everybody has realized by now, is that as long as you definitely specify what
you want the machine to do, you can, in principle, build a machine to do it.”
5 Bluma: Wiener 2005, p.157; Shannon: Presentation 1951.
6 Walter: Brain 1961, p.241: “turn- and- push manoevre”.
On “Elmer”: Hoggett: Elmer 2009.
On “CORA”: Hoggett: CORA 2009; Pickering: Brain 2010, p.64-67; Walter:
Brain 1961, p.118,155ss.,245-250.
7 Pickering: Brain 2010, p.64; Walter: Brain 1961, p.155ss.,241-244.
8 Holland: Walter 1997.
For Reuben Hoggett there was not only a static object to demonstrate
functions of a machinic brain but a robot, too, with an integration of that
machinic brain (Hoggett: CORA 2009).
9 Walter: Brain 1961, p.163.
10 Burnham: Modern Sculpture 1978, p.331,334s.; Pickering: Brain 2010,
p.64ss.
11 Wiener: Cybernetics 1949, p.20.
37
II.3 Cybernetic Sculptures
II.3.1 Pioneer Works
II.3.1.1 Gordon Pask´s “Musicolour System”
In his book “An Approach to Cybernetics” (1961) Gordon Pask presents “learning machines”. Pask designates “Eucrates” (1955) as “simulating a pupil-teacher
system”. 1 The model reconstructs the behaviour of “real neurones” and their
“`absolute refractory period´”. 2 The reactions of the “motor-elements” to the
input are varying because of a shifting threshold: The threshold increases after
the first input with the consequence for learners that they have to wait with
further inputs until the threshold falls. “`Memory´-elements” react to the
output of the “motor-elements”. The “`memory´-elements” are constructed
following the example of “the synaptic connections of a neurone” 3: “Now
it is obvious that various modes of activity and various forms of interaction
[between a pupil and a teacher or the learning machine] will build up the
network.” Pask writes this sentence after a short explanation of possible “interconnections” between “motor-elements” and the learning activities within the
“network”. Capable of surviving within the “network” are only the connections
which “mediate a favourable behavior”. 4
38
Pask, Gordon: Solartron EUCRATES II, ca. 1956
(Pask: Approach 1961, pl.I 8(i)).
“Musicolour” (1953-57, built in collaboration with Robin McKinnon-Wood)
was a reactive system for theater productions. The system´s analogue computer
was transported from performance to performance.
Pask, Gordon: Musicolour, Boltons Theatre Club, South Kensington 1954.
Left: Stage with a projection screen for Musicolour.
Right: Moon-Music, playbill (Rosen: Control 2008, p.139).
39
If a musician produced input via a microphone for “Musicolour”, then the
system reacted with visual output – “a predetermined vocabulary of visual
symbols”. The “visual vocabulary” could be modified from performance to performance. 5 Pask describes the system´s procedures as including “a rudimentary learning facility” 6 being capable to modify the sound-image relation in the
course of the performance. If the music stopped then the system reacted with a
growing sensitivity to each kind of sounds. In practice, this growing sensitivity
had to be moderated by an “arbitrary gain control circuit”. “Musicolour” reacted for a while to “repetitive input” with a constant output before it stopped to
react. The musician was forced to change her/his performance to get again the
visual output. A musician could follow the reactions of the machine and could
try after “several gambits” 7 to modify the audio input and to develop ways to
control the audio-visual correlations.
Pask, Gordon: Musicolour, 1953-57, circuit diagram
(Pask: Comment 1971, p.79, fig. 26).
40
“Property filters” select sounds following different and modifiable criteria. On
the one hand the storage units of each filter can memorize the filtered sounds
and these sounds can be utilized to influence the visual output´s “power level”.
On the other hand the filtered sounds can be processed with “averagers” and
“adaptive threshold devices” with “internal feedback loops”. The “threshold
devices” install a lower limit causing a suppression of too weak input. The
conflation of the processed and stored sounds influences the visual output
that in turn inspires the musician. Light projections direct the visual output
to a projection surface. The light is emitted through color and pattern filters
constructed as controllable wheels or reflectors. 8
Pask, Gordon: Musicolour, 1953-57, projection wheel controlled
by a servomechanism (Pask: Comment 1971, p.81, fig.27).
For light modifications an “electro-chemical display” is developed for “Musicolour” between 1954 and 1957. Bowls are placed on rotating supports. The
bowls contain electrolyte solutions and indicators: The pH of the solutions
is changed by electrolysis. These changes activate electrodes mounted on the
41
bowls. The activated electrodes in turn navigate the projections of colour
patterns. In his description of the “display” Pask doesn´t refer to the response
system mentioned above. 9
Pask, Gordon: Musicolour, 1953-57, electrochemic system
(Pask: Comment 1971, p.85, fig.31).
Pask designates the musician as a “converse participant” of the “learning
mechanism” of “Musicolour”. 10 Machine and musician should accomodate to
each other: Both sides `learn´. 11 How redundancy is avoided by modifications
depends on one side from the “Musicolour´s” changing ways to react 12, on
the other side of “the observer´s [resp. the musician´s] frame of reference” 13:
Musicians explore the “Musicolour system´s” capabilities to react and conclude
how they can create their next actions.
Pask´s “Musicolour” offers a “responsive environment” 14 being integratable as
a partial system with participant into wider performance systems. With “Musicolour” Pask became a pioneer of computer art.
42
II.3.1.2 Nicolas Schöffer´s “CYSP 1”
In 1956 Nicolas Schöffer realised “CYSP 1” as a mobile kinetic sculpture.
Round and rectangle aluminium plates rotate in a steel structure meanwhile
its basis drives in the space either of an exhibition or outdoors. Little engines
move the plates. The basis contains electric motors for movements on four
rubber wheels in two speeds, accumulators for the electricity supply and an
“electronic brain” («cerveau électronique», vacuum tube based) by Philips
organizing the navigation between obstacles and the rotation of the aluminium
plates. 15
The “electronic brain” includes a random generator organizing the self mobility.
If the kinetic sculpture´s self navigation around the obstacles of an environment is overstressed then observers can intervene from a control desk being
connected with the sculpture via radar. This description of Reuben Hoggett is
contradicted by Jean-Noël Montagné who was involved in a recent restoration
of “CYSP 1”. Following Montagné the first version of “CYSP 1” had an antenna.
It was used for experiments with a “capacitive sensor” “but the electronic has
too many natural and in-board parasites”. Montagné describes the control
of “CYSP 1” as either “autonomous” or by a “remote control” connected “by
cable”. 16
Schöffer, Nicolas: CYSP 1, 1956. Left: exhibition,
Institute of Contemporary Arts, London 1960.
43
Photoelectric cells and a microphone are used as sensors registrating changings
of light intensity, colors, and sound volume. These sensors supply with the input for the navigation of the moving parts. The “electronic brain” organizes the
simultaneous control of the speed of the plates´ rotation up to “stroboscopic
effects” and the movement of the basis. 17 The “electronic brain´s” coordination
varies the reactions of “CYSP 1” to external events by “disturbing parameters”
18 and avoids predictability.
Jacques Bureau, the developer of the “electronic brain” integrated in “CYSP
1”, and the artist use Ashby´s terms “homeostasis” and “homeostat” (see chap.
II.1.5, II.2.1) for the capabilities to move and adapt to external events featured
by “CYSP 1”. 19 The system moving itself by random generators and the limited
adaptability to environmental conditions are capabilities common to Ashby´s
“Homeostat” and “CYSP 1”. Schöffer creates not only a moved three-dimensional object as kinetic art but constructs cybernetically a relation to the
environment using an adaptive system with self-navigated movements.
The “electronic brain” of “CYSP 1” transfers the sensors´ input caused by several external factors in a program for navigation and movements. Meanwhile the
“Homeostat” is an experimental arrangement with controls turned by humans
to cause disturbances, they are caused in “CYSP 1” by changing environmental
conditions. The internal balance of the “Homeostat´s” four subsystems reacting
to each other is in “CYSP 1” replaced by an electronic control system. After
the self navigation of William Grey Walter´s robots (see chap. II.2.3) follows in
“CYSP 1” a self navigation controlled by programmed electronics.
44
II.3.2 “Cybernetic Serendipity”
II.3.2.1 The Exhibition in London
Jasia Reichardt followed a suggestion by the German philosopher Max Bense
when she started in autumn 1965 the preparations for the exhibition “Cybernetic Serendipity”. 20 From August to October 1968 the London Institute of
Contemporary Arts exhibited predominantly examples for the uses of computers in art, literature, and music. Following Reichardt 60.000 humans visited the
exhibition on “The Computer and the Arts”. 21 Beside Schöffer´s then twelve
year old “CYSP 1” cybernetic sculptures of Edward Ihnatowicz and Gordon
Pask have been exhibited for the first time in “Cybernetic Serendipity”. In 1968
they demonstrate the development status of three-dimensional works reacting
to visitors´ actions.
The catalogue of the exhibition and two publications later edited or written by
Reichardt document the development for the art for and with the computer. 22
II.3.2.2 Edward Ihnatowicz´s “SAM” and “Senster”
Edward Ihnatowicz´s “Sound Activated Mobile”, in short “SAM” (1968), reacted to more quiet sounds. A sound reflector made in fibreglass contained four
microphones in a cross-shaped configuration. The eight hydraulic controlled
vertebrae cast in aluminium constituted a mechanical backbone. The vertebrae
rotated and directed a reflector to the input of the microphones. The microphones were mounted in pairs, two vertical and two horizontal to each other,
and each of the pairs were connected with their own analog system. These two
systems measured the time intervals between their microphones and used this
measurement to `recognize´ the direction out of which a sound event came.
“SAM” then used the hydraulics of the backbone´s vertebrae to direct the
reflector to these events.
45
Ihnatowicz, Edward: SAM, 1968, exhibition “Cybernetic Serendipity”,
Institute of Contemporary Arts, London 1968.
John Billingsley developed the analog circuit for the measurement of the audio
input, meanwhile Ihnatowicz realised the `backbone´, its hydraulics, and the
analog computer being hidden in the socle and used for the coordination of the
motions. The technology of the hydraulicservo system was based on biological
prefigurations. The reflector looked like a four-leaved clover, a flower or a head.
Ihnatowicz, Edward: SAM, 1968 (Ihnatowicz: Cybernetic Art 1986, Cover).
46
Ihnatowicz entertained the visitors with the surprising skills of an environmentally sensitive system. It was not his main interest to present a model of human
intelligence, as William Grey Walter understood his robots (see chap. II.2.3). 23
In his catalogue contribution to “Cybernetic Serendipity” Ihnatowicz announced a “large structure” “to be operated by a computer.” 24 Ihnatowicz prepared at that time “The Senster”. In September 1970 it was installed on a round
basis in the foyer of the “Evoluon”, a technical museum at Philips´ factory site
in Eindhoven. Until December 1973 it reacted each day to the visitors´ motions
and sound productions. From September to December 1970 Ihnatowicz stayed
in the Evoluon to program a computer Philips P 9201 in assembly language for
an input via punch cards. He used the visitors as test persons. 25
Ihnatowicz, Edward: The Senster, 1970, in Evoluon, Eindhoven.
“Senster” was a tubular steel construction on three static legs carrying a mobile
structure. The steel tubes of this part were moved by six independent electrohydraulic servo systems. The tank and the pumps of the hydraulic systems have
been installed under the basis. The computer controlled hydraulic cylinders
and the potentiometers of the servo systems. The mobile structure largely
overhanging in the direction of the visitors orientated itself by following the
47
input of its sensors. These sensors were installed on a mobile part mounted on
the overhanging end of the mobile structure.
Ihnatowicz, Edward: The Senster, 1970, in Evoluon, Eindhoven.
When Ihnatowicz constructed the joints he was inspired by lobster claws
because they are able remarkably easy to move with six simple swivel joints.
The artist constructed “Senster´s” mobile structure as a big lobster claw. He
substituted the claw with a mobile fixing of the sensors.
Two Doppler radar units were mounted on arms overhanging on the left and
right side of the microphones. These units recognized the visitors´ actions. The
pair-by-pair configuration of the four microphones between the Doppler units
enabled the technical system to recognize the direction of a sound. At first
“Senster” moved these microphones into the direction of sound events, then
in the case of longer lasting sounds it moved the mobile parts of the tubular
steel construction to the sound sources, too. Loud noises and fast body actions
cause retreating movements of the mobile structure. “Senster” reacted to body
48
actions below the threshold for the relevant audio- and radar input by turning
itself into directions offering stronger input. Following Ihnatowicz the observers´ actions were not determined by “Senster´s” form but by its moves. 26
Ihnatowicz, Edward: The Senster, 1970, four microphones.
Visitors of the Evoluon were diverted by sounds produced by other visitors
exploring the “Senster´s” capabilities. Without consulting the artist the
“Senster´s” program was changed and, finally, in 1973 the now uninteresting
cybernetic sculpture was removed. 27
Meanwhile Ihnatowicz developed in “SAM” and “Senster” programs for machine bodies reacting with motions to the environment and did with the work
as an object isolated from its surrounding nothing more than to modificate the
established delineation between art space and environment, Gordon Pask (see
chap. II.3.2) and James Seawright (see chap. II.3.3) realised new concepts of the
integration of observers into the work space in installations being able to react
to observers´ operations.
49
II.3.2.3 Gordon Pask´s “Colloquy of Mobiles”
Gordon Pask´s “Colloquy of Mobiles” was an installation offering the visitors
of “Cybernetic Serendipity” to use torches as means in interactions with the
motions of its five parts. Five hanging objects navigated their motions mutually
via beams of light and light reflexes. Three organically formed objects hung at
the truncated corners of a triangle hanging horizontally at the ceiling. Between
these objects two mobiles with inorganically formed elements hung on a
further element mounted on the big triangle and rotating under it horizontally.
These five objects hung on vertical axes that were rotated by electric motors.
Pask designated the mobiles with inorganic formed elements as “Males” and
the three organic elements clad with fibreglass bodies as “Females”. Yolanda
Sonnabend drafted the semitransparent fibreglass bodies illuminated from
inside. 28 The “Males” constituted an inner rotating system with the “Females”
circulating around them.
Pask, Gordon: Colloquy of Mobiles, 1968, exhibition “Cybernetic Serendipity”,
ICA London 1968 (rear right: Schöffer, Nicolas: CYSP 1, 1956) .
50
The “Males” and “Females” are programmed to relate themselves to each other
by contacts produced by light rays and light reflexes. These contacts cause the
rotating objects to change their motion sequences. The motion sequences of
the “Males” and “Females” are controlled by a computer located outside the
installation. The installation is connected to the computer by cables laid from
the static horizontal element to the ceiling. 29 The “Males” contain photo cells
and elements emitting orange and dark red light. Light reflecting objects are
fixed in the “Females´” openings. The “Males” come closer to the “Females” by
rotations of the mobile horizontal element and by their own motions. In some
positions a “Male” is only able to follow its goal by hampering the other “Male”. 30
Pask, Gordon: Colloquy of Mobiles, 1968, exhibition “Cybernetic Serendipity”,
ICA London 1968 (Pask: Comment 1971, p.97, fig.40).
51
After phases of inactivity the fibreglass bodies of the “Females” are illuminated
by lights from inside and the “Males” start to emit light rays that can hit mirrors in the openings of the “Females” fibreglass-bodies. Some light interactions
provoke the “Males” to change the light colour and the rotation speed if the
“Females” redirect the light rays of the “Males” to their photo cells. In the
course of such light interactions both sides send sound signals. Sound signals
emitted by the “Males” are received by a cooperating “Female” and replied by
a corresponding sound. 31 After this audio cooperation a sequence with visual
cooperations can follow.
The mobile elements pursue “goals” – for example the heterosexual cooperation in one of both rotation speeds 32 – in a system organizing the cooperation
on several levels: The “goals” are compartmentalised in “sub-goals”. The “Females” and “Males” pursue “goals” independently of each other. They are not
only able to compete with each other, but also to prohibit themselves in pursue
of their “goals”. 33
52
Pask, Gordon: Colloquy of Mobiles, 1968, ground and vertical plan of the mobile
elements (Pask: Comment 1971, p.90, fig.34).
The mobile elements need memories for their cooperations to be able to store
which element corresponded in which action phase with their “goals”. The
actual cooperation phase until the next phase is stored by the “short-term
memory”. The “long-term `memory´” stores elder cooperation experiences
and learning processes. Potential partners are able to memorize the different
preferences developed by the mobile elements and to adapt themselves to the
preferences. 34.
53
Visitors of “Cybernetic Serendipity” could intervene in the “aesthetically potent
social environment” 35 using flashlights or mirrors and producing sounds.
Visitors were enabled to influence the interaction between “Females” and
“Males” by interventions and to use the system´s reactions in investigations of
the programming. 36 Obviously “Colloquy of Mobiles” was capable to react in
a sufficiently complex manner to attract observers for a longer period of time.
The complexity of the system-internal capabilities of the five moving objects
was the precondition to react to system-external changes and – with it – to
interventions by the visitors.
After Ashby´s “Homeostat” (see chap. II.1) Pask offers a further model for
the “law of requisite variety” (see chap. II.1.5) postulating the system-internal
(system/system relations) differentiation as precondition for the system/
environment relations. The “Homeostat´s” four subsystems constitute the
environment mutually: The “Homeostat” is enabled to react to certain environmental conditions by a subdivision in internal system/environment conditions.
The “Colloquy of Mobiles” features comparable relations. Not only learn the
internal elements of “Colloquy of Mobiles” from each other, but also the installation is able to learn from external operations of observers: The work reacts to
external events in the same way as it organizes the actions of its own elements.
Pask´s model includes the learning capability based on machinic memory
missed by the participants of the ninth Macy Conference in 1952 in their
discussion of Ashby´s “Homeostat” (see chap. II.2.2). The segmentation into
several internal, separately and autonomously operating subsystems and the
structuring in “short-term memory” and “long-term `memory´” constitute the
“requisite variety” of the computing processes offering relations reconstructable for observers by the installation´s audio and visual manifestations. The
interface between human and machine consists of the light and mirror actions
as possibilities for human input as well as of the actions to be seen and heard
as machinic output. Observers can recognize the possibilities for human input
by reconstructions of the machinic `conversation´ between mobiles that can
be interpreted as a rudimentary model of social interactions. The model is
rudimentary as a test case for communication because it operates on the level
of signals starting functions, not on the level of symbolic interactions.
54
II.3.3 Light and Sound Installations by James Seawright
and Vladimir Bonacic
In 1968 artists and musicians like Stephen Antonakos, Terry Riley, Charles
Ross and Robert Whitman realised installations producing light and sound
events for the exhibition “The Magic Theatre”. James Seawright constructed
“Electronic Peristyle” 37: an uncommon work for an uncommon exhibition.
He installed “power supplies” in a base under a sphere. The sphere was made of
transparent plastic and contained 12 photocells. A “cylindrical metal box” with
12 “light beam projectors” was mounted underneath the “plastic sphere”. The
electronics in this vertical structure with round segments “was either digital
(the earliest family of Motorola RTL logic chips)” or it contained “conventional
analog transistor circuits.” These electronics controlled the generation of
sounds by “electronic synthesizer modules”. These modules were developed by
Robert Moog. He integrated his analog equipment in Seawright´s installation.
Seawright, James: Electronic Peristyle, 1968, exhibition "The Magic Theatre",
William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas City, Missouri 1968. Photo: Larry
B. Nicholson (Davis: Experiment 1975, p.96).
55
Seawright, James: Electronic Peristyle, 1968, exhibition “The Magic Theatre”,
William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas City/Missouri 1968.
Photo: James Seawright.
The vertical element with the “plastic sphere” was placed in the middle of a
circle built by 12 steles coated with black resopal. In the circle with a diameter
of 21 feet (resp. 6,4 m) the visitors walked on an elevated second floor hiding
the steles´ support structure constructed of steel and the technical equipment
(“multi conducted cables”). The light beams sent from the ring underneath
the “central sphere” to the steles hit there on photocells except visitors on
the heightened floor interrupted the beams. Photocells paired with mirrors
constituted the steles´ “receptors”. The mirrors reflected the light beams. These
reflexes recorded the photocells within the “plastic sphere”. The “shift register”
reacted to the photocells´ input produced by the mirrored light beams and
their interruptions, as they were caused by the visitors. In the “plastic sphere”
the “circuit boards” of the “shift register” are mounted behind the photocells.
This register shifted its “twelve data bits” “at varying rates” “clockwise” “around
the twelve stages”. The “shift register´s” “12 stages” were “connected in a circle”.
A “12-bit binary number” was “shifted by a pulse” in the “circle” from “stage”
to “stage”. The “stages of the shift register” corresponded with the 12 steles. The
56
“numbers” of each “stage” were “read out by sound synthesizer modules” developed by Robert Moog including “two 8-bit input voltage-controlled oscillators,
two 6-bit voltage controlled amplifiers (envelope generators, intermodulators
and a voltage controlled filter).”
The data generated by these modules “could be patched into the shift register
outputs in a wide range of possibilities”: For the programming of a “permanent
setup” one of the technical possibilities was selected to coordinate the “shift
register” with the “synthesizer modules”. The “12-bit binary numbers” circulating between the “stages” resulted in “digital values” causing “the outputs of
the synthesizer modules to assume appropriate values -- differing pitches in the
case of digital oscillators, different loudness values in the case of amplifiers (or
level controls) and so forth, including the timing intervals of the shift register’s
shifts. A digitally controlled filter could alter overall timbre, etc.” before the
“mixed audiosignal” was “sent out” to the steles´ loudspeakers. By walking on
the heightened floor visitors could listen to “...the constantly changing data
decoded into a melodious, background of sound”.
Meanwhile the “central sphere” produced sounds the light beam interruptions
caused by visitors were recorded by the steles´ photocells and thus started
further sound productions: Slowly louder growing “low frequency tones” were
emitted by the steles´ loudspeakers into the circle with “a few Hz differences
to each other so that the sounds `beat´ against each other”. If these sounds
“reached a sufficient threshold” then “the tone generators” were switched off.
This switch activated “ventilation blowers” in the steles producing “a gentle
breeze” in the height of the visitors´ feet.
The “composite audio output” sent from the “central unit” to the steles was
mixed “in each stele” with its “low frequency tones”. These mixes were made
audible by the loudspeakers of the steles.
The light beam interruptions produced by the visitors and registered by the
“photocells” within the “plastic sphere” “change the state of the data bits in the
stages of the shift register”: In a technical sense the data circulation between
the “stages” was produced system internal by a “pulse” as well as system external by visitors. But spatially these visitors don´t act from outside, they move in
57
the circle of steles: They act and react to the system´s output from within the
environment.
“A rotating scanner atop the plastic sphere overrode the data currently in the
shift register once every two minutes” to avoid with a “fresh start” that all
“twelve bits” of this register were “set to all ones or all zeros” and could thus
cause “a `lock-up´ state”.
In the plastic sphere pairs of yellow and white lamps indicated “the instantaneous state of each stage of the shift register”. The upper yellow lamp “lighted
to denote a state of `1´ and the lower [white lamp] to indicate `0´.” For each
“state” a lamp pair indicated with “1” or “0” if visitors activated the coordinated
“photocell” in the “plastic sphere” (“photocell” – “state” – “lamp pair”). Furthermore the pairs of lamps marked the changes of the “states” effected by the
“shift register”. “Other sets of [green and red] lamps denoted the states of the
digital inputs of the audio synthesizer modules.”
Seawright integrated the visitor into the installation by offering her/him only
there to disturb and activate the functions for wind, light, and sound. Visitors
could use the “changes of the audio program” and the lamps in the “plastic
sphere” to control if the system reacts to their motions between the steles and
“the plastic sphere”. 38
58
Seawright, James: Electronic Peristyle, 1968, “central unit” removed from the
installation. The transparent “plastic sphere” is divided by a “metal band”. In the
lower half “the circuitry of the sound synthesizer” is visibly installed. Above the
“metal band” the 12 photocells are recognisable, “looking a bit like little cannons”.
The “black metal drum” contains the lamps indicating states of the “shift register”
and the “audio synthesizer modules”. Above the “metal drum” are the cables of
the “patch panel”. The “rotating scanner” is located on top of the “plastic sphere”
(photo and quotes: James Seawright).
Vladimir Bonacic used minicomputers early. In 1969 he and Miro Cimerman
started in Zagreb to use the computers PDP-8 of the Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC) and SDS 930 of Scientific Data Systems with “self built
electronics” to produce “pseudo-chance-transformers and generators” via Galois fields. 39 The calculated polynomial equations (of Abstract Algebra) were
“implemented into the electronic circuits of a control unit” 40 producing light
sequences on grids with sometimes different coloured elements.
59
In “G.F.E. (16,4)” (1969-71) visitors could modificate light sequences by using
cotrollers and a remote control (via radio waves). Three Galois field generators
produced the sequences on 1024 light elements with 16 colour hues. The light
elements constituted a “dynamic object” measuring 1,78 x 1,78 x 0,20 meter.
41 64 sound oscillators produced sounds by interactions with the Gallois field
generators. The sounds became audible by two stereo amplifiers. As indicated
by Bonacic the “dynamic object...was capable” to produce “1 048 576 different
configurations” by different adjustments from the most rapid in six seconds to
the slowest in 24 days. “Each image” was accompanied by “a specific sound”. 42
Bonacic, Vladimir: G.F.E. (16,4), 1969-71.
Compared to Seawright´s “Electronic Peristyle” Bonacic developed the light
and sound variations to further differentiations, but neglected the integration
of observers into the installation´s space by uncommon interfaces and arrangements of the material elements.
In 1971 Seawright´s “Network III” was installed at the Walker Art Center in
Minneapolis. If visitors walked on pressure-sensitive elements then they produced patterns on a grid of overhead lights placed directly above the sensors.
60
“6 x 6 arrays of pressure-sensitive mats, normally used to control the opening
of automatic doors” were hidden under “ a 20´ x 20´ [6,09 x 6,09 m] square of
industrial carpeting”. On the ceiling 400 lamps were mounted “at the intersections” of “a grid of web-belting” “at an 11´´ [28 cm] interval”.
The input of the floor sensors was prepared by a minicomputer PDP 8-L. It
executed programmed algorithms structuring the lights to build patterns. The
computer, hidden under a white box, could control each light.
To the moves of one or two visitors the program reacted with light patterns.
Seawright programmed in the “PDP 8 assembly language” “a circle about two
feet [60,96 cm] diameter” with a “blinking circle” as its variant. “A cross or
plus sign” could appear as “rotating”, too. Furthermore a certain sensor´s input
caused “a solid square box” as an output.
If three or more visitors entered the carpet, then the program shut down with
“a spectacular blowup”. The “processing speed and memory capacity” of the
minicomputer were insufficient for algorithms enabling the system to react
with light patterns to more than two persons. The program identified the
persons on the sensors as “target 1” or “target 2” and assigned to them different
“overhead patterns”. If both visitors moved to “adjacent” sensors then the
“overhead patterns” for “target 1” and “target 2” “would superimpose, but when
either one moved to a new location their identities (the coordination visitor –
target) would sometimes be exchanged.” 43
61
Seawright, James: Network III, 1971, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis 1971.
Photo: Eric Sutherland (Davis: Experiment 1975, p.195).
Seawright anticipated interfaces of computer-aided installations of the nineties
(see chap. V.1) in “Network III” with its pressure-sensitive floor sensors and
the location of the visitors between planes for in- and output. In the nineties
Seawright´s patterns for sounds and lights are substituted by digital simulations of three-dimensional spaces and interfaces like floor panels are used as
opportunities for observers to switch between real and virtual spaces. 44
62
II.3.4 Nicolas Negroponte, the Architecture Machine Group
and “Seek”
In 1967 the “Architecture Machine Group”, directed by Nicolas Negroponte and
located in the Urban Systems Laboratory at MIT (Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge/Massachusetts), developed the computer-aided design
system “URBAN5” for architects to be used as a means to ameliorate planning
procedures. Planners could operate with the system via keys on a console and
a light pen for the activation of functions on the screen. Cubes were the basic
elements of the graphic system. For Negroponte “URBAN5” was not complex
enough for a change of planning strategies. 45
The Architecture Machine Group: Urban 5, 1967.
Meanwhile “URBAN 5” was not capable to integrate the environment into
planning procedures 46, “The Architecture Machine” was a learning system
with a mobile unit containing photocells. The system was able to recognize
environmental conditions and a robot arm developed by students could move
stereometric elements on a table.
The “Minsky/Papert-eye” developed at MIT could recognize stereometric
elements. It was a result of a research to transfer the contours of a constellation
of bodies on a table into a data landscape. The data were processed by the
minicomputer Interdata Model 3. The parameters of a learning robot should
63
“develop its own conditioned reflexes” 47 in interactions with an architect. This
was the research goal of the project being oriented to “architectural intelligence”. 48
Minsky/Papert Eye, M.I.T. (Negroponte: The Architecture Machine 1970, p.106).
In 1970 Jack Burnham curated the exhibition “Software” in the Jewish Museum
in New York. “The Architecture Machine Group” realised in the installation
“Seek” an environment for 500 gerbils enclosed in a glass container open at
the top. An arm was mounted on two rails on the top of the glass container.
The arm moved a magnet to replace blocks. Via sensors reacting to pressure
the system used an Interdata Model 3 computer to control mouses moving the
blocks out of the grid structure. Then the computer activated the moving arm
placing the blocks into another structure following the right angle of the grid. 49
64
The Architecture Machine Group: Seek, 1970, exhibition “Software”, The Jewish
Museum, New York 1970 (Negroponte: Architecture 1975, p.46, fig.1).
The intended “artificial intelligence” 50 provoked expectations that the arm and
its computer-controlled navigation reacts directly to the mice´s actions. 51 The
Architecture Machine Group´s contribution to the catalogue points to the still
existing gap between “Seek” and the project of “artificial intelligence”: “...`Seek´
deals with elementary uncertainties in a simple-minded fashion.” 52
The Group presents with “Seek´s” relation between animals and machine a
rudimentary model of a social system reacting with a machine-controlled
flexibility to the creatures´ motions within the system. With that model The
Architecture Machine Group anticipates the model of a flexible architecture
as it became an ideal for many architects in the seventies and was realised in
projects like Cedric Price´s “InterAction Centre” (Kentish Town, from 1976 to
its demolition in 2003) and the Centre Pompidou (Paris, 1977) by Renzo Piano
and Richard Rogers. Meanwhile these buildings first of all offered possibilities
65
for a flexible use by elements displacable within a supporting structure, in
1976-79 Cedric Price, John and Julia Frazer designed the “Generator Project”
with sensors to whose input react four computer programs, and a mobile crane
installed permanently to move flexible elements. The crane shall be a means for
the execution of propositions for modifications planned by computers. These
propositions react to the sensors´ input containing data on the use of the flexible elements. According to John Frazer the computer programs shall offer better propositions for the users of a house than their own plans: Gordon Pask´s
“Learning machines” (see chap. II.3.1.1) and “The Architecture Machine” with
its concern to the environment´s changes caused by its use become model
examples for the further development of flexible architectural structures. 53
In the sixties the project of an expansion from sculpture to the environment
and to action has been realised in different ways. The development of “responsive environments” as a forerunner to a “responsive architecture” 54 was shaped
by the possibilities of computer-aided organization procedures. Limits of art
are transgressed by demonstrations of non-realizable architectural concepts.
The model “Seek” installed by the MIT in the exhibition “Software” anticipated
more extensive future-oriented projects and implicated research tasks. The
experimental status of the animals in “Seek” was controversial for art critics
and provoked them to express doubts about the research goal. 55
Annotations
1 Pask: Approach 1961, p.32, pl. I(i). In 1955 C.E.G. Bailey, T. Robin McKinnon Wood, and Gordon Pask developed “Eucrates” (Pask: Approach 1961,
p.67).
2 Pask: Approach 1961, p.67s.
3 Pask: Approach 1961, p.68.
4 Pask: Approach 1961, p.70. Cf. Burnham: Modern Sculpture 1978, p.337s.
66
5 Pask: Comment 1971, p.77-88; Pickering: Brain 2010, p.317ss.; Rosen:
Control 2008, p.136-145.
6 Pask: Comment 1971, p.78.
7 Pask: Comment 1971, p.80. Cf. Pickering: Brain 2010, p.316.
Pask: Comment 1971, p.78 on the musician: “The musical performer (who
may, incidentally, be replaced by a small group or band) must first be able to
see the visual display and second be able to modify his performance according to what he sees. The latter condition can be satisfied in various ways. At
one extreme, the performer has a (usually memorized) score and he modifies
his performance by giving a different interpretation to the piece. At the other
extreme, he improvises in a fashion that is only constrained by canons of
music and his own disposition.”
8 Pask: Comment 1971, p.78ss.; Pickering: Brain 2010, p.314, fig. 7.2, p.316;
Rosen: Control 2008, p.136.
9 Pask: Comment 1971, p.86.
Gordon Pask´s “electro-chemical display” is a part of a research investigating
the relations between “stability and variety” in “self-organizing systems”. In
the course of the research Pask began to develop “chemical computers”:
“Chemical computers arise from the possibility of `growing´ an active evolutionary network by an electro-chemical process.” (Pask: Approach 1961,
p.105) On the insights in emergence that Pask was able to win within the research project: Cariani: Emergence 1991, p.789; Cariani: Ear 1993; Pickering:
Brain 2010, p.334-343; Whitehead: Metacreation 2004, p.223.
10 Pask: Comment 1971, p.78ss.
11 Pask: Comment 1971, p.86: “From the performer´s point of view, training
becomes a matter of persuading the machine to adopt a visual style which
fits the mood of his performance. At this stage in the development of the
rapport, the performer conceives the machine as an extension of himself,
rather than as a detached or disassociated entity.”
67
12 Pask: Approach 161, p.48: “A system is `self-organizing´ if the rate of
change of its redundancy is positive.”
13 Pask: Approach 1961, p.48. In this case the musician is the “observer”.
Pask describes “observers” as “men, animals, or machines able to learn
about their environment and impelled to reduce their uncertainty about the
events which occur in it, by dint of learning.” (Pask: Approach 1961, p.18)
“Some simplified abstractions from the real world” can be falsified in their
character as fundamentals for predictions: “Any observation of the real world
is fallible...” (Pask: Approach 1961, p.19) Learning became a presupposition
to obtain sufficient “requisite variety” (Pask: Approach 1961, p.51ss.; see
chap. II.1.5) for adequate reactions to environmental events.
14 “Responsive environment”: Burnham: Aesthetics 1970, p.108; Burnham:
System Esthetics 1968, p.35; Krueger: Computer 1976; Krueger: Environments 1977/1996, p.481s.; Krueger: Videoplace 1985, S.145,147.
15 Bruinsma, A.H.: Practical Robot Circuits. A Philips Technical Publication.
Quoted in: Hoggett: CYSP 1 2009. Jean-Noël Montagné in 10/27/2013 in an
e-mail to the author.
The name “CYSP” is an abbreviation. It consists of the first two letters of «cybernétique» and «spatiodynamique» (Cassou/Habasque/Ménétier: Schöffer
1963, p.50).
On a justified criticism of the term “electronic brain”, published in 1951 in
the leaflet of the Science Museum in South Kensington for the “Festival of
Great Britain” in London: see chap. VII.1.1 on “Ferranti NIMROD”.
16 Hoggett: CYSP 1 2009; Schöffer: Apparitions 2009 and Jean-Noël Montagné in 10/27/2013 in an e-mail to the author. Following Montagné “CYSP
1” was self-navigating and “not programmable...but there were 2 speeds
possible for the main moving motors”. The external control is not illustrated
and only indirectly described in Cassou/Habasque/Ménétrier: Schöffer 1963,
p.50-57,137.
17 Without author: CYSP 1. In: Reichardt: Cybernetic Serendipity 1968, p.45:
“...the sculpture consisting of combined travel and animation. For example: it
68
is excited by the colour blue, which means that it moves forward, retreats or
makes a quick turn, and makes its plates turn fast; it becomes calm with red,
but at the same time it is excited by silence and calmed by noise. It is also
excited in the dark and becomes calm in intense light.”
18 Nicolas Schöffer talking to Hans-Jürgen Buderer in 30.9.1983. In: Buderer:
Kinetische Kunst 1992, p.191 (cf. Buderers comment, ibid., p.127s.).
Cf. Jacques Bureau´s “Annotations of the Philips Company...” (1955). In: Cassou/Habasque/Ménétrier: Schöffer 1963, p.45: An “indifference cell” causes
an “uncertainty factor” (Cf. Cassou/Habasque/Ménétrier: Schöffer 1963,
p.50,60,136).
19 Buderer: Kinetische Kunst 1992, p.124s.,190,193s. (Schöffer 1983, see
ann.18); Schöffer: Spatiodynamisme 1955 (I thank Jean-Noël Montagné for
the tip about that text). Bureau presents the “electronic brain” in “Annotations of the Philips Company...” (see ann.18) as “homeostat” (Cassou/
Habasque/Ménétrier: Schöffer 1963, p.45s.).
20 Klütsch: Computergrafik 2007, p.198ss.; Mason: Computer 2008, p.101110; Prince: Women 2003, p.3s.; Reichardt: Serendipity 1968, p.5.
21 Reichardt: Cybernetics 1971, p.11. In contrary, according to Michael
Kustow, the former director of the Institute of Contemporary Arts, the show
attracted 45.000 visitors (Usselmann: Dilemma 2003, ann.4). “Cybernetic Serendipity” was a travel exhibition shown in 1969 in the Corcoran Art Gallery
(Washington, D.C.) and in the Exploratorium in San Francisco, too (Henning:
Museums 2006, p.87ss.; Mason: Computer 1968, p.212).
22 Reichardt: Computer 1971; Reichardt: Cybernetic Serendipity 1968; Reichardt: Cybernetics 1971.
23 Ihnatowicz: Cybernetic Art 1986, p.5; Ihnatowicz: Forty 2008, p.113; Mason: Computer 2008, p.81s.; Reichardt: Cybernetic Serendipity 1968, p.38;
Zivanovic: SAM 2005, p.2s.; Zivanovic: Technologies 2008, p.97ss.
24 Ihnatowicz, Edward: Sound-Activated Mobile. In: Reichardt: Cybernetic
69
Serendipity 1968, p.38.
25 Philips P 9201: clone of the minicomputer Honeywell DDP-416 (since
1967. See Zivanovic: Technical Info undated; Zivanovic: SAM 2005, p.4). The
computer was located in view beside the round base.
26 Ihnatowicz: Cybernetic Art 1986, p.6.
27 Mason: Computer 2008, p.91; Zivanovich: SAM 2005, p.5. Further writings
on “Senster”: Benthall: Ihnatowicz 1971; Gardner: Elephants 1983, p.143146; Ihnatowicz: Forty 2008, p.114s.; Zivanovic: Technologies 2008, p.100107.
28 Realisation of the fibreglass bodies: Pip and Adele Youngerman (Rosen:
Control 2008, p.167 with ann.128).
29 Pask: Comment 1971, p.97 with fig. 40, p.98. Electronics: Mark Dowson.
Electromechanics: Tony Watts. The computer was constructed by Pask,
Dowson and Watts using “electromechanical relais and simple electronics”
(Rosen: Control 2008, p.168 with ann.129).
30 Pask: Comment 1971, p.89.
31 Pask: Comment 1971, p.89. Cf. Pickering: Brain 2010, p.357s.; Rosen:
Control 2008, p.168.
32 “Odrive and Pdrive“, in: Pask: Comment 1971, p.91.
33 Pask: Comment 1971, p.88s.
34 Pask: Comment 1971, p.91.
35 Pask: Comment 1971, p.88.
36 On the problem to inform visitors about the system´s fundamentals to
enable them to reconstruct the programming of its functions by activating its
70
machinic reactions: Rosen: Control 2008, p.172 with ann.136. Cf. in contrary
Pickering: Brain 2010, p.360 on visitors interacting with “Colloquy of Mobiles” for several hours without preinformations.
37 Group exhibition “The Magic Theatre”, William Rockhill Nelson Gallery,
Kansas City/Missouri 1968. Later exhibited in the art museums of St. Louis/
Missouri and Toledo/Ohio. In: Davis: Art 1973, p.75s.,156; Ehrlich: Magic
Theatre 1969. Permanent installation of “Electronic Peristyle” since 1997:
New Jersey State Museum, Trenton/New Jersey.
38 Quotes from e-mails sent by James Seawright to the author in 9/28/2013,
10/7/2013, 10/10/2013 and 17/10/2013.
Writings on “Electronic Peristyle”: Kostelanetz: Soho 2003, p.153; Light:
Peristyle 1997; Seawright: Art 1970, p.89,91ss.
39 Rosen: Maschinen 2007, p.50. The SDS 930 was programmed in FORTRAN and assembly language (Frits: Work 2011, p.51).
40 Rosen: Maschinen 2007, p.51.
41 Bonacic: Mensch 1973, p.216: “The dynamic object GF E 16-4/69-71...
was constructed with 1024 quadratic aluminium tubes. Because of the tubes´
different length the object constituted a relief. At the end of each tube a
transparent glass in one of 16 colour hues is mounted (antique glass made in
West Germany). Each tube contains a lamp for a control independent of the
arithmetic unit of the computer.”
42 Bonacic: Mensch 1973, p.217. Cf. Fritz: Work 2011, p.52s.; Shanken: Art
2009, p.67.
43 Quotes from e-mails sent by James Seawright to the author in 10/6/2013
and in 10/10/2013.
Seawright about the programming: “The programming was all mine, with
considerable advice and hand-holding from computer professionals and
hackers. The language was PDP8 assembly language. The program was coded in ASCII on paper tape, and read in using the teletype which came with
71
the computer. Loading or reloading the program took over 4 hours!”
Seawright expanded the program for the installation in the group exhibition
“The Responsive Environment”, New Jersey State Museum, Trenton/New
Jersey 1972.
Writings on “Network III”: Davis: Art 1973, p.156; Goodman: Visions 1987,
p.142; Kac: Telepresence 2005, p.176s.
44 Cf. Weibel, Peter: On Justiying the Hypothetical Nature of Art and the
Non-Identicality within the Object World, 1992 (see chap. V.1); Rogala, Miroslav: Lovers Leap, 1995. In: Druckrey: Lovers Leap 1995.
45 Negroponte: The Architecture Machine 1970, p.70-99.
46 Negroponte: The Architecture Machine 1970, p.63.
47 Negroponte: The Architecture Machine 1970, p.100-117.
“The M.I.T. Minsky/Papert eye”: Negroponte: The Architecture Machine
1970, p.105ss. At the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab Marvin Minsky and
Seymour Papert developed among other things “The Logo Turtle” in 1969
(Hoggett: Logo Turtle 2010), using “LOGO” to develop further William Grey
Walter´s robots (see chap. II.2.3). “LOGO” is a computer language developed in 1967 and is based on LISP (“LOGO”-developer: Wally Feuerzeig,
Seymour Papert).
On Papert, Minsky, Negroponte and “The Architecture Machine” as
documents for relations between art and “artifical intelligence”: Burnham:
Aesthetics 1970, p.111-114.
48 Steenson: Artificial Intelligence 2010.
49 The Architecture Machine Group: Seek 1970 (students at M.I.T. constructed ”Seek” as members of the ”Architecture Machine Group”); Davis: Art
1973, p.101s.,107; Goodman: Visions 1987, p.40s.,43; Hess: Gerbils 1970;
Montfort/Wardrip-Fruin: Reader 2003, p.247; Negroponte: The Architecture
Machine 1970, p.104s.,112s.; Pickering: Brain 2010, p.376s., fig. 7.27.
50 The Architecture Machine Group: Seek 1970.
72
51 Davis: Art 1973, p.102; Goodman: Visions 1987, p.40.
52 The Architecture Machine Group: Seek 1970.
53 On the ”InterAction Centre”: Mathews: Agit-Prop 2006, part 2 and 3.
On the ”Generator Project”: Pickering: Brain 2010, p.372s.; Steenson: Cedric
Price 2007.
54 Grünkranz: Phenomenology 2009.
On the art expansion in the sixties from the isolated object to the environment and to architecture: Claus: Expansion 1970, esp. p.54-109; Krauss:
Sculpture 1979.
55 Davis: Art 1973, p.107; Hess: Gerbils 1970; Goodman: Visions 1987, p.43.
73
III. Information Aesthetics
III.1 Computer Literature
III.1.1 Word Processing
The previous chapter on “Cybernetic Sculptures” (see chap. II.3) presents the
development of systems from 1953 to 1971 integrating self constructed computers (see chap. II.3.1.1, II.3.2.3), analog computers (see chap. II.3.2.2) and
digital minicomputers (since 1969, see chap. II.3.3, II.3.2.2, II.3.4): Alternatives
to mainframe computers were constructed to make possible the inclusion of
computers in installations (that can be rebuild on several locations).
With the use of mainframe computers in electronic literature an alternative
was developed to electronic data processing as a means for administrative
needs. The history of an experimental utilisation of mainframe computers to
test their possibilities for word processing began in the fifties. In contrast to
the cybernetic sculptures the computers are not a part of a work that can be
categorized as computer literature or computer graphics (see chap. III.2) but a
means to produce the work. The results of the computing processes are printed
by plotters.
In reactive installations cybernetic circuits support the integration of the observer. In computer literature and computer graphics the circuits are reduced
to the sequence from input media – punch cards or magnetic memories – to
the mainframe computers executing the computing processes and the printers
or plotters as output media writing letters or graphic signs on papers. These
prints present the results of computing processes executing the program´s instructions. If the computing process will be restarted then the results can vary.
This variety is not seldom caused by algorithms for pseudo random sequences
(see chap. III.1.2, III.2.2).
74
III.1.2 Christopher Strachey´s “Love-letters”
Christopher Strachey met Alan Mathison Turing during his studies (of mathematics and physics, from 1935 to 1938) at King´s College in Cambridge. From
1949 to 1952 Strachey was a teacher at Harrow School (Harrow on the Hill/
Middlesex). In 1951 Mike Woodger introduced Strachey to the project Pilot
ACE at the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington/Middlesex. Since 1950
the laboratory developed the reduced version of Turing´s “Automatic Computing Engine” called Pilot ACE. 1 In February 1951 Strachey developed for
Pilot ACE a program for a game of draughts running for the first time in 30th
July 1951. As soon as Strachey received informations about the bigger main
memory of the mainframe computer Manchester Mark I (1948-50) he wrote
his program for a game of draughts in the machine code of this computer
(October 1951, see chap. VII.1.1). 2
The Ferranti Mark I (1951) was constructed on the base of the Manchester
Mark I. It was the first purchasable computer. In February 1951 Manchester
University received its exemplar. A program for computer music was developed by Strachey for this Ferranti Mark I. It generated songs like “God Save the
King” (1951). 3 After having presented his program Strachey was hired by the
National Research and Development Corporation as a “technical officer” (June
1952).
75
Link, David: Ferranti Mark I Emulator with a reconstruction of Christopher
Strachey´s “Love-letters” 1952 (Link: Angel 2006, p.16, fig.1).
In 1952 he wrote a program to generate “Love-letters”. The program combined
words by selecting them form a database via the random generator of the Ferranti Mark I. The stored word library contained a selection from Roget´s Thesaurus. The words supplied with syntax indices – “adjectives”, “substantives”,
“adverbs” and “verbs” – are combined following two syntactical structures:
“My—[adjective]—substantive—[adverb]—verb —Your—[adjective]—substantive” or “You are my—adjective—substantive”. In the case of repetitions
the second structure was reduced to “My—adjective—substantive”. After a
salutation combined by using a database called “Letter Start” to select words
followed five sentences generated by combinations of stored words using the
syntactical schemes described above. The end of the letter was constructed
with the scheme “Yours—adverb—MUC” (MUC = Manchester University
Computer). The program “Love-letters” could generate 318 billion different
letters. The results of the computing processes were presented without commas
by a teleprinter. Meanwhile Strachey´s “Game of Draughts” had to choose the
best of all possible moves, “Love-letters” recognized only the syntactical structures but no semantic restrictions. Noah Wardrip-Fruin proposes to understand “Love-letters” as to produce semantic accidents as parodies of “normative
expressions of desire”. 4
76
Strachey anticipates basic elements of the sixties´ computer literature and computer graphics with his structuring of the programming into a selection of
elements, a random generator, a syntax for combinations and the presentation
of a plotter output.
III.1.3 Stochastic Texts
Until 1959 Theo Lutz studied mathematics, physics and electrical engineering
at the Technische Hochschule of Stuttgart. As a degree candidate of Max Bense
he knew the philosopher´s information aesthetics. Bense proposed Lutz to
install in his text generating program “a database with 100 words from Franz
Kafka´s novel `The Castle´ [1922] and simple sentence structures.” 5
Max Bense´s “Aesthetica” was published in five parts from 1954 to 1965. In the
first part Bense explained the “classical and nonclassical Seinsthematik [epistemology]”. He situates Hermann Melville´s “Bartleby” and Franz Kafka´s “The
Castle” between a reality derived from divine possibilities in the sense of the
classical epistemology and the nonclassical opposition between the “term of a
(human, personal) existence” and the “term of a system containing everything,
transcendence as well as immanence, god as well as the world, reason as well as
history”. 6
This epistemological discourse presented Bense in part 1 of the “Aesthetica” as
a central problem of the artistic and literary avant-garde. It was taken over in
later parts (since part 3, published in 1958) by explanations of the “aesthetic”
and “semantic information”. Bense defines “information” among others as “a
measure of a scheme´s regularity”. 7
In 1959 Theo Lutz´s “stochastic texts” were produced at the Rechen-Institut
of the Technische Hochschule of Stuttgart in the time when Bense developed
a new core subject in “Aesthetica”. In Lutz´s texts the selection of words is determined by a syntactical scheme, a random generator and frequency criteria.
Lutz´s program used a word database to generate with the valve computer Z22
77
of the firm Zuse (1958) sentences with a correct syntax. Lutz´s procedure to
use the stored words provides a model for Bense´s change of “Aesthetica´s”
core subject.
Lutz, Theo: Stochastic Text, Zuse Z22, teleprinter output, 1959.
78
Lutz used punch tapes as input medium to start his in ALGOL written program in the computer Z 22 of the Rechen-Institut. Then he could read the
result on the teleprinter´s output. The database contained a selection of 16
subjects and 16 predicates as they were found in Kafka´s “The Castle”. Four
“logical constants” (“and”, “or”, “if...then”, “.”) for the syntax of the combinations, four “logical operators” for the subject´s existence (“one”, “each”, “no
one” and “not each” in feminine, masculine and factual German forms) as well
as the stored subjects and predicates should appear with equal frequency in a
computer-generated text. Only the “relative frequency” of the point (the sign
for the negation) was determined higher than the frequency of the other logical
constants.
Between subject-predicate pairs the logical constants create irritating relations–
for example:
Jeder Fremde ist nah, so gilt kein Fremder ist alt (If each stranger is
close, then each stranger is old). 8
The second part of the if/then operation seems to be a conclusion from the first
part of the phrase but this is wrong for our world knowledge. Which roles play
such wrong conclusions for the poeticity of a computer-generated “artificial”
literature 9: Does the artificial literature try to provocate us to understand the
“aesthetic information” as a quality being independent from the “semantic
information” 10 and ignoring the truth content of the message?
Bense based his integration of the semantic terms `true´ and `false´ in the
information theory 11 on theories of Donald M. MacKay and Rudolf Carnap.
12 The semantic information in logics and the information in cybernetics (see
chap. II.1.3) are presented as alternatives 13 that can be combined in “Aesthetica” in a “general communication research” to be able to discuss the relations
between “semiotics” and “information theory”. 14
Shannon´s model of a reconstructing production of a language based on
frequency statistics of the use of basic elements and their combinations (see
chap. II.1.2) is turned in Lutz´s “Stochastic Texts” into a procedure to obtain
“aesthetic information” renouncing any dependence on conventional forms
79
of literature. The frictions between text production and the conclusiveness of
a statement in relation to the experience of reality, between “aesthetic” and
“semantic information”, are a key issue. The results of a machine production
become experiments for readers who decide if the tension between reliable
and unreliable statements is attracting or if the text provokes a collapse of their
attention.
In 1960 Brion Gysin utilised a program developed by Ian Somerville for the
permutation of words without regard to syntactical structures. In contrast to
Lutz Gysin doesn´t install a database as an archive with combinable words but
selects five words to be used in all combinations. The sequence of the words in
the start phrase “I AM THAT I AM” was permuted from one line to the next
until all variants were realised. 15 The relations between syntax and semantics
can appear to readers of “I AM THAT I AM” cancelled by the permutation of
the words with the recurring vowels “i” and “a” in varying changes with the
recurring consonants “h”, “m” and “t”: Semantics are replaced by visual and
onomatopoetic effects.
80
Balestrini, Nanni: Tape Mark I, Flow Chart, 1961
(Reichardt: Serendipity 1968, p.65).
81
Balestrini, Nanni: Tape Mark I, 1961. Left: plotter print.
Right: print version (Balestrini: Tape 1962, p.150s.).
Nanni Balestrini invented for “Tape Mark I” a method to generate poems that
fall between the concepts for desemantising procedures and for procedures to
integrate syntax and semantics. Balestrini selected 15 words from three textual
sources for an archive with stored words to be combined in October 1961 by
an IBM 7070 (since 1960) of a Milanese bank. 10 words were selected from
the archive and were combined with regards to syntactical structures. These
combinations were merged in texts with six lines, each constituted by “four
metrical elements”. This process led to poetic results provoking readers to
search for meaning. The poems perform neither radical semantic breaks nor
do they include elements comparable to Lutz´s “logical constants” being able to
cause the construction of statements without conclusiveness in relation to our
experience of reality. 16
82
Stickel, Gerhard: Autopoem No.1, 1965
(Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.159).
In 1965 Gerhard Stickel reconstructed the forms of poetry. In his “Autopoems”
generated between 1965 and 1966 by a mainframe computer IBM 7090 (since
1959) he circumvents the problem of the conclusiveness of a statement in
relation to the experience of reality that Lutz posed with his use of “logical constants”: The relations with references to reality described in Lutz´s computer83
generated texts get a peripheral character by the poetic forms of Stickel´s “Autopoems”. In its selection of words from a database Stickel´s program follows
syntactical criteria. A random generator selects the words, the syntactical
structures of phrases (280 structures in all) and the number of lines (between 4
and 26 lines). 17
Annotations
1 Hodges: Turing 1983/1992, p.442s.; Link: Angel 2006, p.17; Turing: Proposal 1945/1992; Wardrip-Fruin: Media 2011, p.304s.
2 Copeland: History 2000, chap. “The Manchester Machine”; Link: Angel
2006, p.17; Strachey: Machine 1954, p.27; Wardrip-Fruin: Media 2011,
p.304s.,312ss.
3 Fildes: Computer Music 2008; Link: Angel 2006, p.17s.
4 On “Love Letters”: Bülow: Sinn 2007, p.148-151; Hodges: Turing
1983/1992, p.477s.; Link: Angel 2006; Wardrip-Fruin 2011, p.302-316. Examples: Bülow: Sinn 2007, p.150; Strachey: Machine 1954, p.26.
Re-engineering: Link, David: LoveLetters_1.0. MUC=Resurrection. A Memorial. Exhibited in: YOU_ser 2.0. Celebration of the Consumer. ZKM/Center for
Art and Media. Karlsruhe 2009. In: URL: http://www02.zkm.de/ you/ index.
php? option=com_content& view=article& id=98%3Aloveletters10&catid=
35%3Awerke&lang=en (8/10/2013).
5 Walther: Bense 1999.
6 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.85. Bense mentions Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz´s
“Theodicy” (Essais de théodicée, 1710) as an example for the “classical Seinsthematik” and Søren Aabye Kierkegaard´s “Philosophical Fragments” (1844)
as an example for the “nonclassical Seinsthematik”.
7 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.220.
84
8 Lutz: Texte 1959. Cf. Bense: Einführung 1969, p.111; Bülow: Sinn 2007,
p.152-156; Cramer: Statements 2011, p.186s.; Funkhouser: Poetry 2007,
p.37s.; Gunzenhäuser: Synthese 1963/2004, p.175-178; Hartling: Autor 2009,
p.300s. (referring to Lutz´s manual postprocessing on the prints); Herrmann:
Programmierung 2004, p.155,161s.; Moles: Art 1971, p.167; Stürner: Poesie
2003, p.18-21.
Re-engineering: Auer, Johannes: free lutz. Municipal Gallery Wroclaw/Poland
2005. In: URL: http://copernicus.netzliteratur.net/index1.html (11/14/2011).
9 Max Bense on “artificial art” (“Künstliche Kunst”): Bense: Aesthetica 1982,
p.337s.: “In all, as it is possible to formulate it, differ the `artificial´ and the
`natural´ production category in introducing a scheme mediating between
creator and work, as it is constituted by the program and the programming
language, and this leads to a division of labor which is unfamiliar in the aesthetic process.” Cf. Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.XIII.
10 “Aesthetic” and “semantic information”: Bense: Aesthetica 1982,
p.224,282,327; Moles:Théorie 1958, p.133-139; Moles: Art 1971, p.34-37.
11 Bense: Begriff 1963/2000, p.151: “It makes no difference for the statistic
information theory if a sequence of signs is true or false. Only its statistic innovation, novelty, information is relevant. But the semantic information theory
takes into consideration if a statement is true or false.”
12 Carnap/Bar-Hillel: Outline 1953.
13 Bense: Begriff 1963/2000, p.152. Cf. Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.304 (part
IV, first published in 1960).
14 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.303 (part IV, first published in 1960).
15 Funkhouser: Poetry 2007, p.38ss. with ann.9 (p.279): “The programming
details are not available.”
16 Balestrini: Tape Mark I 1962/2012; Balestrini: Tape Mark I 1968. Funkhouser: Poetry 2007, p.12,41s. with ann.13 (p.280) on the uncertainty about the
85
software being used (Autocoder, FORTRAN or RPG). Balestrini: Tape Mark I
1962/2012 refers on page 268 to “punched cards in Autocoder language”
and names Dr. Alberto Nobis as programmer.
17 Programmed in FORTRAN (main program) and FAP (sub program). In:
Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.111s.; Bense: Einführung 1969, p.111s.; Bülow:
Sinn 2007, p.156-162; Funkhouser: Poetry 2007, S.37f.; Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.107,466s.; Moles: Kunst 1973, p.176; Stürner:
Poesie 2003, p.22s.
86
III. Information Aesthetics
III.2 Computer Graphics
III.2.1 Analog Graphics
The early use of mainframe computers to generate texts (see chap.III.1) provides us with one prehistory of computer graphics (see chap. III.2.2). The other
prehistory contains artistic uses of cathode ray oscillographs being applied as
control display in electrical engineering and as output medium of analogue
computers.
Laposky, Benjamin Francis: Oscillon Number Four, 1950, photo of an oscillograph´s screen.
Since 1950 Benjamin Francis Laposky photographed the screen of his modified
oscillograph combined, among others, with a sinus wave generator. The delimited amount of the oscillograph´s wave forms was expanded by Laposky adding
87
“other electrical and electronic circuits...to create the almost infinite variety of
forms.” Laposky drew a connection between his “electronic abstractions” 1 and
computer art:
The relationship of the oscillons to computer art is that the basic
waveforms are analogue curves of the type used in analogue computer
systems. 2
Franke, Herbert W.: Oscillograms, 1956, photos of an oscillograph´s screen.
Franke, Herbert W./Raimann, Franz: Analog devices to be connected with an
oscilloscope. Photographed in 8/13/2014 in Puppling nearby Egling/Bavaria.
Photo: Thomas Dreher.
88
In 1955/56 Herbert W. Franke produced “pendulum oscillograms” (“Pendeloszillogramme”) in moving a Contaflex mirror reflex camera before the screen
of an oscillograph presenting curves. For the production of these curves Franz
Raimann constructed “an analogue calculation system” for Franke “...being
capable to mark out the elementary curves...It was possible to adjust different
kinds of overlay [of complicated curves] in real time on a mixing console.” 3
With the mixing console modifications of the electron beam´s motion along
the horizontal and vertical axes were possible. In oscillosgraphs a horizontal
base line motion is usually deviated vertically. Raimann´s analog calculation
system offered possibilities to control movements along the horizontal and
vertical axis depending on the time dimension.
Franke utilises a calculator constructed for his purposes similar to Schöffer
who integrated into “CYSP I” (1956, see chap. II.3.1.2) a little computer built
for him by Philips before the production of minicomputers started in the sixties. As Schöffer installed a small computer custom-made by Philips in “CYSP
I” (1956, see chap. II.3.1.2) before the minicomputers became available in the
sixties, so Franke used a small computer custom-made for his needs. This computer was connected with an oscillograph “producing only thick drawn lines
on a screen with a diameter of only 5 centimeters. To be able to receive viable
images at all, I experimented with different procedures, but I obtained the best
results when I moved the camera with open aperture in a darkened room...
before the screen. To obtain a regular movement I mounted the camera at a
cord like a pendulum in my first trials but the I finally gained the best results
when I moved the camera in my hands continuously – so I trained myself and
learned to coordinate the adequate movements. The images show the overlaps
of curves as a grid-like structure, often with spatial visual effects.” 4 The curves
being produced in real time on the oscillograph´s screen were documented by
Franke not simply as photographic reproductions, but he obtained structures
with visual depth effects in moving the camera with an open aperture. The
restrictions for the organization of forms caused by the “thick drawin lines”,
as they were presented on his oscilloscope´s screen, were transgressed by
the artist in moving the camera at varying distances from the screen: Closely
following lines and superimpositions became possible.
89
Fuchshuber, Roland K.: Left: Rocker, 1960, plotter drawing.
Right: Polstelle, 1960, plotter drawing.
In 1960 Roland K. Fuchshuber became a member of the founding commission
of the Centre Européen de Traitement de l´Information Scientifique (CETIS).
At Euratom (European Atomic Energy Community) in Brussels and Ispra
(Italy) Fuchshuber started to produce graphics with PACE analogue computers
constructed by Electronic Associates Incorporated (EAI). The “distortion factor
of an amplifier” influenced the course of parallel curved lines documented as
plotter drawings. 5
90
Alsleben, Kurd/Passow, Cord: Computergrafik 4, 1960,
plotter drawing (Alsleben: Redundanz 1962, p.52, ill.d).
In 1960/61 the artist Kurd Alsleben and the physicist Cord Passow used an
analogue computer (EAI 231 R) of the Deutsche Elektronen Synchotron
(DESY) in Hamburg to produce waves printed in horizontal rows above each
other as well as overlapping. Five computer graphics produced as plotter drawings document results of computing processes. One of these prints presents
four horizontal rows. Each row is constituted by two overlapping wave lines.
“Parameter shifts” determining the course of the wave lines were produced by
potentiometers. 6
III.2.2 Digital Computer Graphics
An analogue computer offered patchboards and potentiometers for manipulations of the computing processes in real time, in contrast to the digital mainframe computers used by Béla Julesz, A. Michael Noll (since 1962), Frieder
Nake (since 1963) and Georg Nees (since 1964) allowing only to control the
results printed by plotters after the computing processes worked out the in91
structions (that had to be installed via punchcards or magnetic storage units).
FORTRAN or ALGOL, the higher programming languages for compilers, are
used for the coding of instructions. Compilers translate programming languages into machine language. Since a few years before the artists mentioned above
started to work with digital mainframe computers the first compilers simplified
the programming. 7 Before the integration of compilers programming was only
possible in machine languages.
In the sixties A. Michael Noll, Georg Nees and Frieder Nake created pioneer
works of computer graphics. Their procedures are based on the early computer
literature presented in chapter III.1, especially on the works of Christopher
Strachey (see chap. III.1.2) and Theo Lutz (see chap. III.1.3):
• a. the selection of a few elements to be stored in a database,
• b. a syntax to combine the elements,
• c. a random generator,
• d. a determination of the frequency defining how often the program
can select the elements.
If visual elements are used as basic elements instead of textual signs then the
artistic production is transformed to the creation of structures that shouldn´t
be neither too simple nor too complex for the visual perception of the whole
field as well as for the relations between single elements, as information aesthetics articulated the goal of artistic creation by defining the best relation between order and information for an aesthetic experience. In computer graphics
the following modifications of the procedures developed in computer literature
can be found:
• ad a. The word database is substituted by elements – mostly lines –
constructed by the computing processes executing the instructions
of the program (f.e. lines connecting points).
92
• ad b. The position and the length of basic elements vary with the
combinatory manner replacing the textual structure of left to right
relations (from word to word) and up-down differentiations (from
line to line) by an organisation of the whole plane. The structure
of text lines is substituted by a visual arrangement in zones within
which the program starts again.
• ad c. Because the random generator has its effects not only in the
selection of elements but in the modification of the combinatory
method from zone to zone, the spectrum of variations determines
the overall view.
• ad d. The limitation of the selection frequency concerns not only the
selection of elements but the combinatory method, too, with
consequences for the visual effect of the work in its totality, not
only for some sentences within an ensemble of sentences. The
reability of sentences and/or lines of a text is substituted by the
relations between the programmed structure of the plane and the
optical effect of the overall view. 8
Before early examples of digital computer graphics fulfilling the criteria mentioned above will be explained a short ouline of the goals of information aesthetics is presented because they influenced especially Georg Nees and Frieder
Nake.
A core subject of information aesthetics are the relations between the structure
of a program and the visual perception of its presentation. Max Bense and
Abraham Moles define the “aesthetic measure” by exploring the best possible
relation between the “complexity” of the visual “information” and the “orderliness” (“redundancy”) that can be recognized in the process of perceiving
the work: Bense determines the aesthetic measure in using George David
Birkhoff´s definition as `order divided by complexity´ (“Birkhoff´s quotient”).
9 In contrary Moles refers to empirical investigations in his argument for the
`multiplication order by complexity´. 10
93
Shannon´s “statistic information” provides the basis for this numerical definition of the “aesthetic measure”. 11 It presupposes precise knowledge of the
number of used elements (“sign repertoire”) and the possibilities to combine
them. 12 That´s why concrete-serial and programmed art offer model cases for
information aesthetics.
Following Bense in art improbable orders are realised by the “elimination of
the avoidable” and the “reduction of redundancy”. 13 Meanwhile Bense discusses characteristics of art works, Moles thematises their perception. In
Moles´ reflections the receiver´s “limit of apperception” and its dependency on
the observer´s previous knowledge are dominant subjects. If the visual complexity is above the “limit of apperception” then there is no order recognizable.
That´s why this limit should not be transgressed. 14 Thus, a certain amount of
redundancy is inevitable. Contrary to John Cage´s non-normative aesthetics of
simultaneous chance operations 15 the information theory explicates an objectifiable aesthetic goal: For aesthetic factors it defines the best relation between
information and redundancy.
Götz, Karl Otto: Statistic-metric Trial 4:2:2:1, concept Summer 1959, realisation
with pencil and felt pen on cardboard 1960. Photo: Kukulies. Collection Etzold.
Städtisches Museum Abteiberg. Mönchengladbach
(Kersting: Sammlung Etzold 1986, p.206).
94
In the fifties Karl Otto Götz became known as an informal painter and as a
member of the artists´ group Quadriga. From 1959 to 1961 Goetz experimented in “statistic-metric modulations” with grids filled with black and white rectangles. These “modulations” were still carried out manually.
Karl Otto Götz before Density 10:3:2:1, 1961, felt pen and tusche on Bristol
cardboards, mounted on canvas (Götz: Erinnerungen 1983, p.900, ill.1016).
In “Density 10:3:2:1” (1961) Götz divides the “image area (200 x 260 cm)” in
“16 super zones” and subdivides them in “16 big zones” of equal size. He determines the frequency of the black rectangles (in relation to the “2 brightness
degrees” black and white) in the four “density degrees” indicated by the title.
The basic unit is a grid with four by four rectangles (16 big zones”, each with
16 “little zones”). One of these 16 rectangles is white (density degree “very
bright”) and 10 rectangles are black (density degree “dark”). In relation to the
density degrees between black and white rectangles are 2 rectangles brighter
(“lower density”) and 3 rectangles darker (“middle density”). The title “Density
10:3:2:1” designates 10 times the density degree “dark”, 3 times “middle density”, two times “lower density” and one times the density degree “very bright”.
95
Götz, Karl Otto: Density 10:3:2:1, sketch, 1961, division of the image´s surface
in super zones with four density degrees (Götz: Malerei 1961, p.14).
Götz visualises the realisation of the four density degrees with a grid of 2 by 3
squares: From these six squares with increasing density no field (“very bright”),
one field (“low density”), three (“middle density”) and five fields (“dark”) are
filled with black colour. The brighter or darker appearances of the grids are
a result of a number of black or white elements being distributed randomly:
“statistic relations between quantities”.
Götz, Karl Otto: Density 10:3:2:1, sketch, 1961, little zones with four density
degrees: D = dark, M = middle density, H = low density, sH = very bright
(Götz: Malerei 1961, p.23).
96
The 16 x 16 (=256) big zones distributed on 16 super zones constitute a plane
provoking the eye to slide between the zones with different amounts of black
and white elements, and to look for visual cues at prominent, particularly
dense black or white fields. The partition in “big zones” is recognizable at horizontal and vertical break lines between zones with dominant black squares on
one side and dominant white squares on the other side.
Students work out at home their area on “pre-rasterised drawing cardboards”
with felt pen and tusche. Then the grid image was “put together by mounting
the cardboards” prepared in labor division “on canvas”. The realised “ca.
400.000 image points (elements)” constitute a “model image” that could be
realised as an “electronic television image”. The two “brightness degrees” of
Götz´s “model images” could be substituted by the “ca. 40 brightness degrees”
of the television image with “450.000 image points”.
In 1960 Götz tried to persuade Siemens to realise his “grid images” but failed.
In 1962 the film “Density 10:2:2:1” (8 mm) was produced by combining photographed permutations of parts of the “grid image” as shots. Intertitles indicate
which grid elements – “basic units in little zones”, “little zones”, “big zones” –
have been replaced from shot to shot. Götz photographed these permutations.
The photographs constitute the shots of the film. The sequences of shots presenting the raster permutations are brought into motion by the projection of
the film and provoke the impression of a flickering image. The permutations
proceed from the smallest “units” to the “big zones”, and the changes become
recognisable in the course of seeing longer phases of the nearly three minutes
lasting film.
97
Götz, Karl Otto: Density 10:2:2:1, 1962, Film, 8 mm (Claus: Zeitalter 2008).
Götz calculated the “information content” (“Informationsgehalt”) of his images. Concerning the observers´ problems to recognize order in the connections
between the rectangles of the “statistic-metric modulation” it is no surprise that
a high “total information content” (“Gesamtinformationsgehalt”) and few “redundancy” have been the result of his calculations. Götz pursued “information
theoretical observation” and investigations of “gestalt psychological values” as
separate fields of study. 16
Götz anticipates algorithms of digital computer graphics in a still manual
realisation: The reduction of the realisation process to a few elements, the combination rules and the selection possibilities limited by rules based on criteria
of frequency are aspects of information aesthetics that recur in later computer
graphics.
In 1956 the electronics engineer Béla Julesz obtained a doctorate from the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences. After the army of Soviet Union invaded
Hungary, Julesz emigrated to the U.S.A. Several weeks after his arrival the
Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill/New Jersey affiliated Julesz to their technical
research team. 17
98
Julesz, Béla: Stereopsis, 1959, plotter drawing.
In 1960 Julesz published his investigations of the “Binocular Depth Perception
of Computer-Generated Patterns” in “The Bell System Technical Journal”. This
issue of the “Technical Journal” contained glasses to observe the random dot
stereograms illustrating Julesz´s contribution: These glasses anticipate LCD
shutter glasses. 18 Pro stereogram a mainframe computer IBM 704 (1954-60)
calculated images with 10.000 points. A pseudo-random generator distributed
16 brightness degrees. 19 The rectangles, printed and published beside each
other, had the same random distribution of points except specific divergences
in their middle zones: Within each of the rectangles an identical square field
was displaced to the left and to the right (“parallax shift”). The deviations
concern a displaced square zone and its environments. 20 This “parallax shift”
provoked in the binocular perception with glasses a three-dimensional effect,
nevertheless no features of the images suggest a resolution by visual patterns
for three-dimensional objects.
99
Julesz, Béla: Depth perception by monocular and binocular pattern recognition,
1960 (Julesz: Depth Perception 1960, p.1128, fig.3).
Julesz identifies a genuine “binocular pattern recognition” without presupposing a “monocultural pattern recognition”: The binocular pattern recognition
follows its own rules. 21 Depth perception can arise not only on the basis
of “binocular pattern recognition” but as a “combination of binocular and
monocular pattern recognition”, too: “Monocular macropattern recognition”
intensifies the depth effect. 22 Julesz´ investigations of the “cyclopic perception”
demonstrate that the depth perception combines visual patterns recognizable
with one eye and binocular visual patterns. Julesz´s investigations had consequences for the perceptual psychology, the cognition research and the development of autostereograms with only one image. 23 In 1965 Julesz´s perceptual
experiments were exhibited together with A. Michael Noll´s computer graphics
in the Howard Wise Gallery in New York. 24
In 1961 A. Michael Noll completed his studies at the Newark College of Engineering with the B.S.E.E. (Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering). From
1961 to 1971 he worked in a department for telephone transmissions at the Bell
Laboratories (Murray Hill/New Jersey). 25
100
In Summer 1962 Noll programmed “Patterns” in FORTRAN and produced
them with an IBM 7090 (since 1959) of the Bell Labs. Noll didn´t want that
they may be understood as “`true art´”. 26 A Stromberg Carlson 4020 Microfilm-Plotter presented the results of the computing processes on a cathode
ray tube as configurations of electrons. The computing processes lead to the
production of images on the screen via a “Decoder and Command Generator”.
Noll´s FORTRAN code included instructions for the microfilm plotter to start
further “subroutines”. The resulting image on the screen was photographed and
the 35mm negative was “multiplied by photo printing in different sizes.” 27
The computer was instructed to produce lines as connections between points
located by a “White Noise Generator”. A combination of lines in different
length constituted a jagged line.
Noll, A. Michael: Left: Pattern Three, 1962, photo print.
Right: Pattern Four, 1962, photo print (Noll: Patterns 1962, unpaginated).
101
Noll programmed the point clouds on the jagged lines in “Pattern One”, “Two”
and “Three” around a central point. In “Pattern Four” and “Pattern Five” points
with values calculated by random procedures for x- and y-axes served for the
localisation of lines: These points are “alternately repeated to make the lines
horizontal und vertical.” The line connecting all points changes its direction
exclusively at right angles. In “Pattern Four” are both ends of the line recognizable within fields marked by this line. 28
In “Gaussian Quadratic” (1962/63) Noll distributes 100 points on the horizontal and vertical axis following different criteria: The localisation in the horizontal axis follows the Normal- or Gaussian distribution, meanwhile the vertical
localisation is calculated based on an equation:
The vertical position increase quadratically, i.e., the first point has a
vertical position from the bottom of the picture given by 12 + 5x1, the
second point 22 + 5x2, the third point 32 + 5x3, etc. 29
To avoid points located outside the determined size of the work´s area the
distribution on the vertical axe at the top edge of the frame was mirrored at the
bottom. The Gaussian distribution on the horizontal axis follows the standard
normal distribution. The connections of the points constitute 99 lines crossing
each other several times in a vertical midfield. These lines form a jagged line
with accidental direction changes and some remarkable deflections on the
horizontal axis. The jagged line appears as a vertical formation that balances on
the lowest horizontal line serving as a base.
102
Noll, A. Michael: Gaussian Quadratic, 1962/63, photo print.
In “Gaussian Quadratic” Noll follows the strategy of a line´s accidental direction changes that he used in many other of his “Patterns”, too. He expands
the algorithmic criteria in “Gaussian Quadratic” in a way that the relations
between order and chance in its configuration of lines provoke a perception
searching for the “aesthetic measure” more than the “Patterns”. 30
The “patterns” realised by Noll in 1962 are designated by Frieder Nake as
“polygon moves” (“Polygonzüge”). 31 In December 1964 “polygon moves” programmed by Georg Nees were published in issue 3/4 of the “Grundlagenstudien aus Kybernetik und Geisteswissenschaft” (“Basic Studies in Cybernetics
and Humanities”). 32 The instructions written in ALGOL ran on a mainframe
computer Siemens 2002 (1959-66). A Zuse Z64 Graphomat printed the results.
103
Nees, Georg: 23-Ecke, 1964, plotter drawing (Nees: Grundlagenstudien 1964,
p.124, ill. 2).
The polygon moves occur several times next to each other and one below the
other. The algorithm starts anew in fields respectively “matrices” 33 and determines via random generator the distribution of consecutive lines. The number
of lines is defined by the program.
104
Nees, Georg: Untitled (Micro Innovation), 1967, plotter drawing
(Nees: Computergraphik 2006, p.222, ill. 31).
In a series of computer graphics realised between 1965 and 1968 Nees defines
how far the “polygon moves” can transgress the fields within which the program restarts the configuration of lines. 34 Because the distances between the
“matrices” are short the transgressing polygon moves interpenetrate each other.
At a quick glance they appear as a complex snarl of lines. 35 The structure of a
snarl with lines crossing each other tilted and rectangular can be recognised
only by a closer examination at a short distance, in a reconstruction of the
relations between the line configurations. In a total view zones of denser superimpositions and dominating directions of lines across several zones attract the
attention.
In Nees´ works the observation of relations oscillates from work to work
in different manners between a complexity by plurality (via the division in
“matrices” and the superimpositions of line configurations) and a simplicity
provoked by the structuring process of the perception for the whole field. 36
105
The graphics of Georg Nees can be seen as models for an investigation of the
problem how “order and complexity” 37 can be mediated to obtain a better
“aesthetic measure”.
Looking for similarities and repetitions to simplify the formation of visual
schemata – in terms of information theory: to enable the recognition of order
via redundancy (as a return of the same) – observers refocus a print´s surface
several times. Nees calls this process a “gradation of the type heap-variation-gestalt” (“Gradation vom Typus Haufen–Variation–Gestalt”). 38 The “micro-aesthetics” of the produced object – determined by the “creation of texture
by overlapping” 39 – and the “macro-aesthetics” – as a cognitive restructuring
by the use of schemata in the process of seeing – constitute inter-related levels:
“Gestalts are aesthetic information units with a local and distal nexus.” (“Gestalten sind ästhetische Informationseinheiten mit Lokal- und Distalnexus.”) 40
Nake, Frieder: Random Polygon Move, 1963, plotter drawing, 10 x 10 cm (Nake:
Ästhetik 1974, p.19, ill.5.2-7)/1964, plotter drawing, 15,5 x 11,5 cm
(Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.424, nr.259)
106
Since 1963/64 Frieder Nake developed the translation program Compart ER 56
in the machine language to control via the mainframe computer Standard Electric Lorenz (SEL) ER 65 (since 1959) the drawing board Zuse Z64 Graphomat
bought by the Computer Centre Stuttgart shortly before. In 1963 Nake used
his program to create “random polygon moves” with lines connecting points
located by a “pseudo random generator”. Nake realised his works after Noll´s
“polygon moves” and evidently before Nees´ works with such combinations of
lines. 41
Nake, Frieder: Walk-Through-Rasters, 1966, six modes
(Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.229, ill. 5.5-1).
In 1966 Nake developed the program “walk-through-raster” in “ALGOL60
(with some assembler-sub-programs)”. A punch tape contained the instructions for a Telefunken TR4 (since 1962) of the Stuttgart University. The results
were printed by a Zuse Z64 Graphomat.
107
Nake, Frieder: Walk-Through-Raster, 1966, diagram of the tree structure (Nake:
Ästhetik 1974, p.235, ill. 5.5-4).
The program selected signs from a repertoire depending on “the last chosen
sign”. As explained by Nake, the program simulated a “short memory”. 42
The program exchanged the signs at specified positions. The exchange is
determined by programmed “transition probabilities” (“Übergangswahrscheinlichkeiten”). 43 The program stepped in one of “six modes” 44 through a field
divided in rectangles and decided where which kind of transition will be computed. The decision procedures can be illustrated as tree structures unfolding
themselves in the horizontal axis as well as in the “depth”. 45
108
Nake, Frieder: Walk-Through-Raster, series 2.1, four realisations, 1966, plotter
drawings (Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.236, ill. 5.5-5).
The sign repertoire of the series “2.1” is constituted by vertical and horizontal
lines as well as by a blank field. For the “6 modes” of the directions in which
the computing process runs step by step across the plane six variants with “defined repertoire and defined probabilities” were created. 46 For the series “7.3”
squares marked by lines in different colours were selected. The squares were
“remarkably larger than the fields of the grid”. The squares´ overlaps constitute
configurations described by Nake as a “destruction of the basic repertoire”
(“Zerstörung des Elementarrepertoires”). 47 Nake refered in his description to
Nee´s explanation of the “destruction of the matrices´ arrangement” (“Zerstörung der Matrizenanordnung”). 48
109
Nake, Frieder: Walk-Through-Raster, series 7.3, 1966, plotter drawing in four
colours (Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.237, ill. 5.5-6).
The “walk-through-raster” program was able to execute “a series of measurements following criteria of information aesthetics” like “redundancy and
information values as well as distinguishing features and the surprise measure
of each sign” (“Redundanz und Informationsgehalt sowie Auffälligkeit und
Überraschungsmaß jedes Zeichens”). 49 To be able to integrate the measurements as a “selector” (“Selektor”) of the generated signs into the computing
process, Nake installed in his program “Generative Aesthetics I” a “preselector”
(“Vorselektor”) with statistic measures for the frequency of colours. The
“statistic preselector” could not differentiate between pictures with the same
frequency of colours. 50 The “topological selector´s” (“topologischer Selektor”)
programming of the colour distribution on the plane used a frequencies´ measure, and it was based on the raster principle:
A probability distribution p=(p1,..., pr) for r colours has to be determined
for each image. These colours should be distributed on the plane of the
image. For the realisation of this goal the plane will be divided in 4 equal
110
rectangles and the whole “mass” of each colour will be distributed on
these 4 rectangles. The process will be repeated for each of the rectangles
etc., until a lowest level that can´t obviously be deeper than the level of
the raster fields, but usually the goal will be realised earlier. 51
The “generator” combines the statistical and topological preselection in procedures following each other comparable to Marcow chains. The output of a line
printer presents the notations. The notation´s signs contain the information,
how little rectangular leaflets in four colours should be distributed on the
plane. In 1969 two examples were realised on hardboards. 52
Nake, Frieder: Generative Aesthetics I, 1969. Left: Experiment 6.22, coloured leaflets on hardboard. Right: print of a result of the programmed computing process,
Experiment 4.5a (Nake: Vergnügen 2004, unpaginated).
In “Generative Aesthetics I” Nake realised an integration of frequency criteria
into the computing processes going further than earlier computer graphics. In
the book “Ästhetik der Informationsverarbeitung” (“Aesthetics of Information
Processing”) Nake explains how to investigate relations between the preselection and a selection following information theoretical criteria of the “aesthetic
measure”:
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Comparable to a physicist´s method to formulate propositions on nature
by controlled models in the laboratory, an aesthetician is imaginable
preparing and examining statements on `art´ via controlled models in a
laboratory (that still has to be constructed). 53
In reply to Bense´s “Generative Aesthetics” 54 investigating the properties
of realised works, Nake plans to offer a programming making an “aesthetic
description before the [experience of a realised work as an] aesthetic reality is
possible.” 55
Information aesthetics inspired the development of strategies to develop procedures of programming as a precondition for the production of art. The problem
of the “aesthetic measure” has not lost its actuality: It reappears in the recourse
of contemporary Generative Art on cybernetic relations between chaos and
order, as in 2003 Philip Galanter explained it in his lecture “What is Generative
Art? Complexity Theory as a Context for Art Theory”. 56
Annotations
1 Laposky: Oscillons 1953, p.2.
2 Laposky: Oscillons 1976.
3 Franke/Nierhoff-Wielk: Ästhetik 2007, p.110 (quote); Herzogenrath/
Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.336,338, Nr.68s.; Piehler: Anfänge 2002,
p.149-152, unpaginated with ill.29s .
4 Herbert W. Franke, e-Mail, 8/17/2015. There Franke wrote about “the
standard setting of an oscillograph”: “With this setting the electron beam
moves back and forth on a base line...the beam goes slowly (traceable with
the eyes) from the left to the right side and it jumps then back to the left side
again. A horizontal line at the bottom would arise. But the line is distorted by
impulses of the measuring process pointing to the y-[vertical] axis: The result
is an ̀image‘ of the alternating current´s course. If one modifies experimental112
ly the settings, then this will cause `arbitrary‘ other images...I needed the analog computer to produce curves z(x,y). The value z stands for the luminance
of the image on the screen. x and y are the coordinates [of the horizontal and
vertical axes] of an image point leaving behind traces of light on the screen.
The curve is produced as follows: The analog computer processes two functions f1x(t) and f2y(t) depending on the time t physically as two independent
oscillations (by determining the forms with its frequencies and being tunable
as well as modifiable in real time).”
5 Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.150,232,362s., nr.150s.;
Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.28s.
6 Untitled, 1960, plotter drawing. In: Alsleben: Redundanz 1962, p.52. with
ill. d; Piehler: Anfänge 2000, p.204s., unpaginated with ill.33; Rosen: Story
2008/2011, p.248.
On plotter drawings by Alsleben and Passow: Alsleben: Redundanz 1962,
p.51s.; Alsleben/Eske/Idensen: Aestheticus 2011, p.149ss.; Herzogenrath/
Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.65,234,297s.; Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007,
p.27s.; Piehler: Anfänge 2000, p.203ss., unpaginated with ill. 33s.; Reichhardt: Serendipity 1968, p.94; Weiß: Netzkunst 2009, p.326ss.
7 IBM delivered the first FORTRAN compiler since April 1957 (Without
author: User Notes 1996-98). The Electrologica X1 compiler (August 1960)
by Edsger Wybe Dijkstra and Jaap A. Zonneveld is deemed to be the first
compiler for ALGOL60 (Daylight: Dijkstra 2010).
On plotters: Piehler: Anfänge 2000, p.177-180.
8 In Gerhard Stickel´s “Autopoems” from 1965 the syntactical structures are
selected by a random generator, too (see chap. III.1.3), but the frequency
of the access to each one of the structures is not limited – contrary to Lutz´s
“stochastic texts”.
9 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.33s.,322s.,328s.,354f.; Bense: Einführung
1965/1968, p.30-35; Bense: Einführung 1969, p.43ss.,55s.; Bense: Informationstheorie 1963/2000, p.136; Birkhoff: Measure 1933.
113
10 Moles: Information 1965/1968, p.23; Moles: Art 1971, p.24ss.
11 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.212,325; Bense: Einführung 1965/1968, p.34;
Shannon: Communication 1949, p.16.
12 On the “aesthetic measure” discussed by Birkhoff, Bense, Moles et al.:
Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.75ss,82ss.
13 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.147,211,214s.,217,223,225 (citation).
14 Moles: Théorie 1958, p.170,180.
15 Cage defines his random procedures as not determined (Schulze: Spiel
2000, p.161-179), meanwhile the information aesthetics start out from
stochastics (see chap. II.1.2): The probability to select an element via random
procedure is already determined by the selection of the elements and their
possible combinations. Florian Cramer demonstrates that Cage´s methods
for chance operations don´t eliminate determinations (Cramer: Statements
2011, p.199-202).
16 Götz: Malerei 1961, p.14 with fig.1, p.23 (citations). Cf. Götz: Erinnerungen 1983, p.899s.,902; Klütsch: Computergrafik 2007, p.148; Mehring:
Television Art 2008, p.36.
Further examples of “Statistic-Metric Modulations” in: Beckstette: Bildstörung 2009; Götz: Erinnerungen 1983, p.869-905; Kersting: Sammlung
Etzold 1986, p.206 (with four examples being planned in summer 1959 and
realised in February 1960).
Precursors of an aleatoric configuration of squares: Kelly, Ellsworth: Spectrum
Colors Arranged by Chance I-VIII, 1951, collages made with coloured papers.
In: Bois/Cowart/Pacquement: Kelly 1992, p.42ss.,168ss.,192. Morellet,
François: Repartitions aléatoires, since 1958, oil or acryl on canvas. In: Holeczek/Mengden: Zufall 1992, p.23,46s.,278-281.
17 Julesz: Dialoge 1997, p.137.
18 Kovács: Julesz 2007.
114
19 Julesz: Depth Perception 1960, p.1127,1134.
20 Julesz: Depth Perception 1960, p.1134s.; Noll: Beginnings 1994, p.39.
21 Julesz: Depth Perception 1960, p.1128 with fig.2, p.1154,1159.
22 Julesz: Depth Perception 1960, p.1128 with fig.3, p.1156,1159.
23 Julesz: Foundations 1971; Kovács: Julesz 1997; Weibel: Konturen 1997,
p.40s.
In 1979 Christopher W. Tyler developed “Autostereograms”. The visual
depth effect of the “Random Dot Stereograms” anticipates the depth effect
that “Autostereograms” provoke by a single image (Tyler/Clarke: Autostereogram 1990).
24 Julesz: Dialoge 1997, p.138.
25 Noll: Beginnings 1994, p.39.
26 Noll: Patterns 1962, p.4.
27 Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.445 (citation); Klütsch:
Computergrafik 2007, p.166s.; Noll: Human 1966, p.2.
28 Noll: Patterns 1962, p.2s.
29 Noll: Computers 1967, p.67.
30 Davis: Art 1973, p.99; Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007,
p.444ss., nr.356; Klütsch: Computergrafik 2007, p.167ss.; Noll: Computers
1967, p.67; Piehler: Anfänge 2000, p.235f., unpaginated with ill.46; Reichardt: Serendipity 1968, p.74; Rosen: Story 2008/2011, p.249.
Noll was not inspired by information aesthetics (Klütsch: Computergrafk
2007, p.165s.). Nevertheless his works offer models for discussions of the
“aesthetic measure”.
115
31 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.199.
32 Nees: Variationen 1964. Cf. Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.XIs.,
ill.4; Nees: Künstliche Kunst 2005, unpaginated with ill1s.
33 Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.208.
34 Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.208.
35 Examples: Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.434s., nr. 309s.;
314, 317ss.; Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.216ss. und 222ss. with
ill.28-33, p.231 with ill.36, p.244 and p.247s. with ill.39-41.
36 Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.27: “The perception dependency
of the image nexus...” (“Die Perzeptionsabhängigkeit des Bildnexus...”).
37 Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.29. Nees presents on page 24 a
longer citation of Max Bense´s differentiation between “micro-aesthetics”
(“orders [in the sense of orderliness] and complexity”) and “macro-aesthetics” (“redundancy and information”), published in 1965 in part V of “Aesthetica” (New in: Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.334. Cf. Klütsch: Computergrafik
2007, p.67-71).
38 Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.209.
39 Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.220.
40 Nees: Computergraphik 1969/2006, p.213. Cf. p.177 with a further
citation from Bense´s “Aesthetica” (part V of 1956. New in: Bense: Aesthetica
1982, p.142) on criteria to differentiate between “micro-” and “macro-aesthetics” (see ann.37).
41 Nake, Frieder: Random Polygon Move, plotter drawing, 1963/64: Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.424, nr.259 (collection Herbert
W. Franke); Klütsch: Computergrafik 2007, p.131-139; Nake: Ästhetik 1974,
p.199s. with ill. 5.2-7. Nake presents an illustration of the same “Random
116
Polygon Move” that is a part of the collection Franke (Kunsthalle Bremen),
but with the date 1963 and the size 10 x 10 cm. Franke´s plotter drawing is
combined with a history of its making: It was realised in “6/7/64” with the
program COMPART ER 56 and the Zuse Graphomat Z64 (with the size 15,5
x 11,5 cm on a paper with the size 21,1 x 15,1 cm). The program COMPART
ER 56 was developed since 1964, as it is noted by Nake: Ästhetik 1974,
p.192 and Klütsch: Computergrafik 2007, p.132, but following Herzogenrath/
Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.236 it was developed since 1963.
Other early computer graphics: Electronic Associates Incorporated (EAI):
Stained Glass Window, 1963 (Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007,
p.63,238 with ill.13, p.332, nr.66); Bäumer, Wolfgang: Untitled, 1963/64 (Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.94,309, nr.9s.); Kawano, Hiroshi:
Design 2-1 Markov Chain Pattern, 1964 (Rosen: Kawano 2011); Sumner,
Lloyd: Eye´s Delight, 1964 (Dika: Computerkunst 2007, p.75ss., ill.32).
42 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.229.
43 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.232.
44 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.229.
45 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.235.
46 Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.426, nr.267; Klütsch:
Computergrafik 2007, p.152ss.; Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.236s. with ill.5.5-5;
Rödiger: Algorithmik 2003, p.98,134,141,164.
47 Herzogenrath/Nierhoff-Wielk: Machina 2007, p.426f., nr.268,271,273;
Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.237s. with ill. 5.5-6.
48 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.241; Nees: Computergrafik 1969/2006, p.208s.
49 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.236,262.
50 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.263. In 1970 Nake presented “Generative Aesthetics I” for the first time at the symposium “Computer Graphics 70” in
117
Uxbridge (Nake: Generative Aesthetics 1970).
51 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.264-271.
52 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.273-276 with ill.5.8-7, 5.8-8 (with examples of
1969 for notations and realisations with coloured little sheets). The preselectors “have been implemented in PL/I at the university of Toronto in 1969
on an IBM 360-65 since November 1965] “ (ibid., S.273). Nake: Brief 1973,
p.225: “Only two examples were realised by hand, because I wanted to produce works in seizes greater than the seizes that were realisable with plotter
drawings.” Cf. Klütsch: Computergrafik 2007, p.155-158 with ill.33ss.
53 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.277.
54 Bense: Aesthetica 1982, p.333-338.
55 Nake: Ästhetik 1974, p.277.
56 Galanter: Generative Art 2003 refering to Moles: Théorie 1958.
118
IV. Images in Motion
IV.1 Video Tools
IV.1.1 Video Cultures
Since the mid of the sixties video is an emerging film system usable to produce
and to store electronic signals. The mobile elements of the video system are the
camera and the recorder meanwhile the player is not moved to the recording
location and remains connected with a cathode ray tube (of a TV set). Signals
stored on magnetic tapes contain information being sent by players to cathode
ray tubes for video presentations.
The sequence of shots (frames) on a film stripe is transformed by a projector
into a movie: Meanwhile the film is screened as a moved sequence of images
and a light projection, the video system directs electron beams in a vacuum
tube. A light emitting video presentation replaces the film projection in a dark
room.
The celluloid stripes being editable shot by shot (the frame as a phase image) at
cutting tables were substituted by magnetic tapes, video recorders for editing
and the `tools´ for `electronic image processing´. The transformations of electronic signals by mixer, sequencer, switcher, keyer and other means replaces
film animation techniques developed since the end of the 19th century for the
editing of frames and their montage. 1
In the sixties and seventies Stephen Beck, Robert Cahen, Tom DeFanti, Tom
DeWitt, Ed Emshwiller, Bill Hearn, Barbara Aronofsky Latham, Phil Morton,
Nam June Paik, Eric Siegel, Barbara Sykes, Stan VanDerBeek, Steina und
Woody Vasulka, Jim Wiseman and others (see chap. IV.1.2) experimented with
processors, synthesizers as well as analogue and digital computers. 2
119
The signals can be produced with video cameras. They conduct the signals to
the storing on magnetic tapes, but storing is not necessary: Systems processing
signals can transform the data input of several sources into data controlling
the electronic beams in vacuum tubes. Not only video cameras but also music
synthesizers (developed by Robert Moog, Don Buchla 3 and others) supply
video systems with input for transformations in signals controlling monitor
presentations. An example offers Stephen Beck using audio signals produced
by a Buchla synthesizer as an input for his ”Direct Video Synthesizer” (1970) to
produce visual signals (see chap. IV.1.2).
Before these and other kinds to produce signals via analogue computing processes of video synthesizers have been developed video became known by
recording devices being light compared to the weights of professional motionpicture cameras. The video cameras being acquirable since 1965 were still
connected via cable with a heavy weight, unportable recording device for magnetic tape storage. Intermediary production steps like the film processing were
dropped. The reach of the camera was dependent from the length of the cable
to the recorder. The video system was offered with a monitor mounted on the
recorder for the filming of persons who kept themselves within the reach of the
camera meanwhile they could observe themselves on the monitor: home video
tape recording. 4
Sony VCK 2000, since 1965. A woman with microphone and a man with the
video camera mounted on a tripod. Behind it: Recorder with magnetic tape and
monitor. Photo: Sony.
120
Since 1968 the Sony Porta Pak Ensemble (Sony Porta Pak CV 2400) with
a light-weight video recorder portable on the shoulder and a video camera
became a mobile system for live film recordings. Sequences taking up to a
duration of 20 minutes were storable on magnetic tapes. With a video player
connected to a television set it was possible to play the tape immediately after
the recording. Since 1970 takes were observable in real time at the recording
locations by playing back the tape with the portable video recorder. The take
was then presented in the camera search field (Sony Porta Pak AV 3400). 5
Sony Porta Pak CV 2400, since 1968. Left: Woman with video camera and
portable video recorder. Right: Video camera. Photos: Sony.
The video recording system was cheaper and more light weight than the recording devices used at the early seventies by camera teams of television channels before they migrated to video systems. 6 Video was a chance for persons in
social contexts neglected by television stations to produce videos documenting
their social situation and criticising the origins of their problems. In workshops
activists offered not only to use the video equipment but also possibilities to
121
learn the technical skills that were necessary for the filming of documentations.
7 In addition to the distribution of video documentations by sending copied
tapes the expansion of the cable systems in the United States offered in the
seventies possibilities to install non-commercial advertising-free local channels
whose programmes were created by the inhabitants (Community TV).
For antenna reception the famous private TV stations used channels in the
high frequency spectrum. To avoid interferences only a limited number of
frequencies was available. In their fight for usable frequencies the private TV
channels payed high prizes. These restrictions of the commercial broadcast
didn´t exist for the use of cable TV. George Stoney became a pioneer of the
video activists´ use of cable TV. In 1972 he realised the first programme for the
Austin Community Television (ACTV): He was filmed in front of the antennas
used to feed the recorded film live into the cable network. Stoney reported
about his experiences with cable access in Mexico. 8
122
Beside the activists efforts to develop programmes for community TV some
artists succeeded to interest program directors of terrestrial channels in their
experimental videos. It was planned to use video techniques to develop new
ways of filming and to include them into new programmes integrating audience participation. In 1969 the Boston station WGBH-TV produced videos
and programmes planned by artists and supported their realisations technically.
In the “Boston-Cambridge area” WGBH-TV had installed a camera network
for real time transmissions (closed-circuits) from public institutions like the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). In 1969 Allan Kaprow used
this camera network in “Hello”. The participants´ actions in front of external
cameras were presented in the studio of WGBH-TV on 27 monitors. The
video “Hello” documents some of Kaprow´s actions in the studio: He switched
between the cameras and interacted with the participants acting in front of the
cameras. 9
Kaprow, Allan: Hello, TV broadcast “The Medium is the Medium”,
WGBH, Boston, video, 1969.
In March 1969 WGBH-TV presented in The Medium is the Medium” six
videos realised by artists for this programme: Beside “Hello” Nam June
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Paik´s “Electronic Opera #1” was broadcasted. In Paik´s video act a female
bare-chested dancer, two persons kissing each other, Richard Nixon, Hippies
and others in TV-images being manipulated by a magnet. On or before these
sequences floated transformations of three green-blue figure-eight loops laying
on or above each other. The figure-eight loops were created by direct processings of the electronic signal. 10
Paik, Nam June. Left: Electronic Opera #1, WGBH-TV, Boston, video, 1969.
Right: Video Commune – The Beatles from Beginning to End, WGBH-TV,
Boston, video, 1970.
The TV channel WGBH-TV financed the development of Nam June Paik´s
and Shuya Abe´s “video-synthesizer”. The studio of the station received the
first “synthesizer”. It was utilised for the first time in the programme “Video
Commune – The Beatles from Beginning to End”. 11 Under David Atwood´s
direction Paik realised with the synthesizer video animations to the Beatles´
oeuvre. Following Paik´s invitation into the studio passersby operated the
synthesizer, too.
In 1970 Stan VanDerBeek combined in “Violence Sonata” participation TV,
presented in “Hello” as documented action only, and experimental film. It was
produced by WGBH-TV and broadcasted simultaneously on the station´s
channels 2 and 44. Only observers with two television sets next to each other
were able to view on channel 2 footage edited with “overlays and color saturation” and, simultaneously, on channel 44 live broadcast of an audience in the
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studio discussing the shown experimental films. Furthermore each TV viewer
could communicate via telephone with three participants of the discussion in
the studio. Stan VanDerBeek expanded his experiments with electronic image
processing, that he began in 1964 creating “Poem Fields” in collaboration with
Kenneth Knowlton in the studios of the Bell Telephone Company (see chap.
IV.2.1.2), to the TV-experiment “Violence Sonata”. 12
Experimental filmmakers and artists understood their concepts for alternative
uses of media as a provocation of the established cinematic presentation of
fictional films and of the mass medium of television. The viewers should be
liberated by participation from a passive consuming and observing position.
Thus, Nam June Paik wrote in 1971:
Communication means the two-way communications. One-way
communication is simply a notification...like a draft call. TV has been a
typical case of this non communication and mass audience had only one
freedom, that is, to turn on or off the TV. 13
Between 1970 and 1974 eleven issues of the video journal “Radical Software”
were published. The journal edited by Phyllis Gershuny, Beryl Korot, Michael
Shamberg and others contained informations on projects by media activists
and experimental filmmakers. 14 The video-activists informed about groups
offering conveyable documentations of critical social imbalances and injustices
filmed by concerned persons as well as about community TV, meanwhile the
experimental filmmakers presented new technical possibilities. Alternative
strategies to develop new media and new forms of media utilisations complementing each other in a common search for new TV forms were on the one
hand the use of video by the experimental filmmakers augmenting their technical equipment with tools developed for their needs and on the other hand
the use of standard video equipment by activists concentrating themselves on
the production of documentations in situ with the persons concerned by social
problems as well as on the short-term processes of editing and distributing.
125
Radical Software, Vol.1/Nr.1 and Nr.2, 1970.
The activists´ goal of a “participatory democracy” with possibilities for all
citizens to express themselves in a community TV was the result of a criticism
of the use of media in a “consciousness industry” and its “one-way communication”. 15 Furthermore video tools could become publicly accessible, as Paik
demonstrated in “Video Commune”.
IV.1.2 Video Synthesizers
Video synthesizers and processors were analog computers constructed to
process images by controlling the movement of electron beams in cathode ray
tubes. These movements were often not storable otherwise than by recordings
of the monitors. 16
126
Bute, Mary Ellen: The artist at the fine-tuning of her oscillograph. Photo: Ted
Nemeth, c. 1954. Courtesy Center for Visual Music (Zinman: Circuit 2012,
p.140).
Precursors of this technique were animations built by manipulations of oscillographs and recordings of their monitors. In 1950 Benjamin Francis Laposky
started to photograph the monitor of his modified oscillograph (see chap.
III.2). In her films “Abstronic” (1952) and “Mood Contrasts” (1953) Mary Ellen
Bute used an oscillograph custom-built by Ralph K. Potter, the director of the
Department for Transmission Research at the Bell Telephone Laboratories,
to create “visual music”: Bute used music recordings as “electrical inputs”
and modified these signals via the oscillograph´s buttons and switches. Then
the “figures and forms” on the oscillograph´s screen were “photographed on
motion picture film”. 17
127
Bute, Mary Ellen: Abstronic, film, 1952.
Herbert W. Franke used an analog computing system built by Franz Raimann
to control two independent parameters for length and height to create arrays of
curves not only in computer graphics (see chap. II.1) but in films, too. In 27th
October 1959 a sequence of the UFA-Wochenschau (German weekly show for
cinemas, a preprogram to movies) presented Franke controlling the electron
beams´ moves on the screen of an oscillograph: With these “animations in real
time” he created “a dance of electrons”.
The “voltage fluctuations” of a “magnetophone device” are used by Franke
as “impulses” activating the oscillograph. They were added to the impulses
of Raimann´s analog calculation system. In the film some devices like “presumably adapters, filters, potentiometers, et cetera” are presented in short
sequences because they are used by Franke to integrate the impulses of the
magnetophone. The thus created control of the screen via music “can be seen
in the film´s last seconds presenting movements of some visual elements determined by music.” 18
Raimann´s construction (analog elements for calculation processes and a
control device) in connection with a monitor anticipated the technology used
128
in the seventies for productions of experimental videos: Raimann´s device with
bottoms and connecting plugs was in the seventies developed further to the
patch cables of video synthesizers being used to control the electron beams of
cathode ray tubes (among others, the monitors of TVs).
Former processes to create film animations were substituted by electronic signals being navigable in no other way than via control devices: The production
of film stripes frame-by-frame on the cutting table has been dropped – and
with it the animation procedures developed for this kind of production. The
film recording of the oscilloscope, as it was made by the UFA´s camera man,
anticipated later video recordings of the electronic beams´ moves on monitors.
Franke, Herbert W.: UFA-Wochenschau 170/1959, film, 10/27/1959 (weekly
show for cinemas). Cameraman: Vlasdeck.
Above: screen of the oscillograph.
Bottom: The units on the left of the oscillograph were used by Franke to readjust
in real time the screen´s output, as it was produced by Franz Raimann´s analog
calculation system.
129
Nicolas Schoeffer describes his «Luminoscope 1» (1959) as designed to look
like “a television receiver with control knobs being either attached to the
receiver or being part of a device (for remote control).” The Luminoscope´s
possibilities to produce “coloured images with depth effects and effects of
multidimensional moves” were presented in black-and-white by the French
Broadcast ORTF in 25th October 1961: In «Variations luminodynamiques 1»
film recordings of a Jazz combo (Martial Solal Trio), a Gospel singer (Gordon
Heath) and two ballett dancers (Hélène Longuet and Jean Beaufort) were
mixed with non-representing and often transparent image layers. These image
manipulations anticipate distortions of later developed video processors and
synthesizers. 19
Schoeffer, Nicolas: Luminoscope I, 1959.
130
Schoeffer, Nicolas: Variations luminodynamiques, film, 1961. Documentation of
the programme sent by the television channel ORTF, 25th October 1961. Still with
the gospel singer Gordon Heath.
Lee Harrison III developed “The Bone Generator” (the late fifties) further to
ANIMAC (between Christmas 1959 and New Year 1960). The tool for animations was constructed with tube technology and included “a patchy panel,
potentiometers, joysticks, dance interfaces, and a flying spot scanner. Analog
and simple digital circuits were patched together physically through the patch
panel...” With ANIMAC´s “patch panel” stick figures were realisable. They were
presented on XY oscilloscopes. The sticks were “basically line segments” and
constituted the “bones” of the represented figures. With “`spinning vectors´
called Skin” the “surface characteristics” were stored. These vectors were constituted by “high frequency sin/cosine oscillators.” Their outputs “created the
three electronic signals representing the animation´s image.” The perspective
of an animation produced with this “3D-output” could be determined by the
“Camera-Angle Network”. This network transformed “three signals” of an animation “into two signals” (“2D perspective”). The two signals of the animation
were emitted to the oscilloscope and its screen was filmed. The recordings were
colorised by filters being placed “in between the oscilloscope and the camera”.
131
Participants with sensors fixed to their bodies could navigate the motions
of the figurative line patterns in real time. The sensors reacted to body
movements and changed the voltage. That caused the animation to react. The
changing voltage navigated control signals that moved the lines of the figure on
a 3D rotation matrix. 20
Harrison III, Lee: ANIMAC, 1962. A dancer controls the line patterns of a figure
by activating sensors mounted on her body. Denver 1962 (photomontage).
Before Lee Harrison III developed “SCANIMATE” (1969, see below) with
all-encompassing possibilities for the production of animations, Ture
Sjölander, Robert Cahen and Eric Siegel created films and videos with distorted
electron beams. The distortions were realised in using procedures made possible by devices being constructed for productions of experimental animations.
These artists were able to use technical equipments being more diversified than
manipulations of usual television receivers by changing their settings and by
distorting the electron beam in the cathode ray tube via magents 21, but with
minor functions compared to the video synthesizers of the seventies.
132
In 1966 Ture Sjölander, Bror Wikström and Bengt Modin realised “Time” for
the Swedish Broadcast (Sveriges Radio, Stockholm). A black-and-white film
recording of a Jazz quintet (led by Don Cherry) was distorted by the “Temporar Video Synth” (1966-69) realised by the three collaborating artists: The video
signal directing the electron beam was distracted by a waveform generator.
Furthermore the “luminance signal” was changed by electronic filters. 22
Sjölander, Ture/Wikström, Bror/Modin, Bengt: Time, 1966. Film for Sveriges
Radio (Stockholm).
In 1967 the programme “Monument” was televised in France, Italy, Sweden
and Germany. Sjölander and Lars Weck distracted photo portraits and short
films of celebrities by combining them in a video, filming the video and
activating a rasterised light source for projections of this video on a photocell.
The light beam was distorted by deflection voltage. The distortions´ frequency
and amplitude were controlled with wave generators being used later in video
synthesizers, too. 23
133
Sjölander, Ture/Weck, Lars: Monument, 1967. Film for Sveriges Radio,
Stockholm, January 1968.
In 1968 Francois Coupigny constructed the «Truqueur Universel» as a processor with modules for the manipulation and colorization of images. These modules were controllable via sliders. In 1973 Robert Cahen used the processor
in the production of the video «L´invitation au voyage» to distort black-andwhite photos of a town and film recordings (16 mm) in the Provence by colour
overlays – Robert Cahen:
I tried at the same time to make the black and white photos come alive,
their colours becoming superimposed giving a semblance of movement
to the frozen image and that fascinated me. 24
A text (by Jo. Attié) on «cette petite gare de Provence» (“this little train station
in Provence”) is spoken off-voice. With this text Cahen expands the visual
experiments to a video essay supported by electronic music. 25
134
Cahen, Robert: L´invitation au voyage, video, 1973.
Eric Siegel presented “Psychedelevision in Color” (1968-69) at the exhibition
“TV as a Creative Medium”, organized by the Howard Wise Gallery in New
York. Recordings made with a mobile camera were changed by Siegel in using
a “video effects generator”. He colorized them with his “Video Colour Synthesizer” (also named “Processing Crominance Synthesizer”, 1968-69): It changed
the grey tones of a signal into colour tones on a TV monitor. 26 Because it was
not possible to store the navigation of the electron beam with the first version
of the synthesizer, Siegel repeated the production of “Einstine” (one of “Psychedelevision´s” three parts) after the exhibition: This document shows a portrait
photo of Albert Einstein dissolved in “psychedelic effects” 27 via video feedback
and colorization.
135
Siegel, Eric: Einstine, video, 1969. (Kane: Algorithms 2014, p.73).
When Lee Harrison III started in 1969 to develop SCANIMATE on the basis
of ANIMAC then he chose analog computers (with transistors) and a twodimensional animation system to transform scanned drawings. Harrison integrated a light table and a camera to capture drawn figures. SCANIMATE made
it possible to transform these figures, to present them on a cathode ray tube
and to record them with “a monochrome NTSC video camera”. ANIMAC´s
colour-filters were substituted by “electronic colorizers”. The results could be
stored on magnetic tape. 28
136
Harrison III, Lee: SCANIMATE, 1969.
Brand new SCANIMATE at Dolphin Productions, New York City 1973.
In 1972 Ed Emshwiller built the video “Scape-mates” with SCANIMATE in
the TV Lab of the New York station WNET/Thirteen. At the start the image
processing was constituted by 24 black and white cells in five different shades
of grey. Two cameras of the two computers of SCANIMATE provide the
input for the cells. The cells were animated as well as colorized in real time.
A computer processed the background and the other one the foreground.
Recordings of dancers have been partially edited with “SCANIMATE” before
they were included via chromakey procedures in the fore- and the background.
29 Emshwiller utilised the Paik/Abe-Video Synthesizer (see below), too. The
video distributor “Electronic Arts Intermix”, founded in 1971 by Howard Wise,
explains the importance of “Scape-mates” for the development of video films:
With its witty interplay of the `real´ and the `unreal´ in an electronically
rendered videospace, and the skilfull manipulation and articulation of
sculptural illusion of three-dimensionality, scape-mates introduces a
new vocabulary of video image-making. 30
137
Emshwiller, Ed: Scape-mates, video, 1972.
The central focus of the video tools´ developers is directed to the control of
the electron beams´ motion in the cathode ray tube. A bundled electron beam
is directed in the vacuum tube between anode and cathode to a screen coated
with phosphorous. Electronic impulses constitute an electromagnetic field
directing the electron beam. The electron beam is controlled along horizontal
and vertical axes, the “xy plotting coordinates”. 31 The horizontal and vertical
steering between two magnet pairs constitutes either the vector images in oscilloscopes as well as early computer monitors or the raster images in television
and later computer monitors (since the midst of the seventies). Raster images
are a special form of vector images. For “bitmaps” raster images require memory capacities not available for the early computers.
The manner to provoke the optical effect of motion pictures changes from film
to video. Meanwhile the film is constituted by frames for motion phases and
these frames are moved mechanically by the projector, the videofilm activates
the screen by the writing of the raster image´s “scan lines” with steered electron
beams to create the impression of moving images. The possibility to create
“transformation images” 32 stored on magnetic tapes becomes the technical
basis of experimental videofilms.
138
Abe, Shuya/Paik, Nam June: Paik/Abe Video Synthesizer, model of 1972, made
for WNET/Thirteen in New York, and photographed in Paik´s studio in 1982
(Courtesy Nam June Paik Studios, Inc. In: Joselit: Feedback 2007, p.47).
The first version of the Paik/Abe video synthesizer from 1970 (see chap. IV.1.1
with ann.11) was not a synthesizer. It could be used to mix and colourize seven
external image sources. The colours were invertible and manipulable:
Combining video feedback, magnetic scan modulation and non-linear
mixing followed by colorizing, generated its novel style of imagery. 33
External sources (cameras) are used as an input to start signal processes
by scan processors like the Paik-Abe synthesizer and the tools by Francois
Coupigny, Lee Harrison III (SCANIMATE), Ture Sjölander (presented above),
Dan Sandin, Bill Etra and Steve Rutt (presented below). In contrast, Stephen
Beck´s “Direct Video Synthesizer” (1970) and Eric Siegel´s “Electronic Video
139
Synthesizer” (1970) generate signals. Both synthesizers can mix these internally
generated signals with external camera input.
Siegel, Eric: EVS Video Synthesizer, 1970.
Left: Eric Siegel in the office of Electronic Arts Intermix, New York, ca. 1971.
Right: function diagram by Jeffrey Schier
(Schier: Eric Siegel EVS Synthesizer 1992, S.121).
Siegel´s “Electronic Video Synthesizer” used generators and oscillators to
process moving patterns. Two mixers conflated the waves of the oscillators and
the generators. A third mixer united the input of two cameras. A “color encoder” combined the three to build the “color video signal” 34 Siegel described
the possibilities of the “EVS” to process patterns as selectable symmetrical
and asymmetrical “geometric formations”. Furthermore a video creator could
decide if the patterns, the colors or both remain constant or changing. 35 In
1973 Siegel utilised the “EVS” in the performance “Yantra Mantra” at New
York´s “The Kitchen”. The difficulties to find film documents created with the
EVS can be traced back to Siegel´s lack of interest in the production of video
documents. Furthermore he prevented Howard Wise in his efforts to produce
and to sell the synthesizer. 36
140
Beck, Stephen: Direct Video Synthesizer, 1970. Left: top view.
Right: function diagram by Jeffrey Schier
(Schier: Direct Video Synthesizer 1992, S.123s.).
Stephen Beck´s prototype of the “Direct Video Synthesizer” (“Direct Video
#0”) included a modified television set with possibilities to control the cathode
ray tube´s colour generation. The components for the colour generation were
audio signals, oscillators and external analogue mixers. A Buchla synthesizer
provided the functions for the colour setting. 37 The Buchla synthesizer was developed for musicians to generate sounds. Beck added to it a further analogue
synthesizer with capacities to visualise sounds. But the frequency spectrum
of audio synthesizers was not appropriate for interesting visualisations. With
a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) Beck was able as
“artist-in-residence” in the National Center for Experiments in Television (at
the station KQED-TV, San Francisco) to solve his problems to visualise sounds
and to develop his prototype further. The modules for form, motion, texture
and colours of the “Direct Video #1” could be controlled via voltage regulators
in real time, for example in live performances. 38
141
Beck, Stephen/Jepson, Warner: Illuminated Music 2 & 3, video documentation
of a PBS broadcast (Public Broadcasting Service), 1973. Left: Beck at the Direct
Video Synthesizer. Right: Beck´s visualisation of Jepson´s music.
In “Illuminated Music 1”, a live broadcast of the station KQED-TV (San Francisco) at 19th Mai 1972, Beck visualised Yusef Lateef´s improvisations on “Like
It Is”. In 1973 the National Center for Experiments in Television recorded
“Illuminated Music 2 & 3” for a broadcast of the PBS/Public Broadcasting
Service, Arlington/Virginia. The recordings show Warner Jepson at the Buchla
Synthesizer in a live performance with Stephen Beck at the “Direct Video
Synthesizer”. Meanwhile Beck controlled the output on a little cathode ray tube,
the public could follow the visualisations of Jepson´s music on big screens.
39 Coloured areas with wave-like contours overlapping and concealing other
planes, wave-like moving particles and continuous as well as broken waved
lines dominated the visualisation of a music accelerating and slowing down the
tone sequences like ascending and descending waves. Several times the visualisation reacted only after a number of sound waves with perceptible changes of
the visual patterns.
142
Sandin, Dan: 5 Minute Romp Through the IP [Analog Image Processor], video,
1973.
Dan Sandin presents the technical basis of his “Analog Image Processor” (197173) as a “general purpose analogcomputer” being programmable via “patch
cables”. Sandin has “optimized” the analog computer “for processing video
information...[and] television information”. 40 The “processing modules” can be
activated via “patch cables”. With these modules image sequences
from an external source can be transformed by the manipulation of controllers:
“The instrument is programmed by routing the image through various processing modules and then out to a monitor or video tape recorder.” 41 Between
“processing modules” and the output for the monitor the “output color encoder” adds colours. 42
In 1973 Sandin demonstrates in the video “Triangle in Front of Square in Front
of Circle in Front of Triangle” that the signal processes in the cathode ray tube
being controlled with his video tool contradict the concept of perspectival
image space:
A demonstration of the fact that thinking of video keying as putting one
thing in front of another is inaccurate and limiting. The Analog Image
Processor was programmed to implement the logic equations if triangle
143
and square show triangle, if square and circle show square, if triangle
and circle show circle. 43
Sandin, Dan: Triangle in Front of Square in Front of Circle in Front of Triangle,
video, 1973.
Meanwhile Steina and Woody Vasulka used a “George Brown Multi-Level Keyer” (1973) to provoke the impression of three-dimensionality by the layering
of levels (cf. “Golden Voyage”, 1973), Sandin tried to proove that the result is
not an adequate design for the cathode ray tube. 44 The vocabulary of the video
technology should – as Sandin demanded – supersede the perspectival image
space.
In 1973 Tom DeFanti developed GRASS (Graphics Symbiosis System) for the
digital minicomputer PDP 11/45 of the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC,
since 1972). 45 It was possible to build two-dimensional elements as vectorial
animation in black and white by typing instructions on a keyboard and to
control the result in real time on the cathode ray tube. David Sturman charac144
terises the possibilities of GRASS: “With GRASS, people could script scaling,
translation, rotation and color changes of 2D objects over time.” 46 At the
University of Illinois in Chicago the colour animation could be realised with a
“Sandin Analog Processor” (see above): The digital animation was followed by
an analogue animation.
DeFanti, Tom/Morton, Phil/Sandin, Dan/Snyders, Bob: Ryral, video of a live
performance at the University of Illinois, Chicago 1976.
In 1976 Dan Sandin and Tom DeFanti presented their video animation system
in “Ryral”, a computer performance with music and animations processed
in real time at the second “Electronic Visualization Event” organized at the
University of Illinois in Chicago: Bob Snyder´s music processed by an “analog
EMU Synthesizer” was to hear simultaneously. The dancers oscillating in
Emshwiller´s “Scape-mates” (see above) between fore- and background recur
in “Ryral” changed into an actrice sometimes recognizable as a silhouette:
Camera recordings of a dance performance are transformed in a two-dimensional image processing creating perceptual tensions by contours and colours
especially in cases if the planes merged together. These tensions provoke
difficulties to sort out the levels between fore- and background. In some colour
constellations patterns with circles and spirals in moving dotted lines provoke
flickering effects. 47
145
Richard Monkhouse designed and built the first Spectron Video Synthesizer
(named Spectre) for Electronic Music Studios, Ltd (EMS) London, in 1974. The
same “pin-matrix patch board” 48 was used for the EMS Spectron as was the
case for the company´s VCS 3 Audio Synthesizer (1969, and its later developed
audio synthesizers), but the board was expanded to accommodate the video
structures required. There are two main patchboards: the “Digital Signal Matrix” (DSM), and the “Analog Control Matrix” (ACM). The analog synthesizer
EMS Spectron worked with digital video signals since, according to Richard
Monkhouse, digital signal processing prevented the inevitable crosstalk associated with video frequencies. 49
Electronic Music Studios, Ltd (EMS): Spectron, 1974. Video synthesizer
(Siedler: EMS undated, p.7).
146
The video synthesizer could produce its own shapes and colours, or could be
used to modify the colours of an external video input signal. An existing video
signal could be colourised or patternised, then it could be combined with a
moving or static electronically-generated image. Audio signals could also be
used to dynamically change image attributes in real-time.
Two identical “shape generators” included 16 basic forms. These forms were
“derivatives of a circle and segments of a circle with logic or modulation effects
applied” and were changeable by the analog voltage control (see below). The
basic forms could be selected manually or by automatic cycling selection. In
the last case the synthesizer replaced the basic forms “at a pre-determined rate”.
50 Beside these internal image sources an input from external image sources
(video camera) was possible, and it could be processed as well. The images
of this input could be superimposed by static or moving forms and patterns
containing elements generated from internal sources (basic forms).
The “X” and “Y” counters of the digital patchboard (DSM) were used to
produce static images with horizontal (“X”) and vertical (“Y”) stripes in binary
width multiples. “Slow counters” provided six binary-related square waves –
used for state change to import flash and movement effects.
The edges of a form were modifiable with the “edge generator” and “echo oscillations” were producable with the “delay”-function. To change the distances
between `echoes´ “flip flops” were usable because they were able to “halve the
horizontal spacial frequency of any form patched into them”.
147
Electronic Music Studios, Ltd (EMS): Spectron, 1974. Video synthesizer.
Left: Digital Signal Matrix and Analog Control Matrix
(Monkhouse: Art 1974, p.26).
Right: 16 basic forms (Siedler: Spectre undated).
The “video comparator” was used to divide the grey scale of a black-and-white
camera input signal into seven areas. The spacing of the input´s grey tones
could include all (“maximum”) or only the lowest values (“minimum”). Seven
“output rows” corresponded to the seven grey levels. Each of these “output
rows” was modifiable via the “Digital Signal Matrix” (colour, colour tone,
luminance). To each “output row” patterns could be added in using the patchboard´s function “overlay gates”. Via “overlay gates” it was possible to produce
“layers of moving patterns”. 51
148
The “Digital Signal Matrix” enabled artists to combine the basic forms with
regards to the logical criteria conjunction (“AND”), disjunction (“OR”) and
exclusive disjunction (“XOR”). 52 The voltage of the output signals was controllable via the “Analog Control Matrix”. This “matrix” made it possible to
control “four separate shape outputs” (luminance, colour, movement, size
etc). Each of the two “shape generators” supplied two “shape outputs”. Further
modifications of the video output were the two oscillators for “sine or square
wave outputs”. Random voltages could be used, as well as audio signals. Using
the separate A and B outputs, these outputs could also be combined for varied
logical combinations.
If it was planned to use a background pattern in further film sequences then
it could be transferred with the “inverters” into the foremost layer and transformed further. 53
Guyonnet, Jacques: Lucifer Photophore, video, 1975.
Jacques Guyonnet´s «Lucifer Photophore» (1975) presents sometimes only
the borders (like fluctuating edges – noise effect) of its leitmotif – a repeating,
mostly red oval. It appears several times as being a part of and constituted by
variations of the Spectron´s basic forms developed themselves as circles blended into one another.
149
One of the best examples of the potential of the EMS Spectron is illustrated
in the work «Labyrinthe Fluides» by Geneviève Calame and Jacques Guyonnet (1976). One of the mysteries of the counter logic combinations is the
“maze patch” in the background of «Labyrinthe Fluides». The “digital adder”
technique is used here with the X and Y counters in a particular combination
that has not been explained. All that is known is that many, if not all, logic
combinations of a set of binary bits can be made by asymmetric functions
such as AND and OR, and inversion/symmetrical controlled inversion such
as XOR. Sets of pins in the same column in the DSM patchboard do a wired
OR function. If one uses the OR on a series of X counter outputs, one gets thin
vertical lines. If one then applies XOR to the invert input of each X counter bit,
one effectively makes a sort of digital adder, turning the vertical lines into diagonal lines. With variations modes of experimentation, “many kinds of linear,
diamond, maze and ‚fractal‘- like patterns” can be produced.
The directions and tempi of the “maze patch´s” animation are often presented
in a manner derived from the modifications of the forms in the foreground.
Video feedback is used here to merge forms from the background into the
foreground, so that enlarged versions of shape and texture interpenetrate each
other – producing many fluid and organic developments and moiré texture
“weaves” of modulated line interactions. If abstract forms in the foreground
are dissolved into organic patterns then visual interferences with deformations
of the “maze patch” in the background can arise. Sometimes the “maze patch”
overlaps or interpenetrates abstract forms. 54
150
Calame, Geneviève/Guyonnet, Jacques: Labyrinthes fluides, video, 1976.
From 1977 to 1980 Warren Burt, Robert Cahen, Richard Monkhouse and
Plastic Bertrand (Roger Jouret, in a music video) used the EMS Spectron to
produce video art. 55
Etra, Bill/Rutt, Steve: Rutt/Etra Scan Processor, 1973.
Left: Rutt/Etra Model RE-4 Scan Processor.
Right: function diagram by Jeffrey Schier
(Schier: Rutt/Etra 1992, S.137,139).
151
Etra, Bill/Rutt, Steve: user manual for the Rutt/Etra Scan Processor
with “system information flow”.
(Rutt/Etra: RE Video Synthesizer Systems Models RE 4A and RE 4B 1974, p.3).
In 1973 Steve Rutt, Bill and Louise Etra developed a “scan processor” that was
utilised in video productions by Nam June Paik, Steina and Woody Vasulka
as well as Gary Hill. 56 With the “Rutt/Etra Scan Processor” signals of a blackand-white monitor can be modified. The signals are modified by controlling
the voltage along the horizontal and vertical axes. It is possible to locate the
images of a video input on different places of an image raster. Furthermore the
dates of the image portions´ screen presentations are modifiable – Bill Etra:
The Rutt/Etra changes the time in which you see parts of the picture.
It is a machine that manipulates images in time. 57
152
Etra, Bill /Rutt, Steve: Rutt/Etra Scan Processor, 1973. Demo by Bill Etra, video.
Since 1975 the scan processor was distributed commercially with waveform
generators, four-quadrant multipliers and a summing amplifier. Optionally it
could include a ramp generator for the processing of many motions. Seizes,
localisations, zoom and intensity could be adjusted on 15 turning knobs. The
monitor was integrated into the scan processor and presented the transformed
images. Deflection yokes were mounted around the monitor. The “sine, triangle, or square waves” processed by deflections appeared on the monitor whose
images were recorded by a camera, colorised and led to a videotape recorder of
a broadcast system. 58
153
Vasulka, Woody: C-Trend, video, 1974.
In the “Vasulka effect” (see below) the brightness of the video input determines
the positioning on the vertical axis. Zones becoming brighter and darker move
up and down: “When combined with other synthetic waveforms, the raster
forms a three dimensional contour map where video brightness determines
elevation.” 59
Woody Vasulka transforms in “C-Trend” (1974) driving cars into disturbed
sinus waves. Street scenes were recorded with a camera placed in a window.
The recordings are “scanned again” and are “modulated” in the “Rutt/Etra Scan
Processor” via “retiming and repositioning” with “deflections” whilst the sound
is reproduced unchanged. 60 The staggered wave lines facilitate observers
to structure them visually in a spatial manner as the layers are successively
arranged behind each other: Disturbances in multiple layers appearing
simultaneously or following in short distances one after another provoke the
impression of moving bodies. Because the recorded driving cars are not easily
recognisable, an “intermediate sphere” (“Zwischenreich”) appears situating the
recognition of moving objects between still recognisable recordings and al154
ready constructed images. When the black background is substituted by “video
`noise´”, then it is “created by blackout intervals which normally fill the `gap´
between the scanning of singular fields.” 61
Vasulka, Woody: Artifacts, video, 1980.
Woody and Steina Vasulka bought a minicomputer DEC LSI-11 (since 1975),
a version of the PDP-11 (PDP-11/03). When their student Jeffrey Schier developed concepts, how to use the minicomputer in video image processing, he
initiated the construction of the “Digital Image Articulator” (1976-77). 62 The
result of the programming can be seen and corrected without a recognisable
time delay. The “Digital Image Articulator” processes images by combining
rectangular basic elements: The partition into discrete basic components substitutes the waveforms of the “Rutt/Etra Scan Processor”. Woody Vasulka constructs in “The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)” the relations between discrete
elements “A” and “B” in following the Boolean algebra. 63 The new structure
creates “unusual patterns of color and box-like textures without equivalence in
analog video”. 64 In 1980 Woody Vasulka demonstrates that in “Artifacts”: The
155
structure is relatively rough and appears today again relatively uncommon. The
creation of super-signs and textures with microstructures built by rectangles
alternately attract the observer´s attention. An optical flicker constituted by
discrete elements forms recognisable formations again and again in the course
of the film. 65
Vasulka, Woody. Left: Didactic Video, Tableau IV, 1975 (Vasulka/Nygren: Video
1975, p.13), demonstration of the Rutt/Etra Scan Processor.
Right: Syntax of Binary Images, Tableau 3 & 4, 1978 (Vasulka/Weibel: Buffalo
2008, p.423), demonstration of the relations between the discrete elements “A”
and “B” in “The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)”.
In “Artifacts” Woody Vasulka demonstrates the differences between the analogue image processing of the “Rutt/Etra Scan Processor” and the digital image
processing of the “Digital Image Articulator” by picking up a hand as subject
again that he used earlier to demonstrate the video vocabulary made possible
by the “Rutt/Etra Scan Processor”: “Tableau IV” of his text “Didactic Video”
(1975) presented four transformation phases of a hand. The hands appeared in
156
concave and convexe reliefs built by the waveforms in inclined planes constituted by staggered horizontal lines. In contrary, a hand is presented in “Artifacts” on a sphere whose outline is multiplicated meanwhile the surface of the
hand is dissipated into optical flicker. In a comparison with an earlier video it
becomes easier to recognise that the flicker elements in “Artifacts” are rectangles and not flickering signals as in “Noisefields” that was realised in 1974 with
analogue video tools: In both videos a circle is raised from the ground and then
again merged with it, but in “Noisefields” the circular outline given by the video input remains preserved also and especially in positive-negative inversions,
meanwhile in “Artifacts” the circle forms can be recognised sharper or weaker
because their outlines are constituted and dissipated by combinations of rectangles. “Electronic Snow” is in “Noisefields” the basis of audio noise as well as
of visual flickering. 66
Vasulka, Woody: Noisefields, video, 1974.
157
In “Artifacts” the digital processing is presented in real time, without the acceleration of the images in film sequences as it is usual in computer animation.
Vasulka points “in a spirit of exploration” (voiceover at the start of the video)
the oberservers´ attention to the new functions to build and to transform
images. The video includes varying modes of presentation close to pointillism,
cubism and surrealism, meanwhile the sound underscores the unitary technical basis of the signal processes of all kinds of image and audio processing.
Vasulka explains at the beginning of the video:
By artifacts I mean that I have to share the creative process with the
machine. It is responsible for too many other elements in this work.
For the distribution of video synthesizers and processors their authors didn´t
only choose the usual ways of sale:
In the seventies Dan Sandin and Phil Morton augmented the “Analog Image
Processor” to an open developers´ platform called “Distribution Religion”. The
construction plans of the “Sandin Analogue Image Processor” were available
(by paying the expenses for copies) for reconstructions and further developments by constructors and users were welcome. These developments could be
integrated into the plans. The plans of the “Sandin Analogue Image Processor”
and Phil Morton´s videos were distributed with Morton´s licence “Copy-ItRight” inviting the production and distribution of copies. 67
After Seth Siegelaub´s contract published in the catalogue of the documenta 5
(Kassel, 1972) expanded the artists´ exploitation rights and obliged the owners
of works to share future income with their creators 68, Dan Sandin and Phil
Morton choose the opposite strategy by eliminating the restrictions that have
been installed via copyright and the contracts for the distribution and further
developments.
Dan Sandin´s practice to disseminate the construction plans of his “Analog
Image Processor” and the commercial distribution of the Rutt/Etra Scan
Processor are counter-models. This opposition continues to determine the
discussions on copyrights until today. Sandin wrote:
158
The Image Processor may be copied by individuals and not-for-profit
institutions without charge, for-profit institutions will have to negotiate
for permission to copy.
Nowadays the alternative propositions to use copyrights published by Creative
Commons offer authors ways to announce how they differentiate between
releases of restrictions for non-commercial users and restrictions for commercial users of their files. Permissions for non-commercial multiplications and
distributions can be announced via links to the relevant propositions of the
site “Creative Commons”. Then the determination of the amount of fees for
commercial distributions remains a task of negotiations with the author. 69
The video practice of the activists and the experimental filmmakers continues
the development of alternatives to the role play in movies. This development
was driven by the experimental filmmakers of the fifties and sixties in frameby-frame animation procedures. The camera as a reproducing technology and
image creating procedures constitute the opposite ends of a scale. In the sixties
these both ends of the scale of experimental filmmaking can be found in films
realised by people of Andy Warhol´s factory (“Sleep”, 1963 and others) on one
side and on the other side in structural films by Peter Kubelka (“Arnulf Rainer”,
1958-60), Tony Conrad (“The Flicker”, 1966) or Paul Sharits (“Ray Gun Virus”,
1966). 70 The camera fixated at a static place in Warhol´s Factory is substituted
in the seventies by the mobile video equipment of activists and the self-presentation of actresses or actors in front of the camera is transformed into a critical
self-embedding of the filmmaking and filmed persons into their social context.
Warhol´s negation of a director-dependent language is substituted by renewed
forms of film documentations and TV news. The cutting procedures for the
combination of frames in structural films substitute the authors of experimental videos by tools directing the motions of electron beams in the cathode ray
tube. This causes in “Noise Fields” a change in the function and meaning of
the “flickers” being produced in structural films by the thematisation of film
as material via filmcuts and the combination of frames. The criticism of the
cinematic film language by non-narrative film forms is augmented by the video
practices to a television criticism (see chap. IV.1.1). “Commercial broadcast”
appears reduced in forms and contents if it is compared to the explored possibilities of video technology.
159
On the one hand the constructors of video tools developed new means of production and partially they demonstrated themselves the possibilities to develop
a video-specific film language. On the other hand the video activists used the
video camera as a means to create critical statements and broadcasted the documents produced by the persons living under the criticised conditions or sent
copies on videocassettes. On the experimental side the signal processes were
central, on the activist side the mobile camera. The experiments with the new
medium resulted in new means of production and new methods to distribute
these means (“Distribution Religion”, see above), meanwhile the media activists
thematised the contemporary social conditions by utilising available means
of production and the distribution of the results (Community TV, see chap.
IV.1.1) in uncommon ways.
Annotations
1 Russett/Starr: Animation 1988, p.32-177.
2 Dunn/Vasulka/Weibel: Eigenwelt 1992; Miller Hocking: Principles 1978;
Russett/Starr: Animation 1988, p.178-210; Spielmann: Video 2008, p.4657,89-112.
3 Dunn/Vasulka/Weibel: Eigenwelt 1992, p.96-103.
4 Sony CV/VCK 2000, since 1965: without author: Sony CV 2000 (undated);
without author: Sony CV Series Video (undated); Sherman: Birth 2007.
5 On the Sony Porta Pak video equipment and its different meanings for activists as well as experimental filmmakers: Vasulka: Sony CV Portapack 1992.
Sony CV 2400 Porta Pak, since 1968: without author: Sony DVK-2400/VCK
2400 (undated); Miller Hocking: Texts 1992.
Sony Porta Pak AV 3400, since 1969/70: Bensinger: Video 1981,
p.157ss.,161,164,166s.,172,174; without author: SONY AV-3400 PORTA PAK
(undated).
160
6 Murphy: Television 1997, chapter “Local Television News Archives”: “In
the mid-1970‘s, a period marked by the transition from 16mm news film to
3/4-inch U-matic cassettes, about 700 commercial television stations were
operating in the United States. Less than 10% of the stations transferred their
news film to public archives. The rest was mostly destroyed.”
7 without author: Program Guide 1972, unpaginated: “In issue one, volume
one of Radical Software (Summer, 1970) we introduced the hypothesis that
people must assert control over the information tools and processes that
shape their lives in order to free themselves from the mass manipulation
perpetrated by commercial media in this country and state controlled
television abroad. By accessing low cost 1/2” portable videotape equipment
to produce or create or partake in the information gathering process, we
suggested that people would contribute greatly to restructuring their own
information environments: YOU ARE THE INFORMATION...Through such
decentralization of the information medium, we asserted that the overall
information environment of this country could be humanized and revitalized.”
8 Stoney, George: First Transmission of ACTV, Video, b/w, sound, 8 min.,
1972.
9 Video, 4 min. 23 sec., b/w, sound, in: Nadeau: Medium 2006, p.53,57-62;
Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.343s.
10 Barzyk, Fred: The Medium is the Medium, WGBH-TV, Boston, 3/23/1969:
Nadeau: Medium 2006, p.34-72.
Paik, Nam June: Electronic Opera #1, WGBH-TV, Boston, 3/23/1969: Decker:
Paik 1988, p.150,152,193,200, ill.99; Fifield: Paik/Abe Synthesizer 2000;
Joselit: Feedback 2007, p.48s.; Nadeau: Medium 2006, p.64-67; Youngblood:
Cinema 1970, p.306.
11 Paik/Abe Synthesizer at the WGBH-TV, Boston: Decker: Paik 1988, p.151;
High: Mods 2014, p.367. Previously the broadcast WNET (Channel 13 in New
York City) is said to have bought a prototype (without author: Paik-Abe Video
Synthesizer (undated)).
Paik, Nam June/Atwood, David: Video Commune – The Beatles from
161
Beginning to End, WGBH-TV. Video, 8 min. 36 sec., colour, silent, 1970 (film
documentation: Yud Yalkut, 1972-92): Decker: Paik 1988, p.152; Fifield: Paik/
Abe Synthesizer 2000.
12 VanDerBeek, Stan: Violence Sonata, WGBH-TV, Boston, 1/12/1970: Davis:
Art 1973, p.90; without author: Vanderbeek (undated); O´Grady: Vanderbeek
1970.
Knowlton, Kenneth/VanDerBeek, Stan: Poem Fields, 1964, in: Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.29s.,45; Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.246-249; see chap.
IV.2.1.2.
More experiments with participation TV:
Davis, Douglas: Electronic Hokkadim, WTOP-TV, Washington D.C.,
6/12/1971. In: Ross: Davis 1972, unpaginated; Deecke: Davis 1978, p.7.
Davis, Douglas: Talk Out: A Telethon, WCNY-TV, Syracuse/New York,
12/1/1972. In: Davis: Talk Out 1973; Deecke: Davis 1978, p.6ss.,17,96; Torcelli: Video 1996, p.24.
13 Paik: untitled 1971.
14 Gigliotti: History 2003; Joselit: Feedback 2007, p.93-99.
15 “Consciousness industry”/”Bewußtseins-Industrie”: Enzensberger:
Aporien 1962/1980, p.60,68,73; Enzensberger: Baukasten 1970/1997, p.97101,106s.
“Participatory democracy”: Hill: Attention 1996, p.2 with ann.8 (with reference to: Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): Port Huron Statement,
1962).
16 as, f.e., in “ANIMAC” (1959/60), “SCANIMATE” (1969) and the “Rutt/Etra
Scan Processor” (1973, see below).
Furthermore in “video feedback” the result presented on the monitor of a
video synthesizer equipment is recorded with a camera. These recordings are
led back to the video synthesizer for further processings. (Jones: Synthetics
2011, p.205ss.)
17 Bute: Abstronics 1954 (quotations).
162
Naumann: Sound 2009, p.48: Ralph K. Potter “designed a custom-built device through whose buttons and switches she could influence the emerging
Lissajous curves, changing their position, speed, and brilliance, as well as
creating an impression of three-dimensionality.” Cf. Betancourt: History
2013, p.88s.; Kane: Algorithms 2014, p.132; Naumann: Sound 2009, p.48ff.;
279f.; Zinman: Circuit 2012, p.140s. Oscillographs were used in productions
of film animations by Hy Hirsh (“Divertissement Rococo”, 1951; “Eneri”,
1953; Come Closer, 1953. Lit.: Betancourt: History 2013, p.140) and Norman
McLaren (Around Is Around, 1951, with Evelyn Lambart; Naumann: Sound
2009, p.279). For the first half of the fifties the author knows no other use of
custom-built oscillographs in productions of animations than the one by Mary
Ellen Bute.
18 Franke: Grafik 2014 (quote); conversation with Herbert W. Franke,
8/13/2014 in Puppling nearby Egling/Bavaria, and e-mails, 8/17/2015 and
8/21/2015 (quotes).
Oscillograph: constructed by Siemens (and called “Vorführgerät”/”demonstration device”) with a sharpening screen, diameter between 10 and 12 centimeter. Among others the oscillograph made by Siemens was used for the
“presentation” of “alternate current”. The sharpening screen enabled Franke
to place lines “so near to each other” causing the effect to receive “lightdark transitions”. These transitions were not possible with the oscillograph
used before (see chap. III.2.1) because of its “thick drawn lines” (Franke,
e-Mail 8/17/2015).
19 «Luminoscope I», 1959. In: Cassou/Habasque/Ménétrier: Schöffer 1963,
p.86 (quotations).
Variations luminodynamiques 1, 1961. Film, 16mm, b/w, sound. Collection
Centre Pompidou, Paris. In: Cassou/Habasque/Ménétrier: Schöffer 1963,
p.86-89. Thanks to Jean-Noel Montagné for directing my attention to
Schöffer´s videographic experiments.
20 According to Jeffrey Schier the “ANIMAC was developed in the early
1960´s” (Schier: Scan Processors 1992, p.94), but Walter Funk mentions the
turn of the year 1959/60 (see above) as the date, when the “first version”
was realised, but he does not indicate any document as proof (Funk: Animac
163
2010, p.53). Further Lit.: Funk: Animac 2010, p.53s.,58 (quotations); Harrison:
We 1992; Schier: Scan Processors 1992, p.93ss.; Smith: Computers 1974,
p.149; Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.200.
21 See the manipulations of television sets, esp. cathode ray tubes, by Nam
June Paik (television set with distorted images on monitors in the exhibition
“Exposition of Music – Electronic Television”, Gallery Parnass, Wuppertal,
March 1963; Magnet TV, 1965) and Wolf Vostell (television set with distorted
images on monitors in the exhibition “TV Decollage”, Smolin Gallery, New
York, Mai 1963; Sun in Your Head, Film, 1963).
In the early sixties Stan Ostoja-Kotkowski manipulated a television set for the
first time, and in 1962 he found an engineer (Malcolm Kay?) at the Philips
Research Laboratories in Hendon/South Australia constructing a device
with oscillators for his needs to control the electron beams in the cathode
ray tube of a television set. In July 1964 Ostoja-Kotkowski exhibited the
“electronic drawings” realised with this device for the first time at the Argus
Gallery in Melbourne (Jones: Synthetics 2011, p.126-129,131s. with fig.5.8ss.;
Meigh-Andrews: History 2014, p.10s.,14).
22 Meigh-Andrews: History 2014, p.135; Zinman: Circuit 2012, p.146s.
23 Meigh-Andrews: History 2014, p.135,209-212; Youngblood: Cinema 1970,
p.331-334; Zinman: Circuit 2012, p.147.
24 Robert Cahun 2005. In: Meigh-Andrews: History 2014, p.138.
25 Meigh-Andrews: History 2014, p.137f. Furthermore, Meigh-Andrews
mentions Dominique Belloir, Olivier Debré and Piotr Kamler as artists having
used the «Truqueur Universel» to create videos. Other artists: Jean-Paul
Cassagnac, Peter Foldes, Martial Raysse (Langlois: Schaeffer 2010).
26 Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.314ss. Meigh-Andrews: History 2014,
p.138s.; Kane: Algorithms 2014, p.71-74.
27 Hill: Siegel 1996.
164
28 Betancourt: History 2013, p.167ss.; Funk: Animac 2010, p.53s.,58 (quotations); Harrison: We 1992; Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.200; Schier: Scan
Processors 1992; Smith: Computers 1974, p.149,151s.
29 Scape-Mates: 28 min. 16 sec., colour, sound, in: Russett: Robert: Interview
Ed Emshwiller (1974). In: Russett/Starr: Animation 1988, p.207; Spielmann:
Video 2008, p.92.
In chroma keying an image layer with only one colour range is substituted
by a filmed overlay. Objects which move before the image layer for chroma
keying remain unchanged. Television presenters can walk before a film projection substituting a studio wall painted blue for chroma keying.
30 without author: Scape-mates (undated).
31 Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.194: “...at a rate of 100,000 per second
within a field of 16.000 possible xy coordinates”.
32 “Transformation image”/”Transformationsbild”: Spielmann: Video 2008,
p.4s.
On the cathode ray tube as a display for vector and raster images: Johnson:
Synthetics 2011, p.40,43s.
Magnetic tape, first video cassettes: Sony U-matic, since 1971. In: Bensinger:
Video 1981, p.131-145.
33 Schier: Paik-Abe Video Synthesizer 1992. Cf. Betancourt: History 2013,
p.163-167; Decker: Paik 1988, p.150s.; Furlong: Notes [1] 1983, p.36 with
ann.13; High: Mods 2014, p.365ss.; Joselit: Feedback 2007. p.47-50; Spielmann: Artists 2014, p.518s.; Spielmann: Video 2008, p.98ss.
34 Schier: Eric Siegel EVS Synthesizer 1992.
35 Yalkut: Electronic Video Synthesizer 1977/78. Cf. Dolanova/Vasulka: Vasulka 2014, p.286.
36 Furlong: Notes [1] 1983, p.36; Sturken: TV 1984, p.8.
165
37 Buchla Synthesizer: Buchla 100 Series, 1964, in: Dunn/Vasulka/Weibel:
Eigenwelt 1992, p.96-99.
38 Description of the modules, in: Schier: Direct Video Synthesizer 1992,
p.124s.
39 Beck: Beck Direct Video Synthesizer 2000; Beck: Music (undated); Beck:
Video (undated); Furlong: Notes [1] 1983, p.37. Beck and Jepson used video
projectors of the type “Eidophor GE Light Valve” in performances of “Illuminated Music 2 & 3”.
40 Dan Sandin in “5 Minutes Romp thru the IP”, 1973, video, b/w, sound,
3 min. 52 sec. In: URL: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=8qh6jRzjmcY
(12/17/2011).
41 Dan Sandin, in: Morton, Phil/Sandin, Dan/Wiseman, Jim: In Consecration
of a New Space. A Color Video Process. Information sheet, 1/26/1973. Cited
from: Spielmann: Video 2008, p.99s. with ann.69.
42 Schier: Image Processor 1992. Cf. Miller Hocking: Grammar 2014, p.461;
Spielmann: Artists 2014, p.507s.
43 Dan Sandin 2004. In: Spielmann: Video 2008, p.99s. with ann.69. Cf. Dolanova/Vasulka: Vasulka 2014, p.289s.
44 Brown, George: Multikeyer, 1973. In: Dolanova/Vasulka: Vasulka 2014,
p.288; Schier: Multi-Level-Keyer 1992; Spielmann: Video 2008, p.103s., 200.
45 Magnenat-Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer Animation 1990, p.31,33.
46 Sturman: State 1998.
47 Cates: Ryral 2009.
48 Siedler: Spectre undated.
166
49 Monkhouse: Art 1974, p.22: “Signals on this patchboard are carried in
digital form because crosstalk problems at video frequencies make an analog
patchboard well nigh impossible.”
50 Siedler: EMS undated.
51 Monkhouse: Art 1974, p.22ss.
52 EMS: User undated.
53 EMS: User undated; Monkhouse: Art 1974, p.23,26 (quotes); Siedler: EMS
undated (quotes); Siedler: Spectre undated (quotes); Jeffrey Siedler, e-mail,
8/25/2015 (quotes).
54 Siedler: Secrets undated; Jeffrey Siedler, e-mails, 8/18/2015 and
8/25/2015 (quotes).
55 Warren Burt: Five Moods (3x4x) (for Ned Sublette), 1979; Return to
Uranus (after Ruggles) Veils 2, 1979; Watermusic Dazzler (after Monk), 1979,
Georgeous Formalisms (Even 5 More Moods, Yet), 1979. Robert Cahen: Sans
titre, 1977; L´Eclipse, 1979; Trompe l´oeil, 1979; L´ent´apercu, 1980. Richard
Monkhouse: Shine on You Crazy Diamond, 1977; Transform, 1978. Plastic
Bertrand: Ca plane pour moi, 1978 (Meigh-Andrews: Donebauer 2007, S.464;
Meigh-Andrews: History 2014, S.158f. I would like to thank Jeffrey Siedler
for informations about artists using the “EMS Spectron”, for the mailing of
documents and for corrections).
56 The ”Rutt/Etra Scan Processor”:
– in Nam June Paik´s Videos: Spielmann: Video 2008, p.154s. (on ”Global
Groove”, 1973); Spielmann: Video 2009, chap.4.
– in Steina and Woody Vasulka´s Videos: Spielmann: Video 2009, chap.4; Hatanaka/Koizumi/Sekiguchi: Vasulka 1998, p.14ss.,21,34,42,46,48; see below.
– in Gary Hill´s Videos: Broeker: Hill 2002, p.96-99; Furlong: Manner 1983,
p.13 (on ”Videograms”, 1980-81, and ”Happenstance (part one of many
parts)”, 1983); Spielmann: Video 2008, p.108s.; Spielmann: Video 2009,
chap.4.
167
57 Cited in Miller Hocking: Rutt/Etra 1986.
58 Miller Hocking: Grammar 2014, p. 458,460; Miller Hocking: Rutt/Etra
1986; Rutt: What 1992; Rutt/Etra: RE Video Synthesizer Systems Models RE
4A and RE 4B 1974; Schier: Rutt/Etra 1992; Spielmann: Artists 2014, p.519ss.;
Vasulka/Nygren: Video 1975, p.9.
59 Schier: Rutt/Etra 1992, p.139. Cf. Spielmann: Video 2008, p.205.
60 Spielmann: Video 2008, p.204s.
61 Dolanova/Vasulka: Vasulka 2014, p.291. Cf. Meigh-Andrews: History 2014,
p.152.
”Zwischenreich”: Klee: Denken 1964, p.91s.,313.
62 In 1980 Steina Vasulka documented the development of the ”Digital Image Articulator” in the video ”Cantaloup”, in: Hatanaka/Koizumi/Sekiguchi:
Vasulka 1998, p.20; Vasulka/Weibel: Buffalo 2008, p.496s.
63 Vasulka/Hagen: Syntax 1978.
64 Schier: Digital Image Processor 1992, p.145.
65 Furlong: Notes [2] 1983, p.16; Spielmann: Artists 2014, p.516s.; Spielmann: Video 2008, p.207s.; Vasulka/Weibel: Buffalo 2008, p.448s.,452s.
In 1979 the video ”Bad” presents an utilisation of the ”Digital Image Articulator”, that was done before ”Artifacts” was realised: Spielmann: Video 2008,
p.208s. with ill.104; Vasulka/Weibel: Buffalo 2008, p.496s.
66 “Didactic Video”, “Tableau IV”: Vasulka/Nygren: Video 1975, p.13.
On the digitalisation in “Artifacts”: Dolanova/Vasulka: Vasulka 2014, p.296ss.;
Spielmann; Video 2008, p.207s. with ill.121s.; Spielmann: Woody Vasulka
2004; Sturken: Artifacts 1996; Vasulka/Weibel: Buffalo 2008, p.461.
“Noisefields”: Dolanova/Vasulka: Vasulka 2014, p.288; Spielmann: Video
2008, p.203s.; Spielmann: Video 2009, chap.4.
168
67 Cates: Copying-It-Right 2008; Cates: Copying-It-Right 2014; Furlong:
Notes [1] 1983, p.38; Sandin: Distribution Religion 1992; Sandin/Morton:
Distribution Religion 2014; Schier: Image Processor 1992, p.134.
68 Siegelaub: Artist´s Reserved Rights Transfer and Sales Agreement 1972.
69 Sandin: Distribution Religion 1992 (quote); Sandin/Morton: Distribution
Religion 2014. Cf. the choice of licenses offered by Creative Commons, in:
URL: http://creativecommons.org/choose/ (12/22/2011).
70 Hein: Film 1971, p.103,106; Hein: Structural Film 1979, p.96s.; Sitney: Film
1974, p.409ss.,424s.; Vasulka/Weibel: Buffalo 2008, p.315s.,542s.
169
IV. Images in Motion
IV.2 Computer Animation
IV.2.1 The Development from the Sixties to the Eighties
IV.2.1.1 An Outline
The history of the digital computer animation starts in the sixties. The early
computer graphics with configurations of lines representing three-dimensional
bodies were mounted to construct film sequences ”frame-by-frame”. 1 The sixties and seventies were the pioneering years in the development of animation
software for the programming of moving objects. This software was developed
at universities in the U.S.A., for example at the Ohio State University and at the
University of Utah. 2 In the eighties proprietary animation software was developed by and for commercial firms using it for 3D animations in sequences for
movies and commercials as well as for TV spots and music videos.
Since the early days of the demoscene in the eighties the creators present their
animations on public demo-parties. In the demoscene the storing of images
in a “frame-by-frame” procedure on carriers has been, was and is obsolete:
Authors of demos generate moving combinations of texts and images by
codes controlling the graphics cards of personal computers. The members
of the demoscene communicated with each other about the programming.
3 Demo-codes were offered on bulletin board systems (see chap. VI.1.2) for
download.
In the eighties mainframe computers were utilised to produce animations
for film sequences according to the tasks presented by the storyboards for
movies. Meanwhile the sequences for movies were realised by following the
requirements of the plots, the creators of music videos combined techniques of
computer animations with procedures used in experimental films and videos.
Further alternatives to movies offered films by artists who partially took up
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some elements of the animation software developed in the seventies for miniand microcomputers 4, and the demoscene. Its members competed with each
other in demonstrations of their capabilities to develop real time animations
for the limited technical possibilities of personal computers (A summary of the
eighties´ developments offer the last three sections of chap. IV.2.1.4.3).
IV.2.1.2 The Sixties
In 1963 Edward E. Zajac constructed the first computer animation at the Bell
Laboratories (Murray Hill/New Jersey). A box with edge lines gyrated round a
sphere. The sphere should outline the earth and the box should represent a satellite gyrating round the earth. The satellite always turned only one of its sides
to the earth: “Gyro gravity gradient attitude control system” was the film´s title
and its content. The frames were programmed in FORTRAN and generated by
a mainframe computer IBM 7090 (since 1959). A Stromberg-Carlson 4020 Microfilm Recorder (made by General Dynamics/Electrics, San Diego/California,
since 1959) presented and stored results. 5
Zajac, Edward E.: Gyro gravity gradient attitude control system, film, 1963. Bell
Laboratories, Murray Hill/New Jersey.
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In the following the development of two and three dimensional computer
graphics are presented because they provided the preconditions for the developments of computer animation.
In 1963 Ivan Edward Sutherland presented “Sketchpad” in his dissertation:
Points could be marked on a monitor. Then an analogue computer (Lincoln
TX-2, since 1957) followed instructions to build either lines or circles between
the points. For the choice of instructions a little box with knobs stood beside
the computer´s manual. With “Sketchpad” it became easier to accomplish
two-dimensional drawings or plans with many repeated or varied elements.
Sutherland´s interface was planned to allow an easy application. 6 Beside
Douglas Carl Engelbart´s research developments at the Stanford Research
Institute “Sketchpad” was one of the early user-friendly human-computer
interfaces (HCI, see chap. VIII.2).
Morash, Russell: [Ivan Edward Sutherland´s] Computer Sketchpad. National
Educational Television. Filmed by WGBH-TV, Boston. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology/Lincoln Laboratory. Lexington/Massachusetts 1964.
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Since 1959 researchers at the General Motors Research Laboratories collaborated with IBM to develop software for three-dimensional Product Design. The
computer language MAD (Michigan Algorithm Decoder) being developed out
of ALGOL-58 was itself developed further together with the compiler to NOMAD (“Newly operational MAD”). The programming with DGL (Descriptive
Geometry Language) simplified the use of the DAC (Design Augmented by
Computers)-1 System (since 1963) in drafting processes. The programming
language DGL consisted out of “Variables, constants, statements, branching,
looping, subroutines, and parametrization in which INTERSECT, SMOOTH,
and DISPLAY were just three of a large number of operational statements.” A
program with “DGL procedures” was feeded via punch cards into a computer
(IBM 7094, since 1962). Then it was possible to start the drafting process by
working with an electronic pen directly on the screen. DAC-1 could recognize
the position of the electronic pen because a conductive material was applied on
the screen.
173
General Motors Research Laboratories: DAC-1,
development of a boot lid, between 1965 and 1967.
Above: Graphics console with electronic pen.
Below: Printout. Stills from a film by GM Photographic.
The possibility to draw with the electronic pen on a vertical erected screen was
not useable by ergonomic reasons. Nevertheless the manual of the DAC-1´s
console used for the control of the image processing was a remarkable step in
the history of the CAD (Computer-Aided Design) development:
...the mode of operation was to program specific application-defined
functions for each button on the keyboard.
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Transparent shells on the manual´s keys made it possible to rename them if
their functions have been changed. Then the developers´ team introduced
icons on the screen. The icons marked programme applications. With a touch
by the electronic pen on an icon a specific application was chosen.
The graphic console of the DAC-1 was connected to the mainframe computer
IBM 7094. Since 1965 the console could process three-dimensional objects as
wire-frame presentations (with perspectival overlaps). The image processing
programme for wire-frame models was based on points, lines and surfaces.
Instead of formerly three axes were now five axes used for the localisation of
each element. Nevertheless newer CAD programmes work out the localisations
with only three axes.
The object could be rotated, and designers could zoom into it and out of it. The
parts of the object being not relevant for the angle of a screen view could be cut
off with a “no display” function (actually named “clipping”): These parts were
not calculated in the processing of the screen view.
The menu offered icons for the functions “line overlay” and “surface overlay”.
“Surface overlay” was the term for the programmed elements used for the
processing of the surfaces of a planned object.
DAC-1 offered a design system for the processing of objects by the development of codes for punching cards and by the subsequent corrections via
numerical manual inputs of values for variables as well as via the light pen used
to work directly on the screen. 7 The control of programmes for 3D objects via
the coordination of input devices and screen views was realised in DAC-1 in a
manner anticipating such coordinations in later projects.
Sutherland´s “Sketchpad” and the interface of the graphics console for DAC-1
are early examples in the development of user-friendly interfaces for CAD. In
the seventies Alan Kay´s research group at Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research
Center) took up the problem to design user-friendly interfaces to facilitate
non-professional object-oriented programming. The menus with icons of
DAC-1 not only reappeared in the Xerox Star (1981) but in the graphical user
interfaces of the Apple Lisa (1983) and the Apple Macintosh (1984), too. 8
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The mouse (see chap. VIII.2) superseded the electronic pen. The electronic
pen reappeared in CAD systems´ graphic tablets for the ergonomic adequate
fine-adjustment on a horizontal plane.
Fetter, William Allan/Boeing Aircraft Company:
Above: Fifty Percentile Human Figures Related to Cockpit.
Below: Twenty-Element Figure Placed in Cockpit Geometry.
Photo reproductions of plotter drawings representing humans in cockpits, between
1966 and 1969. Collection Clarissa, Sprengel Museum Hannover
(Piehler: Anfänge 2002, p.315s., unpaginated with ill. 84,86).
In the early sixties three-dimensional graphics of human figures were developed by a department of the Boeing Aircraft Company (Seattle/Washington)
directed by William Allan Fetter with the goal to ameliorate the cockpits of
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airplanes. The first graphical model of a human figure was processed by a
mainframe computer IBM 7094 and consisted of lines marking the outlines of
volumes without omitting the undercuts. Prints presenting wire-frame models
of human figures were shown in exhibitions on computer art, for example
in 1968 in “Cybernetic Serendipity” at the Institute of Contemporary Art in
London. Further prints presented the human figures in three-dimensional line
representations of cockpits. In 1966 the representations of cockpits were used
as technical preconditions for the film “SST Cockpit Visibility Simulation” of
eight minutes length. 9
From 1964 to 1965 A. Michael Noll realised films using a program of the Bell
Laboratories. The stereoscopic films exposed one object in slightly displaced
perspectives. A film realised in 1965 presented a four-dimensional hypercube
as a rotating “cube-within-a-cube”.
Noll, A. Michael: Hypercube, film, 1965. Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill/New
Jersey. Two stills (among themselves) of the film presenting a turning four-dimensional hypercube with two views (horizontally next to each other) for
stereoscopes.
177
The animation program could represent objects as lines connecting points.
Three-dimensional objects were rotatable. The perspective (with overlaps) and
the stereoscopic projection were constituted by programmed “formulas”. The
development of a sequence could be organized by instructions for transformations from one image to the next one. The program controlled the electronic
beam of a cathode ray tube. Its screen was recorded by a 16 mm camera. 10
In 1964 Kenneth C. Knowlton developed BEFLIX (abbreviation for “Bell
[Laboratories] Flicks”). The program was based on FORTRAN IV and made it
possible to construct abstract films with mosaic patterns in using a mainframe
computer IBM 7094 and a Stromberg-Carlson 4020 Microfilm Recorder. A
coordinate system with a maximum of 252 x 184 “squares” made it possible to
allocate grey values in eight levels to these elements. The grey values were coded with a 3 bit system. Among others, the system offered functions to connect
points to construct lines, to draw curves as well as to copy and move fields. 11
The frames produced as described above became the fundament for the
production of a master magnetic tape: A film laboratory repeated the frames
as often as required by the planned time duration of a sequence. The then
following presentation of the master magnetic tape in the Charactron cathode
ray tube of the Stromberg-Carlson 4020 Microfilm Recorder was recorded by
its camera being adjusted to transform discrete elements into “contiguous blobs
of different intensities”. 12 In a second step the colorization followed with other
technical means.
VanDerBeek, Stan/Knowlton, Kenneth C.: Poemfield No.2, film, 1966.
178
In “Poemfield No.2” (1966) words and background patterns are dissolved
again and again into entropic fields with a vast amount of elements before new
calligraphic patterns and readable words arised. The program´s grid for the
distribution of elements is used for the creation of patchwork rugs as well as
for the production of patterns in the forms of letters. Typically for the ten films
realised by Stan VanDerBeek with BEFLIX and the extensions developed by
Knowlton for the artist is the “zig-zag character” of patterns. The black-andwhite film produced with the use of a mainframe computer IBM 7094 and a
Stromberg-Carlson 4020 Microfilm Recorder was projected by Vanderbeek
onto a colour film. He commissioned Robert Brown and Frank Olvey to colour
the frames “with a vibrant palette of red, green, and blue light”. 13
For the film “Hummingbird” (Part 1/Part 2 1967) Charles Csuri and James P.
Shaffer scanned the drawing of a bird with extended wings. The digitised drawing made by Csuri was cut up into lines. These lines were transformed by the
program written in FORTRAN. The transformations generated by a mainframe
computer IBM 7094 were the results of modifications of the coordinates for
height and length (“xy coordinates”). “Hummingbird” was realised with a 835
Microfilm Plotter of the California Computer Products Company (Calcomp).
The film contains 14000 frames presenting configurations of lines changing
step by step.
Csuri, Charles: Hummingbird, film, 1967.
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The film doesn´t present a moving bird but the drawing gets a time dimension
by the filmic construct: The drawing of the bird dissipates into lines sprawling
and is put together again to the image of a bird with extended wings. The
drawing becomes distorted and its size as well as its location within the frames
are modified. 14
Meanwhile the examples from Zajac to Noll mentioned above are steps in
the development of 3D simulations for CAD and films, the 2D digital film
animations by Knowlton and Csuri showcased in the first case a software for
bitmapping and in the second case a procedure for morphing: In two-dimensional animations both cases anticipated procedures being integrated later in
three-dimensional digital animations.
IV.2.1.3 The Seventies
Today the conversion of an image into another image is called “morphing”. The
Computer Technique Group (CTG, 1967-69) presents in the computer graphic
“Running Cola is Africa” (1967/68) the conversion of a runner first into a Cola
bottle and then into Africa´s geographic outline. 15 Charles A. Csuri converted
in “Aging Process” (1967) a girl into an old lady. 16
180
Above: Computer Technique Group (CTG): Running Cola is Africa, plotter drawing, 1967/68. Collection Computer Arts Society, London.
Below: Csuri, Charles: Aging Process, plotter drawing, 1967
(Glowsky: Csuri 2006, p.71).
In 1974 Peter Foldes received wider recognition for his two-dimensional animation “Hunger/La Faim”, that takes over characteristics of cartoon films:
Foldes used linear interpolation procedures developed by Nestor Burtnyk and
Marcelli Wein to transform among others humans into cars, music stands into
women, women into milk ice, crayons into food. 17
Since 1971 Burtnyk and Wein presented in several texts 18 the key-frame
animation as a procedure to use the computer-aided interpolation of images to
generate film sequences out of “key images”. The manners of interpolation and
the time intervalls (“key intervals”) were selectable.
181
Foldes, Peter: Hunger/La Faim, film, 1974.
For the “stroke to stroke mapping” the lines of a drawing were transfered for
computation by using a graphics tablet. In interpolations the sequence of the
lines stored in “key images” determines “the form of the intermediate image.” 19
Foldes´ “Hunger/La Faim” demonstrated the possibilities of the interpolation
as a method for the realisation of surprising and sometimes grotesque deformations.
For three-dimensional animations real objects are reconstructed at first as
wire frames. Wire frame models present – like Noll´s “Hypercube” (see chap.
IV.2.1.2) – all sides of an object regardless of overlaps. The wire frame provides
182
in a further step the basis for the break up of curved surfaces into flat areas
with edges (polygons). For the construction of a polygon model the overlapping areas (one surface behind the other) of the wire frame model and their
changes in rotations have to be calculated. In 1963 Lawrence Gilman Roberts
developed the first program for the calculation of hidden surfaces. In 1974 Ivan
Edward Sutherland, Robert F. Sproull and Robert A. Schumacker investigated
alternative programs with “hidden surface algorithms”, described their advantages and disadvantages, and draw their conclusions. 20
From the object to the wire-frame and polygon model with smoothed planes
(Sutherland/Sproull/Schumacker: Characterization 1974, p.5, fig.2c-f).
In the simulations of three-dimensional objects in an “interactive perspectivalism” 21 all sides are digitally constructed. An observer in front of the screen
sees only parts of the simulated three-dimensional object as it was organized
for a program-internal observer (as an observer constructed within the
program). Parts of the construction of an internal observer are the perspectival overlaps changing with the objects´ motions. The observer within the
simulation system is adjusted to the visual perceptive faculties of humans at the
interfaces to the system (external observer).
183
(Parke: Animation 1972, p.452, fig.1).
The presentation of virtual objects in different angles poses problems to
program light and shadow. In 1971 Henri Gouraud developed a method to
calculate a “continuous shading” for surfaces being converted into polygons:
The approach...is to keep the polygon approximation of the surface, but
to modify slightly the computation of the shading on each polygon so
that continuity exists across polygon boundaries.
The polygons surfaces are calculated at the interpolation of the colours at
the vertices of adjacent polygons. Then the interpolations are projected on a
curved surface with a continuity of the “shading” dependent from a continuity
between the polygons.
184
The calculation of the Gouraud shading proceeds through several steps: For the
calculation of colour values for a polygon the adjacent polygons offer the relevant informations at the vertices. Gouraud describes the goal of this method:
Each polygon has a different shading for each of its vertices, and the
shading at any particular point inside the polygon has to be computed
as a continuous function of the shading at the vertices of the polygon.
In a cathode ray tube used as a screen for the simulation the lines of an electron
beam constitute cut surfaces (“scan lines”) through polygons. If an electron
beam constitutes a polygon line by line within a cathode ray tube then the
colours of its vertices are interpolated with the colours at the polygon´s edges
(between the vertices). Then the colours of the polygons adjacent to these edges are interpolated with the colour values at the points of the lines constituted
by the electron beam.
Polygon A-B-C-D and the “Scan line” E-P-F built by the lines of the electron beam
in a cathode ray tube E-P-F (Gouraud: Shading 1971, p.91, fig.5).
185
In Gouraud Shading a polygon´s surface properties are dependent from the
properties of the adjacent polygons: Vertices, edges, surface normal (calculated
as a vector perpendicular to the polygon´s surface) and relations within each
polygon are correlated. At the vertices the passages between the polygons are
smooth, meanwhile the outlines of edges are broken instead of constituting
continuous lines (because the interpolygonal mediation of the Gouraud shading is absent at the edges). The absence of highlights causes a diffuse overall
impression. 22
In 1975 Bui-Tuong Phong proposed a procedure to calculate zones with different texture-dependent light properties for each polygon. For each point within
a polygon Phong interpolated “the surface normal vector” between surface
properties like light reflexes and shading. That increased the computational
work considerably compared to Gouraud shading. 23 The disadvantage of
Gouraud shading – its rougher procedure without gloss lights – also was its
advantage. Meanwhile Ivan Edward Sutherland´s professorship at the Computer Science Faculty of the University of Utah (1968-74) Gouraud (1971) and
Phong (1973) graduated about the problems of shading mentioned above. 24
In 1968 David Evans set up a department for the development of programs
for CGI (Computer-generated Imagery) at the University of Utah. Michael
Newell´s “Utah teapot” was a three-dimensional simulation of a Melitta teapot.
In 1974 Newell bought it in a supermarket at Salt Lake City. At the University
of Utah the Melitta teapot was used as a test case for problems of three-dimensional simulations: from wire-frame models via (the smoothing of) polygon
surfaces to the working out of textures, shades and light reflexes. 25
186
A Melitta teapot (“Utah teapot”) from 1974 became a model
for computer animations.
Left: Three examples for texture mapping
(Blinn/Newell: Texture 1976, p.544, fig.2-5).
Right: Martin E. Newell´s measurement of the Melitta teapot on squared paper.
Computer History Museum, Mountain View/California.
Edwin Earl Catmull invented texture mapping and z-buffering. In 1974 the
application of two-dimensional surface structures (textures) on three-dimensional virtual objects was made a theme in Catmull´s dissertation (under the
supervision of Prof. Ivan Edward Sutherland) as well as z-buffering calculating
the hidden and visible parts of an object. Pixel values stored in the framebuffer
(image memory) are compared with information about the depth of a new
pixel. The z-axis is the depth axis, and the z-buffer contains the information
about the depth of a visible object. If a new pixel is stored in the framebuffer,
then in the framebuffer the value of the new pixel will be stored as the value to
be used in presentations. In 1974 the procedure was developed by Wolfgang
187
Straßer, too, in his dissertation on “Schnelle Kurven- und Flächendarstellung
auf graphischen Sichtgeräten.” 26
James Frederick Blinn developed many programs for CGI, among others for
rendering, clipping, lighting atmospheric effects and environmental mapping.
Rough surfaces can be simulated with Blinn´s bump mapping (1978). Problems with surfaces still looking flat in 3D animations can be solved by combining texture mapping with bump mapping. 27
In the seventies The Graphics Research Group of the Ohio State University
developed under Charles Csuri´s direction the animation systems ANIMA
(since 1975), ANIMA II (since 1977) and ANTTS (since 1979). ANTTS
(ANimated Things Through Space) was running on a DEC (Digital Equipment
Corporation) VAX 11/780 minicomputer (since 1977). The system operated
with two buffers, a frame buffer and a buffer for the duration of sequences. 28
The systems of the Ohio State University anticipated the development of the
eighties and nineties: Animation systems were created at first for mainframe
and minicomputers, then for personal computers, too. 29
Meanwhile in the seventies experimental films were realised with video tools
for two-dimensional animations (see chapter IV.1.2), software for three-dimensional animations was developed in research projects for mainframe computers
resulting in presentations of the state of the development and occasionally
in sequences for movies (see chap. IV.2.1.4.1). Contrary to the experimental
filmmakers with mostly analogue video technology the developers of software
for mainframe computers were oriented on the production of movies and commercials. In the eighties this led to image simulations provoking expectations
about virtual worlds (see chap. IV.2.1.4.4). Imaginations of simulations becoming autonomous worlds reappeared as contents of movies (see chap. IV.2.1.4.1).
The means of the computer-aided image processing had to be accomodated to
the requirements of directors realising films with such contents. Science fiction
novels of William Gibson, Bruce Sterling or Neil Stephenson could suggest to
their readers that the technical development will proceed until in a not too far
future virtual worlds with autonomous developments (“cyberspace”) will arise. 30
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IV.2.1.4 The Eighties
IV.2.1.4.1 Film Sequences
In 1972 Edwin Earl Catmull and Frederick I. Parke documented in “Halftone
Animation” an animation in the making: It started with the scanning of plastic
models (a plaster model of Catmull´s hand) on whose surfaces line networks
were drawn for the partitioning into polygons. Furthermore “Halftone Animation” presents the animation of a face with Gouraud shading (see chap.
IV.2.1.3). 31
Catmull, Edwin Earl/Parke, Frederick I.: Halftone Animation, film, 1972.
In Michael Crichton´s “Westworld” (1973) Yul Brynner appeared in the role
of the android “Gunslinger” challenging visitors with prepared weapons in
the amusement park “Delos” to duels. The harmless fights for the visitors´
distraction changed to mortal fights. Gary Demos and James Whitney Jr.,
colleagues at Triple-I (Information International Inc.), presented Gunslinger´s
observation of his environment as digitised and modificated film recordings:
189
The digitalisation via colour film scanner, made possible by the high resolution
cathode ray tubes of Triple-I, was transformed into a rough pixel grid. For this
procedure the colours were separated into three tonal values and a mask for
black areas. The separated was converted into rectangular blocks. The tonal
values resulting from this conversion were translated into colour values. For
the 10 second during sequences of the android´s view with a total duration of
2,5 min an eight hours lasting computing process was needed.
Crichton, Michael: Westworld, film, 1973 (excerpts).
Simulations of hands and faces realised by Catmull and Parke between 1972
and 1974 were in 1976 presented in Richard T. Heffron´s (director) “Futureworld”, the sequel to “Westworld”, as sequences on a control monitor.
The animation on the monitor presents Peter Fonda´s head in a transition
190
from a polygon animation to smoothed facial features with light reflexes as a
part of the production of a doppelganger. Gary Demos and John Whitney Jr.
photographed Fonda´s face from different angles and transfered these data via
graphics tablet in a digital 3D space. This archive with face data was the starting point for further animation steps being presented on the control monitor
as the becoming of the doppelganger´s head in a change from edged to smooth
surfaces. 32
Heffron, Richard T.: Futureworld, film, 1976.
Fonda plays the journalist Chuck Browning. Browning discovers a clone production in the amusement park “Delos”. For the clone production genetic
codes by well known and influential persons are used – without the knowledge
of the cloned persons. Browning is cloned, too. The doppelgangers are used for
the far-reaching ambition to achieve the world supremacy.
191
Lucas, George: Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, film, 1977 (scene with the
projection of the Empire´s station “Death Star” and its production with GRASS,
explained by Larry Cuba).
In 1977 Larry Cuba used Tom DeFanti´s animation program GRASS (see chap.
IV.1.2) to realise a wire frame simulation for a two minutes lasting sequence
in George Lucas´ movie “Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope”. The animation
presented the Empire´s station “Death Star” as a projection in a training
session of the Rebel Alliance´s pilots directed by General Dodonna. The simulation should correspond to the public´s expectations of computer-generated
animations. That is why Cuba renounced to use animations simulating surfaces
of objects.
192
Scott, Ridley: Alien, film, 1979. Alan Sutcliffe´s computer animation on navigation screens in the spaceship Nostromo.
In 1979 Ridley Scott integrated in “Alien” wire frame simulations by Alan Sutcliffe in a scene during the landing of the spaceship “Nostromo” on its navigation screens: In the descent mountains appeared as wave lines. 33
Carpenter, Loren C.: Vol Libre, film, 1980.
193
In 1980 Loren C. Carpenter featured in the short film “Vol libre” a computer
animated mountainscape generated by fractals. Carpenter´s demonstration of
the use of fractal geometry in a three-dimensional landscape representation
was his ticket to Lucasfilm. 34
In 1981 appears the first computer animated actress in Michael Crichton´s
“Looker”. Meanwhile in “Futureworld” the animated body parts still appear as
film-within-the film, “Looker” is the first movie presenting a simulated actress.
Crichton, Michael: Looker, film, 1981. Scene with a scan
of a fashion model´s body.
In “Looker” fashion models offer their bodies for digitalisations to receive
monthly salaries for the rest of their lifetime. The virtual models are then used
by Digital Matrix in advertisement films. After the scan process of a model´s
194
body (model played by Susan Dey) follows directly the construction of a body
simulation. The animation skills of Triple-I made it possible to represent the
model´s digitalisation.
The film features the investigations to find out the causes for the deaths of three
of the virtualised models. Meanwhile the movie leaves the cinema visitors in
the dark about the causes, the TV version uncovers them: The living proofs
for the existence of the digital bases with body data are eliminated by Digital
Matrix – like all documents that could be useful for competitors. 35
Meyer, Nicolas: Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, film, 1982. Genesis demo.
In 1982 the Lucasfilm Computer Graphics Research Group created a one-minute demofilm sequence for Nicolas Meyer´s “Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan”
(“Genesis Demo sequence”). The sequence presented a planet being revived
by a “Genesis Torpedo”, as prescribed by the plot. For the three-dimensional
animation Reyes Rendering was utilised. Loren C. Carpenter realised the
simulation of the landscape with fractals. Agitated surfaces representing fields
of heat energy among others were generated with Particle Systems. 36
Reyes Rendering and Particle Systems are developed by the Lucasfilm Comput195
er Graphics Research Group. The versatile animation system Reyes Rendering
is constructed to need as less computing capacity as possible for realistic simulations. Therefore Ray Tracing is reduced to a minimum. 37 Curved surfaces are
divided in “micropolygons”. In Reyes rendering the “micropolygons” are the
geometric basic element of nearly all algorithms: “They are flat-shaded quadrilaterals that are approximately 1/2 pixel on a side.” The needed computational
effort is reduced by simple procedures running parallel. Basic elements (“primitives”) are transfered to “micropolygons” only so far as it is necessary for the
simulation of smooth surfaces. Shading is simplified by a condensation of
“micropolygons” to wider raster areas (leading to savings of identical edges at
adjacent “micropolygons”) and by a vectorisation of the “shading operations”. 38
“Particle Systems” was developed by William T. Reeves at the New York Institute of Technology. The program for “Modeling a Class of Fuzzy Objects” offers
animators procedures to simulate “clouds, smoke, water, and fire”:
They are not rigid objects nor can their motions be described by the
simple affine transformations that are common in computer graphics.
Particles change its form and move with the passage of time. 39
Particles are more simple basic elements (“primitives”) than the polygons. the
model is procedurally defined and can be programmed that – similar to fractals – in zooming in a “particle system” with stochastic procedures constantly
new details become recognisable. New particles arise while elder particles
disappear.
According to Reeves, in the “Genesis demo” for “Star Trek II”, a fire wall of
the revived planet was generated with “400 particle systems” which included
750.000 particles. 40
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Sims, Karl: Particle Dreams, film, 1988.
In 1988 Karl Sims demonstrates the possibilities of “Particle Systems” in “Particle Dreams”. The particles in motion don´t represent bodies, nevertheless they
can be coordinated to simulate snowflakes or running water. At the beginning
of the film a pointillistic head-shaped configuration arises by a three-dimensional spreading of particles that are then ejected out of the mouth. This process
grows up to a self-dissolution, as if heads never were solid bodies. With this
scene Sims points out the program´s possibilities beyond movie sequences: It
involves more than the results of experts for specific special effects realising the
director´s ideas and the requirements of the storyboard.
Sims implemented “Particle Systems” on a “data parallel computer”, The Connection Machine CM-2 of the Thinking Machines Corporation (since 1985).
197
Sims wrote his program in “a parralel language called Starlisp” for the simultaneous operations of “thousands of processors” including the virtual processors.
41 Cliff Lasser and Steve Omohundro wrote Starlisp for the Connection Machine. The program used PVARS (Parallel Variables) for computing in vectors.
Lisberger, Steven: Tron, Film, 1982. Lightbike scene.
In 1982, after “Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan” the cinemas presented “Tron”
(1982), directed by Steven Lisberger (direction and script). In “Tron” Ed
Dillinger (played by David Warner) manages the media imperium ENCOM
whose supercomputer controls with its self-developing “Master Control Program” most of the computer systems and prevents the ingress into protected
sectors. Kevyn Flynn (played by Jeff Bridges) was a former employee of Dillinger´s company ENCOM and works now in amusement arcades controlled
by ENCOM. Flynn tries to utilise the security programme “Tron”, which is
independent from the “Master Control Program”, to infiltrate the center of the
“Master Control Program” and to destroy the “Master Control Unit”. Flynn
tries to proof that Dillinger became president of ENCOM because of data theft:
He presented computer games developed by Flynn as his invention.
198
The story of “Tron” is structured in three levels: the amusement arcades controlled by ENCOM, the ENCOM premises, and within ENCOM the “Master
Control Program” running on the supercomputer. This program decouples
avatars from its system-external users. These avatars are prisoners of a virtual
world forcing them either to survive in winning games played on technically
installed platforms against other prisoners or to be eliminated as losers. The
“Master Control Program” menaces Dillinger by using his control of the
database storing the evidence of Dillinger´s fraud. With this control the power
seeking “Master Control Program” takes over ENCOM´s control of the games
in amusement arcades.
Via the combat between users and their avatars against the “Master Control
Program” the movie thematises the balance between programming for external
aims and correlations within the program. Independent from the “Master
Control Program” is the safeguarding program “Tron” maintaining the contact
to the users and supporting their control over their avatars. “Tron” takes up
science fiction patterns in its presentation of a system being controlled by a
totalitarian power to be combatted.
For “Tron” Triple-I, MAGI/Synthavision, Robert Abel & Associates and Digital
Effects realised computer-based animations with different programs. The
combination of these animation companies was a result of the challenge to
develop computer animated film sequences for “Tron” with a total duration of
30 minutes (including background animations). The involved animation companies received instructions from Richard Taylor (computer effects supervisor)
and Bill Kroyer (computer image choreographer) being obligatory for the
fitting-together of the contributions. Digital Effects realised the title sequence
and “Bit”, a crystal-shaped polygon object changing form and colour with its
binary replies (yes/no). The “Light Cycles”, “Recognizers” and “Tanks” were
animated by MAGI. The company executed with their animations of a total
length of 15 minutes the largest part of all computerised animations. Triple-I
realised the “Master Control Program”, a solar glider and Sark´s spaceship.
The sequence with Kevyn Flynn entering the system of the supercomputer was
developed by Abel & Associates. Syd Mead and Jean `Moebius´ Giraud drafted
the two-wheel vehicles (“light cycles”) and their environment within the supercomputer´s system. 42
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MAGI´s Software “SynthaVision” “converts models of quadric surfaces, polygons, and other geometric forms into three-dimensional images. These can be
shaded and textured.” In SynthaVision a director´s code offered animators the
definition of motion patterns for objects and the preliminary fixing of cameras
and lighting. With SynthaVision fluid motion sequences could be achieved
easily. SynthaVision´s capabilities to simulate complex elements were limited
compared to the simulation of poygon nets by Triple-I. Abel & Associates
realised vectorial effects with their animation software developed under the
directon of Bill Kovacs. 43
After “Tron” virtual worlds were presented again in movies like the TV series
“Max Headroom” (1985-87) and in novels like William Gibson´s “Count Zero”
(1986) as autonomous electronic systems `communicating´ with reality in
various ways. 44 Presented in films, novels and postmodern criticism of the
media these fictions constituted elements of a “techno-imaginary” (see chap.
IV.2.1.4.4) projecting the contemporary computer animation into a future of
autonomous virtual systems because this evolution seemed to be inevitable.
Lasseter, John: Toy Story, film, 1995. Still.
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In the eighties and nineties the expectations toward the computer animation
for movies were shaped dominantly by Pixar (Lucasfilm´s former department
for computer animation turned autonomous) and Industrial Light and Magic.
The next steps of the history of movies with computerised animations to
“Insektors” (1993, broadcast in 1994, Studio Fantome), the first TV series made
exclusively with computer animations, and to “Toy Story” (1995, Disney-Pixar), the first movie completely animated by computer-based image processing
will not be considered here. It is sufficient for the “History of Computer Art”
to work out relations between computing processes and forms of presentation
up to a degree of differentiation suggesting expansions of technical and artistic
possibilities as well as the search for combinations with other fields to construct hybrids and intermedia (see chap. I).
Since the eighties the computer animation was and is augmented for the realisation of movies, meanwhile with the utilisation of animation technologies in
reactive installations new concepts of human-computer interfaces (HCI) were
and are explored (see chap. V).
IV.2.1.4.2 Music Videos
For the realisations of three-dimensional computer animations the technical
equipment for music videos included in most cases cheaper products than the
equipment for sequences in movies. The products used to create the clips presented below were the Evans and Sutherland Picture System (since 1974), the
Quantel Paintbox (since 1981) and the Bosch FGS-4000 Computer Graphics
System (since 1983). For animations these systems included hardware-specific
software. Their purchase prices were cheap enough to be used in productions
of TV programmes, advertisements and music videos. In the examples below,
the technical efforts for the video with Mick Jagger´s “Hard Woman” (1985, see
below) stands out because it was realised on a supercomputer.
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Costello, Elvis: Accidents Will Happen. Music video with animations of Annabel
Jankel and Rocky Morton, 1978.
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Tharp, Twyla/Byrne, David: The Catherine Wheel, dance performance, 1981.
Computer animation by Rebecca Allen for the film version, 1982.
In 1978 Annabel Jankel and Rocky Morton created a music video with animated drawings for Elvis Costello´s “Accidents will Happen”. It ended with vector
graphics presenting outlines of Costello´s face. 45
In 1982 Rebecca Allen drafted the figure of Saint Catherine in Twyla Tharp´s
90 minutes long dance film “The Catherine Wheel” von 1982 (with music by
David Byrne) as a computer animation with chaotically crossing white lines on
a black background and as a multicoloured wire frame figure. The dancer Sara
Rudner coordinated her actions with the motions of the animated saint, thus
provoking observers to ask themselves how long it will still be recognisable
who reacts to whom.
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Steve Miller Band: Abracadabra, 1982. Music video by Peter Conn.
In 1982 Peter Conn (Homer & Associates) created a music video for Steve
Miller Band´s song “Abracadabra” by transforming a digitised film with the
software “Forth” running on the “8-bit computer paint system” that was
developed by Paul Rother (Homer & Associates). The console consisting of
24 channels for editing and the paint system were utilised for a presentation
of relations between actress, actors and magic props in a studio installed with
low expenses. A “burning flame” praised in the lyrics reoccurs several times in
the video. In several sequences the image processing via paint system takes on
a life of its own in the form of colour patterns built by overlapping rectangles
spreading out for a short time and then disappearing again, meanwhile coloured squares sparking out of a sorcery query their representing function by a
confetti-like colourfulness. The love song can be related to the bandleader and
composer Steve Miller blended in with his guitar at the beginning and at the
end. 46
204
Powers, Will (Goldsmith, Lynn): Adventures in Success, 1983. Music video by
Rebecca Allen.
In 1983 Rebecca Allen (animation) with Will Powers (Lynn Goldsmith), Robert Palmer and Sting (music) thematise in “Adventures in Success” a seemingly
automated wish fulfillment: The message of the refrain “It´s you. Make it habit.
Make it happen. Only you” tells us that the trail from the wish to its successfull
realisation is nothing more than a demand for an imaginary self creation. In
the computer animated clip three masks move their mouths as if they sing the
refrain. Via texture mapping (see chap. IV.2.1.3) two of the three masks show
the facial features of Will Powers. If the masks turn so far that they have to
unveil their backside, then reappear their fronts: They are only facades. The
impression of a reversal of the direction is produced by an optical illusion.
In “Adventures in Success” Allen melds film recordings with two- and three-dimensional animations. The two-dimensional animations look often like
cartoon figures and allude to advertising claims. 47
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Ashley, Robert: Perfect Lives, 1983. Video opera, visualised by John Sanborn
and Dean Winkler.
John Sanborn and Dean Winkler visualised Robert Ashley´s “Perfect Lives”
(1983). The composer Ashley performs the multiple storylines. He and the piano player “Blue” Gene Tyranny dominate image and sound: Repeating motifs
are Ashley´s upper body with hands gesticulating in the course of his speech
presentation and fade-ins on “Blue” Gene Tyranny´s hands playing piano. Ashley, Sanborn, Tyranny and others involved worked with variations of leitmotifs
on the levels of images, sound and speech. They created a postmodern “video
opera” with seven half-hour-long episodes. 48
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Emshwiller, Ed/Smith, Alvy Ray: Sunstone, video, 1979.
Ashley, Robert: Perfect Lives, Part VII: The Backyard, 1983. Video opera,
visualised by John Sanborn and Dean Winkler.
The animation programmed digitally by Alvy Ray Smith in 1979 for Ed Emshwiller´s “Sunstone” treated images in the virtual space like turning windows
in a cube-like arrangement. 49 Smith´s animation anticipated Sanborn´s and
Winkler´s sequence in “Part VII: The Backyard” in “Perfect Lives” with Ashley
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speaking in an associative manner about a “polychrome heart service”. On
the cube´s sides appear Ashley´s head and Tyranny´s hands playing piano.
Between the loose coupled planes of the cube appears a little cube reflecting the
form of the wider cube and its projections on each plane.
Tacuma, Jamaaladeen: Renaissance, 1984. Music video by John Sanborn and
Dean Winkler.
In 1984, for the opening of the Computer Museum in Boston, Sanborn and
Winkler created the clip “Renaissance” accompanying Jamaaladeen Tacuma´s
funk jazz instrumental music. The video with its images of Boston Harbor,
stereometric bodies flying above raster planes and turning grids can be observed as if it is created by using elements of the history of computer animations in a toy world. The animation was built with a Quantel Paintbox (since
1981) and integrated spatial layers for recombinations and transformations
of buildings and stereometric objects.
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Between the video segments of “Abracadabra” Conn changes the camera
perspective on the studio room. The actress and the fireballs are the constants
between the segments. On the other hand, Sanborn and Winkler choose for
“Perfect Lives” a multi-perspective montage-pictorial space constituted by
fade-ins with changes in the type of composition. Sanborn and Winkler create
in “Renaissance” an image space graded in deep layers, but buildings and
stereometric objects become moving motifs as if flying objects constitute the
urban space. The extensions into the depth of the image space change with the
constellations consisting of arbitrary multipliable and manipulable elements.
“Renaissance” is an example for the transition from film recordings edited in
post-production to videos with image spaces mostly constituted by computer
animations. In “Adventures in Success” Allen varies the modes of representation. Cuts are softened to transitions via corresponding background designs
of the cartoons representing projections of a better self. In contrary Sanborn
and Winkler present in “Renaissance” continuous transformations of the image
space by digital image processing: from cutting sequences to the transformations of the image space by digital image processing.
Dire Straits: Money for Nothing, 1985. Music video by Steve Barron.
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In 1985 Steve Barron produced a clip to Dire Straits´ “Money for Nothing”. The
composer Mark Knopfler featured a seller´s thoughts: Musicians receive “Money for Nothing”. Knopfler wrote the lyrics in memorizing the comments of a
seller whom he met at a “hardware department in a television/custom/kitchen/
refrigerator/microwave appliance store”. 50
Ian Pearson and Gavin Blair used the animation system Bosch FGS-4000 and
a Quantel Paintbox. They preferred monochrome surfaces and renounced
shadings and textures. The animation artists divided the seller in two virtual
figures (“Sal” and “Harv”) composed with stereometric volumes. The virtual
sellers acted in simulations of a sitting room with a TV and a salesroom with
a television wall and a large projection. The MTV lifestyle mentioned in the
lyrics got its visual counterpart in the MTV logos presented on the television
wall. Film recordings of a Dire Straits concert appeared on screens within the
virtual space. Several times these concert recordings took over the complete
screen and replaced the virtual space. Some parts of the live recordings were
edited by rotoscoping and it looks as if the contours of microphones and others
have been traced with a highlighter.
In contrast to the fade-ins with the musicians in concert the sellers are animated as combinations of stereometric elements carrying appliances through the
salesroom. The function of this deindividualising typecast is ambivalent: Meanwhile it offers the sellers a protection by anonimisation, it is degrading, too.
With the accentuation of the criticism´s function as a psychic valve of humans
in dependent working conditions listeners are influenced to understand the
sellers´ utterances as improper. With the animation of their bodies as combinations of blocks the virtual sellers appear as caricatures of real sellers because
the whimsical faces and the gaudy colorization provoke doubts concerning the
adequacy of their ciriticism.
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Jagger, Mick: Hard Woman, 1985. Music video by Digital Productions.
In 1985 Digital Productions created for Mick Jagger´s “Hard Woman” animations on the super computer Cray X-MP (since 1983) with the company-owned
software “Digital Scene Simulation”. The body volumes of a female and a male
figure are only slightly outlined by `luminous´ colored lines meanwhile the
background shines through. Not only “Hard Woman”, the subject of the lyrics,
but also Jagger appear as figures constituted by lines. Furthermore film recordings of the singer appear within a street simultaneously in several entrances of
the animated houses. The content of the lyrics is not interpreted by the animation: It plays visually around some elements of the lyrics. 51 The 3D animations
of the `luminous´ stick figures are further developments of the 2D figures
created by Allen for Tharp´s “The Catherine Wheel” (see above).
If the lyrics contain only variations of the subject love then the possibilities to
create extraordinary music videos are very limited, if animators are restricted
to visualise motifs of the lyrics. Then computer animators are not only incapable to change the lyrics´ trivial and redundant characters but rather they
inforce it. At least Conn´s video for “Abracadabra” (see above) and “Hard
Woman” suggest this conlcusion.
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The huge hits as “Video of the Year Winners” of the broadcast MTV in Los
Angeles were in 1986 the clip for “Money for Nothing” by the Dire Straits and
in 1987 the clip for “Sledgehammer” by Peter Gabriel.
Gabriel, Peter: Sledgehammer, 1986. Music video by Steven R. Johnson. Screenshot from Dailymotion.
In 1986 Aardman Animation and Brothers Quay were directed by Steven R.
Johnson to create a clip for Peter Gabriel´s “Sledgehammer”. The clip is realised
without computerised image processing and takes up early animation methods
with his fast cuts and fade-ins of `flying´ objects that move through the image
space. The scenes with modelling clay animations incorporate elder animation
methods for the revivification of inanimate objects. The motion animation via
pixilation is not only used for the modelling clay figures but demonstrated with
the singer Peter Gabriel, too: Recordings of his head are are edited frame by
frame – he appears as “living stop motion puppet”. So he is a figure in the video
that is treated in the same way as the modelling clay figures. Peter Gabriel is
said to have been lied 16 hours under a sheet of glass meanwhile the animation
artists recorded the takes.
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“Sledgehammer” offers in the genre music video a successful counter-image to
music videos with computer animation. Nevertheless the counter-image offers
also artificial image spaces, montages of moved objects in unreal sizes and fast
image or cut sequences. 52 “Sledgehammer” became the most sent clip in the
history of the MTV station.
Kraftwerk: Musique non Stop, 1986. Music and video by Rebecca Allen.
Screenshot from Vimeo.
When Rebecca Allen started in 1983/84 to prepare a clip for Kraftwerk´s “Musique non Stop” she used the same equipment of the Computer Graphics Laboratory at the New York Institute of Technology, as in “Adventures in Success”
(see above). Because Kraftwerk´s musicians finished the sound studio editing
of their recording only in 1986, Allen was not able to complete her animation
at an earlier date.
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In her animation she uses no film recordings of the musicians. Nevertheless
with her animation of heads and bodies she takes over the characteristics of the
musicians´ performance in concerts: The four musicians are dressed with the
same clothes and with the same hairstyle. They stand in identical distances behind their tables on which their equipments are installed to operate with them.
Allen divided plastic models of the musicians´ heads in fields, photographed
them from different angles to receive the informations being relevant for the
preparation of animated wire frame models. In the clip these four heads are
presented in different arrangements as figures in wire frame simulations (without overlaps), polygon animations and animations with smooth surfaces. At
the end of the clip Allen presents recordings of fielded head models reminding
crashtest dummies. Then a white masks appears, receiving at first eyes then
facial colours before it changes into a black-and-white simulation with lines as
basic elements.
Parallel to Kraftwerk´s technopop with its minimalist repetitions and a few
variations as well as their de-individualized concert performance with a few
standardised gestures Allen combines phase segments of the process to construct the musicians´ 3D-simulations. She presents these elements as if they
were segments of a repeatable studio process.
Meanwhile “Sledgehammer” escapes digital smoothness with impure surface
stimuli of the film recordings, this smoothness is celebrated by by Allen
and Kraftwerk: The `impure´ against the reduction to `pure´ elements of a
machine-made precision. By taking up Kraftwerk´s hybrid esthetics between
human, machine and computer as well as the wire frame animations of the seventies´ science fiction movies (see chap. IV.2.1.4.1), Allen plays with elements
precoded as technoid. (The animations of) the humans look as if they are deand reconstructable like robots. 53
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Walczak, Diana/Kleiser, Jeff: Don´t Touch Me, video, 1989.
In 1989 Diana Walczak und Jeff Kleiser present the animation of a female singer in “Don´t Touch Me”. The animation created with Wavefront is mentioned
in histories of CGI (computer-generated imagery). 54
The singer Perla Batalla was the model for recordings of body motions by Motion Analysis Inc. The motion patterns were translated into a digitised model
of an actress called Dozo: Dozo with a smooth skin appearing lifeless moves
like Perla Batalla and sings with her voice. Dozo sings lyrics written by Walczak
and Kleiser about her situation as a virtual performer (music: Frank Serafine).
In “Don´t Touch Me” Kleiser and Walczak used motion capture not anymore
as a modular building block system for the presentation of a virtual world parallel to the concerts of a band – like the animated versions of the Kraftwerk´s
musicians in “Musique Non Stop” – but present an artificially made star. The
audiovisual performance of the music clip presents a musician in a star-like
position. But this musician should be able to present himself without concerts,
and has to try to become independent of a career as a concert star. Meanwhile
the distribution of music clips remains bound to media packages with concert
stars, “Don´t Touch Me” is a model for the computer animation of human
bodies and their motions developed out of the forms of music videos.
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After 1987 the sales of music videos on videocasettes collapsed. The major labels of the music industry reduced their budgets for clips. 55 Music clips remain
distributed by television boradcasters like MTV (since 1981): The character of
a designed interplay between the levels of image and sound shifts more then
before to the promotion of musicians as stars dominating the visualisation.
The fast replacements of sequences would have been too time-consuming and
expensive for the film animators´ montages of frames at cutting tables. These
fast following cuts remained a core element of the promo(tion) style after the
decline of the sales of music videos on videocasettes. 56
Kleiser and Walczak conceptualised “Don´t Touch Me” not anymore as a video
to a musical work. Instead they designed it as an art film financed by Hewlett
Packard to demonstrate in 1989 the technical development of virtual actors in
its actual state – without references to stars in concerts.
The combination of simulated figures and life recordings in “Money for
Nothing” was a compromise between Mark Knopfler and the task of MTV to
present interesting clips instead of documentations of concerts. 57 Between
virtual performers as main actors – like Dozo in “Don´t Touch Me” – and their
degradation to statists beside filmed concert stars in “Money for Nothing”
offers Allen in “Musique Nonstop” a third possibility to relate musicians and
computer animation to each other: the simulation with virtual actors as a
parallel world to the concert performance and its real actors.
IV.2.1.4.3 Demoscene
In the eighties the demoscene arose out of the activities of crackers who removed the copy protection (in the software) of computer games and added
intros to their copies. These cracktros for the personal computer Commodore
64 (1982-94) were distributed since 1983. Cracktros included the logos of
their creators (sometimes moved), a scroll text, graphic elements (sometimes
moved), and music. The music was written in formats similar to MIDI files.
216
Furthermore the cracktros contained instructions for computing processes first
in assembly language and later for C and C++. 58 The codes were written for
computers with 8-bit processors which realised the screen presentation in real
time 59, without recognizable time delay. An alternative to these processors of
the Commodore 64 offered since 1985 the 16-bit processors of the Commodore Amiga. 60
German Cracking Service: Slamball, cracktro for Commodore C64, 1984 (Botz:
Kunst 2011, p.54ss.).
The cracktros were developed to autonomous demos. From 1987 to 1990
groups presented their demos one after another in megademos. 61 Since 1987
a scene for personal computers with the operating system MS-DOS arose
and became independent from the Amiga demoscene in 1992. Today demo
competitions are organized for participants with different kinds of personal
computers of the eighties. 62
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RED SECTOR INC: Megademo, Commodore Amiga, 1989
(Botz: Kunst 2011, p.145-153).
Supercomputers and mainframe computers were used for the frame-by-frame
creations of film sequences. This technology for computer animation constituted the bottom end of a scale of available computing capacities, and the
demoscene built the opposite end using the low computing capacities of
personal computers for real time animations. 63 Between these extremes of animations for big and little computers tools were available for digital mini- and
microcomputers like Tom DeFanti´s GRASS (since 1973, for DEC PDP 11/45,
since 1972, see chap. IV.1.2) and ZGRASS (since 1978, for Datamax UV-1,
since 1978) 64 as well as Woody Vasulka´s and Jeffrey Schier´s Digital Image
Articulator (1976-78, for DEC LSI-11, since 1975, see chap. IV.1.2). In the
eighties Steina and Woody Vasulka realised interesting videos with the Digital
Image Articulator. 65 At the same time Mary Jane Veeder developed with
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ZGRASS a two-dimensional visual language with signets resp. icons as well as a
two-dimensional personal language derived from arcade and video games. 66
Veeder, Jane: Montana, video, 1982.
The animations realised with mainframes and supercomputers were oriented
to the ideal of hyperrealism. Hyperrealism was (yet) no goal for many digitally
produced videos by artists and for the demo scene´s real time animations:
Contrary to the simulation machines for cinemas (and advertisement) were
alternative concepts exploring the possibilities offered by the computing capacities that were affordable for private persons. Authors of music videos hark
back to various artistic as well as cinematic forms of animations and combine
the aesthetics of videos and movies. 67
The animations for film sequences being realised with mainframe and supercomputers were commissioned by producers of the entertainment industry.
These films should fulfill the expectations of the movie goers. In contrary
the animations created by Mary Jane Veeder, Steina and Woody Vasulka
with mini- and microcomputers were experimental films made with the goal
to find new film forms. On the other hand creators of the demoscene used
personal computers to develop their own subculture´s aesthetics with running
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text-(three-dimensional augmented) icon-combinations despite limited technical possibilities.
The creators of demos practice a counter model to the commercial exploitation
of copyrights by the movie distributors and the video game industry. The authors of demos abstain from profits and distribute their products free of charge.
This distribution in combination with open software (with sites containing
collections of files with codes for free download) sustains a collaborative development of programming. 68 This open culture and its use for collaborative
developments became a model for alternative digital cultures.
IV.2.1.4.4 The Techno-Imaginary
In the eighties computer art was perceived by humanities scholars from the
point of view of a “techno-imaginary”. The term stood for a virtuality being
valued positive. Recent and possible future developments of digital media
and telecommunications were imagined as the constituents of this virtuality.
With the upcoming telecommunications (see chap. VI.1.2) scholars foresaw an
ubiquitous distribution of signs 69 causing an imagination not only of a deterritorialised socialisation but of a virtual world, too, allowing to connect it to the
reality as if we live in an electronic world and need interfaces not as accesses to
virtual worlds, but to reality. 70 Paul Virilio´s theses on the development of relations between media, time and territories in the 20th century were combined
with Jean Baudrillards theses on simulation 71 to an analysis of an accelerated
sign distribution leaving behind referential functions. This sign distribution
removes the experience of a material presence into a distance as if the everyday
world can be observed only from a historicising and museumising point of
view. The “hyperreal” of a remoteness leaving behind the reality as uncatchable
infects already the experience of the presence, meanwhile in earlier times this
remoteness has been only a problem of reconstructions of the past. 72
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On the one hand the exchange of commodities should not always have been a
distribution oriented to the exchange value: As proofs serve comparisons with
gifts and their functions in not mercantile organised societies. On the other
hand in mass media the communication of signs with signs is accelerated in
media assisted ways oriented to exchange values replacing communication
increasingly by “floating signifiers”. The symbolic interaction (communication)
looses its community constituting functions and is replaced increasingly by
specatacle organisations constituted by corporative organised connections
between distribution systems for different kinds of media. Within these
connected systems the music video is only one product in a row with others
(records-TV-movies-concerts-videos-advertisement). 73
With the Situationists the pure spending of gifts without responding gifts by
the donees became a model for free exchange. 74 A precondition for a free
exchange is configured by `objects´ or signs not tied to codes as they are constituted by exchange values among others. These ties are transformed under
conditions of the “hyperreal” into shadows of its own past in which they arose.
Recipients finally accept spectacle organisations, because the signs circulating
as parts of these spectacles impregnate the consciousness until it is impossible
to distance oneself from imaginations determined by others. The world of illusions constituted by “simulacra” becomes all-embracing. 75 The 3D simulation
created with computer animation can be interpreted as a part of the spectacle
organisation especially if the simulated objects are presented as parts of an
autonomous virtual world.
In a time when computer games still were not able to simulate in a hyperrealistic way a world with immersion producing effects (see chap. VII.1.3.1)
the movie “Tron” (see chap. IV.2.1.4) demonstrated how the virtual worlds of
computer games provoke fictions of `other worlds´. Nevertheless these worlds
behind screens are accessible only by technical interfaces the simulations are
primarily experienced as emotionally experienced environments.
Lisberger´s movie shows the fight between the “Master Control Program” and
the safeguarding program maintaining the users´ control. This fight reacts to
the vision of simulated actors supervising our imaginations of a socialisation
in a technically organised world that produces not only games but assimilates
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itself to them (“gamification”). Nevertheless Tron´s reconstructed balance
between virtual and real worlds was presented on a literary level as a science
fiction and on a filmic level as a spatialisation of the plot: In “Tron” the computer animation served as a means to realise the literary and filmic fiction of an
interaction between human and computer, as it was developed in the plot and
in the storyboard with `pencil and imagination´, independent of computing
capacities. Contrary to this fictionalisation are we faced today in the web 2.0
with real problems to organise big data with either an open or a hidden control
of data streams.
Although Baudrillard tried in his criticism of the simulation and the simulacra
to explain the spectacle organisation as a civilisation distributing signs so that
its members loose increasingly the capability to recognise dependencies from
outside controls, his criticism is tuned by some of his followers to an euphoria
over technology. 76
The accelerated distribution of signs can not only be a part of the spectacle
organisation of simulations but a cause for the dissemination of gender patterns, too. This possibility arised with the technological means offered by an
accelerated computer aided image processing and a layered virtual image space
replacing representations of real spaces by possible phase spaces. Peter Weibel
presented these spaces in his theses on the “Pictorial Space in Electronic Art”
77 and in collaboration with Valie Export in the performance “Voices from
an Inner Space” (1988) 78 as a possible way to a civilisation reorganising itself
digitally and transgressing gender specific role patterns.
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Export, Valie/Weibel, Peter: Voices from an Inner Space,
intermedial performance, Brucknerhaus, Linz 9/17/1988.
After algorithms generating fractals were used in computer animtaion to create
formations perceived by humans as landscapes (compare Loren C. Carpenter
1980 in “Vol Libre” and 1982 in “Genesis demo” for “Star Trek II: The Wrath of
Khan”, see chap. IV.2.1.4.1), Export and Weibel get inovled in “Voices from an
Inner Space” with the two-fold tie of computing processes to representing as
well as symbolic functions and transgress it unilateral: They dissolve symbolic
functions nevertheless they provoke imaginations of bodies beyond gender
stereotypes and renounce with it to transgress representing functions, too.
However these functions aren´t used anymore for renderings of real states of
affairs but for their transgressions.
A precondition of a “chronocraty” accelerating the distribution speed of digital
organised knowledge is the distribution of personal computers: In Silicon
Valley the counterculture of hackers and early networks became neoliberal
(see chap. VI.1.2) 79 and provides with the distribution of personal computers
and their increasing capacities the precondition of a technoperspective 80 that
is shared by cyberfeminism´s theses on “cyborgs”: If biological restrictions of
human bodies, as they are given for example by sexual characteristics, become
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transgressable by new possibilities for biological transformations, then the
social ties between the biological sex and gender specific role patterns are
obsolete, because the first one becomes as flexible as the last ones. 81
The cyberpunk suggestion of a living with “biochips” facilitates to imagine `the
human´ as a “prosthetic god” 83 augmenting himself and being able to extend
this process to a transformation of himself into a self-navigating computer.
Contrasting to this conception of a technoid self-transformation published
by Oswald Wiener already in the midst of the sixties 84 the real problems are,
how to generate artificial life by self-transforming computing processes. Each
computer and each software set insurmountable limits to self transformations
because the transformation rules of computing processes always determine
how codes can be developed: The ideal of an unlimited emergence is a technically unreachable long-term goal. 85
In the eighties authors combined the possibilities of 3D simulation with an
artificial intelligence and an artificial life taking up concepts of evolutionary art
(see chap. IV.3.1 and chap.IV.3.2) as well as with telecommunciation as if these
scopes inevitably will grow together to a “cyberspace”. 86 But these scopes don´t
merge as seamless together as a technoperspective of the eighties promised it.
Perhaps “Second Life” fulfills today some of these ideas on the combination of
3D simulations with telecommunication, but this platform offers to bring in
ideas on artificial life only on a semantic level but not on an algorithmic level.
Theories of cyberspace obscured that the technical possibilities of 3D simulation needed above all the human imagination to develop image sequences and
film sequences: Humans work on the interfaces to computers and computing
processes in using systems combining several software evolutions with the goal
to prepare phase spaces until they are conclusive for observers whose expectations were shaped by pictorial, photographic and filmic codes. Computer
animation is used by creators of movies especially to develop further the concepts of art that were shaped by these codes: Digital animations are `projection
machines´ created by humans for humans.
224
The meaning of the word “machine” can´t be restricted in this context to the
frameworks of technical terms. “Machine” is a psychological term, too, which
means here the imagination´s fitting together of heterogenous elements to new
syntheses 87, but not algorithms of transformations executed in computing
processes, in whatever way humans may be able to perceive the presentations
produced by these generations (see chap. VIII.1 on modular and generative
procedures). The “desiring machine” cinema affects the expectations of computer animations´ creators, meanwhile Evolutionary Art gives the “technical
machine” an autonomy by liberating computing processes controlled by algorithms from hereonomous functions. The outputs of these generative processes
become an experiment for humans´ observing operations: Here it is open
what can constitute the “desiring machine” in the future. 88 But this openness
presupposes a generative art using evolution only as a point of reference (see
chap. IV.3.3). However Evolutionary Art´s variant simulating plants and bodies
binds the “technical machine” to the “desiring machine” by the representational
function of the presented sign configurations (as organic bodies) and their
symbolic function (via the chosen vicinity to the biologic evolution (see chap.
IV.3.1 and IV.3.2)). In this case the “desiring machine” is not liberated by twofold representational and symbolic ties but contents itself with the extension
of the imagination and representation of relations between art, technology and
science. But these ties were criticised by the philosophers of postmodernism as
“dispositives” that should be deconstructed. 89
Annotations
1 Jones: Synthetics 2011, p.45; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer
1990, p.14s.; Weibel: Geschichte 1984, p.18.
The digital “frame-by-frame” procedures take up the image-by-image
procedure of the classic films storing sequences of images on footage made
of light-sensitive material (celluloid and others). In the film projector the
spooled film is led over a light emitting projection mechanism respectively
reeled off and spooled again. The procedure of the image production,
the storing medium and the coordination of the image sequences in this
medium are substituted by other procedures in video technology (magnetic
225
tape) and digitalisation. The “frame-by-frame” procedure permits to use the
entire computing capacity for the production of each of the single images
(“frames”) constituting the film. The monitor presentations of the calculated
frames are photographed. A sequence of photos combined “frame-byframe” on the footage provokes the impression of movement.
In the eighties the creation of image sequences with a computer executing
programmed transformations from frame to frame was a long-standing process with results being surprising for the programmers, too. If images were
moved on the film spool or on magnetic tape as well as on the projectors
or recording devices, then the computer was nothing else then an an image
processing device and the playback didn´t cause any problems because no
computing devices were needed (Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer
1990, S.14s.).
2 Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.33-37; Carlson: History 2003, chap. A Short
History of CCRG and ACAD; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer
1990, p.25-35.
3 Botz: Kunst 2011, p.13-16; Tasajärvi: History 2004, p.12-15.
4 Mary Jane Veeder, Tom De Fanti, Steina and Woody Vasulka (see chap.
IV.1.2, IV.2.1.4.3 with ann.65s).
5 Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.28; Goodman: Visions 1987, p.153ss.; Holbrook/Brown: History 1982, p.14; Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984,
p.21 with ill.1.5, p.24; Knowlton: Movies 1968.
6 Buxton: Interaction 2005, p.1163,1166; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.53s.;
Halbach: Interfaces 1994, p.156ss.; Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984,
p.19; Sutherland: Sketchpad 1963; Wagner: Computergrafik 2004, chap.2.
7 Carlson: History 2003, Section 3; Goodman: Visions 1987, p.21s.; Krull:
Origin 1994 (quotes).
8 Interfaces for the human-computer interaction:
Alan Kay and his research group at Xerox PARC, Palo Alto (Palo Alto
226
Research Center): Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.215s.; Flückiger: Effects
2008, p.54; Friedewald: Computer 2009, p.237-355; Manovich: Kay 2007;
Manovich: Software 2008, Part I, Chapter 1; Rheingold: Tools 1985, Chapter
11.
Xerox Star, Apple Lisa und Apple Macintosh (cf. ann.64): Friedewald: Computer 2009, p.343-351,379-409; Matis: Wundermaschine 2002, p.270s.
9 Lansdown: Computing 1980; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer
1990, p.223; Reichardt: Computer 1971, p.15ss.; Reichardt: Serendipity 1968,
p.88ss.; Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.194s.
10 Knowlton: Movies 1968, p.68; Noll: Movies 1965; Robbin: Shadows 2006,
p.177ss.
Hardware: Mainframe Computer IBM 7094 (since 1962), Stromberg Carlson
4020 Microfilm Recorder (since 1959), 16mm camera.
11 Dietrich: Intelligence 1986, p.163; Knowlton: Computer 1964; Magnenat
Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.19s.; Reichardt: Computer 1971,
p.77s.; Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.246.
12 Knowlton: Computer 1964, p.67 (quote). Cf. Auzenne: Visualization 1994,
p.29s.,39s.,45; Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.246-249.
13 Le Grice: Computer 1974, p.163 (first quote); Sutton: Vanderbeek 2012,
p.320 (second quote).
Knowlton used the experiences he made in collaborations with VanDerBeek
to develop TARPS (“Two-dimensional Alphanumeric Raster Picture System”).
With TARPS the films from “Poemfield No.1” (1964) to “Poemfield No.8”
(1967) were created (Lansdown: Computing 1975; Patterson: Vision 2015,
Kindle ebook position 1473). As the program used for the realisation of “Poemfields” Carolyn L. Kane, Gloria Sutton and Gene Youngblood mention only
BEFLIX, bot not TARPS (Kane: Algorithm 2014, Kindle ebook position 2649;
Sutton: Machine 2015, p.173,175; Sutton: Vanderbeek 2012, p.313,315s.;
Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.246). In “New Talent – The Computer”, when
Vanderbeek explains the programming in his description of the production
process, then he mentions only BEFLIX (Vanderbeek: Talent 1970, p.86,91).
227
On the coloration: Glora Sutton quotes Vanderbeek´s “EAT [Experiments
in Art and Technology] talk, c. 1968”: “Starting with a black-and-white film
on one end of an optical printer and projecting it on color based film and
sticking color filters in the way, you superimpose a color layer over your
black-and-white material.” (Sutton: Machine 2015, p.173s.). According to
Zabet Patterson the film was “carefully colored by hand.” (Patterson: Vision
2015, Kindle ebook Position 1524. Cf. Kane: Algorithms, Kindle ebook Position 1490).
14 Csuri/Shaffer: Art 1968, p.12,97; Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics
1984, p.22s. with ill. 1.10.1-4; Youngblood: Cinema 1970, p.202s. Rosen:
Record 2006, p.46 with ill.42: “Programming Assistance: Samuel J. Cardman,
and J. Carroll Notestine...Shaffer developed the technique to bring in short
segments of the plotter drawings. Csuri developed the ideas of morphing,
randomness and fragmentation, which were implemented by Shaffer, Cardman, and Notestine. Charles Csuri, e-mail to [Margit Rosen]..., 8 May 2006.”
Further examples of two- and three-dimensional computer animations in the
sixties:
Pritchett, Tony: Flexipede, 1967-68. Film, 16 mm, b/w, sound, 2 min. 10 sec.
In: Mason: Computer 2008, p.211s.
Yamada, Gaku/Tsukio, Yoshio: The Art of Fugue, 1968. Film, 16 mm, b/w,
sound, 3 min. In: Sakane: Computer 1986, p.204.
15 Reichardt: Computer 1971, p.81s.; Reichardt: Serendipity 1968, p.75s.
16 Glowsky: Csuri 2006, p.33,71. In chap. IV.2.1.2 Csuri´s procedure to create
animations was sketched out in the description of the film “Hummingbird”.
17 Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.14,24,55; Burtnyk/Wein: Key-Frame
Animation 1974, p.38; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.113s.; Magnenat Thalmann/
Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.25s.,28,48.
18 Burtnyk/Wein: Key-Frame Animation 1971; Burtnyk/Wein: Key-Frame
Animation 1974.
19 Burtnyk/Wein: Skeleton 1976, p.564.
228
20 Roberts: Machine 1963 (cf. Gouraud: Shading 1971, p.87s.); Sutherland/
Sproull/Schumacker: Characterization 1974.
21 Manovich: Mapping 1993, Chap. 3-D Computer Graphics: Interactive
Perspectivalism; Wagner: Computergrafik 2004, chap.2.1.
22 Gouraud Shading: Gouraud: Computer 1971/1979; Gouraud: Shading
1971 (quotation p.90); Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.93;
Morrison: Computer 1994, chap. 1970-79; Parke: Animation 1972, p.452.
23 Phong Shading: Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.94;
Morrison: Computer 1994, chap. 1970-79; Phong: Illumination 1975, p.312:
“When planar polygons are used to model an object, it is customary to shade
the object by using the normal vectors to the polygons. The shading of
each point on a polygon is then the product of a shading coefficient for the
polygon and the cosine of the angle between the polygon normal and the
direction of incident light.”
24 Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.93ss.,147.
25 Carlson: History 2003, Section 20; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.58s. with
ill.8s., p.86 with ill.10, p.270 with ill.81.
26 Catmull: Subdivision 1974; Catmull: Computer 1975; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.88; Morrison: Computer 1994, chap.
1970-79; Straßer: Kurvendarstellung 1974.
27 “Bump Mapping”: Blinn: Simulation 1978; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.85s.
On James F. Blinn: Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.52-59.
28 Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.26,30s.
29 Autodesk, since 1982; Wavefront, since 1984; Prisms, since 1985; TOPAS,
since 1986; Pixars Render Man, since 1988 (acquirable since 1989); Autodesk
Animator, since 1989 (for personal computer); Wavefronts Composer, since
1991; Wavefronts Kinematon and Dynamation, since 1992; After Effects,
229
since 1993 (see Manovich: Effects Part II 2006, chap. Deep Remixability:
“remixability of previously separate media languages”).
30 Gere: Culture 2008, p.184s.,190ss.; Neuhaus: Gibson 2006.
31 Parke: Computer 1972, p.452s.
32 Westworld: Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.21,53,67s.; Flückiger: Effects
2008, p.115,424s.; Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984, p.111; Manning: Blocpix 1975.
Futureworld: Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.16,21,53; Flückiger: Bodies
2010, p.7s.; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.115,423s.; Jankel/Morton: Computer
Graphics 1984, p.118.
33 Star Wars Episode IV: Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984, p.111;
Weibel: Geschichte 1984, p.27.
Alien: Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984, p.110s.; Mason: Bits 2006,
p.12-15; Mason: Computer 2008, p.233ss.: Sutcliffe´s “program was written
in FORTRAN with calls to FROLIC subroutines”. Colin Emmett developed
the animation software FROLIC and Alan Sutcliffe used it on a minicomputer
Atlas Lab Prime 400 (since 1976/77). Sutcliffe created a polystyrene model
of the mountains. He used their measures as basic elements of his simulation
(Mason: Bits 2006, p.14).
34 Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.85; Carpenter: Computer 1980; Flückiger:
Effects 2008, p.66; Franke: Kunst 1986, p.17,32; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.118; Morrison: Computer 1994, chap. History 1980.
35 Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.53,67,86; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.62,424;
Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984, p.118s.; Wikipedia: Looker 2012.
Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.424 on the scene with the simulation coming after
the whole body scan: “As in `Westworld´...the digital figure´s construction is
simultaneously present as the narration´s subject; in the narrow sense no illusionment takes place with the artificial body, but the representation is framed
as technically made...”
Animated sequences in “Westworld”, “Futureworld”, “Looker” and “TRON”
230
(see below) were created by Triple-I (Information International Inc.) (Flückiger:
Bodies 2010, p.7ss.,12s.; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.62,115,423s.,427; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.37).
36 Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.76s.; Flückiger: Effects 2008,
p.66,116s.,132s.; Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984, p.39,49s.,115ss.
with ill. 7.12.1-8; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.35,120.
37 In 1986 a computer was developed especially for the animation system:
Reyes had complex algorithms implemented on its graphics machine and
was more powerful than its predecessor Pixar and the Cray X-MP utilised for
example by Digital Productions (Conlan: Computers 1986, p.83,90).
Ray Tracing simplifies the calculation of light beams. Not all beams reflected
by an object, but only the reflexes are calculated that became visible from
the observer´s point of view. In the beginning of the seventies the Ray Tracing technique was used first by the MAGI (Mathematical Applications Group
Inc.) animation system (Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.181s.; Goldstein/Nagel:
Simulation 1971; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.101s.).
38 Cook/Carpenter/Catmull: Reyes Image Rendering 1987 (quote p.97).
39 Reeves: Particle Systems 1983, p.359. Cf. Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.132s.;
Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984, p.39.
40 Reeves: Particle Systems 1983, p.365-371.
41 Sims: Particle 1990, p.405.
42 Carlson: History 2003, Section 6; Conlan: Computers 1986, p.75-83; Flückiger: Bodies 2010, p.12s.; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.7s.,117,216s.,427; Gere:
Culture 2008, p.182ss.; Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984, p.110 with
ill.7.1, p.112-115 with ill.7.2-7.10, p.118s.; Weibel: Musik 1987, p.141.
43 Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.62,68; Carlson: History 2003, Section 6;
Conlan: Computers 1986, p.75-83; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.37; Morrison: Computer 1994, chap. History 1980.
231
“Tron” (1982) as Arcade Game of Bally/Midway Games contained four little
games that included sequences of the movie (Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.471).
The game was more successful than the film.
44 Gere: Culture 2008, p.190s.
The main character in the TV series “Max Headroom” was not simulated via
computer animation: The contemporary techniques of film production (actor
Matt Frewer with make-up) were extended by video editing. Computer
graphics realised in 1987 on a Commodore Amiga for the American version
of the series included only the appearance of the protagonist on monitors.
After an accident (by disregarding the warning “maximum headroom”) the
main character “Max Headroom” existed only as a monitor phenomenon,
as prescribed by the plot (Masson: CG 101 1999, chap. History of Computer
Graphics).
45 Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984, p.133; Weibel: Musik-Videos
1986, p.40s.
46 The Catherine Wheel: Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984,
p.35,85,88s.,133.
Abracadabra: Conn: Promos 1983, p.8.
Furthermore: Soma Holiday: Human Vectors, 1982: with vector graphics, realised by Dov Jacobson with the “home game machine” “Vectrex”: Jacobson:
Vectors 2013.
47 Goodman: Visions 1987, p.163 (Software: system with face parameters
developed by Frederick I. Parke, director of the Computer Graphics Laboratory at the New York Institute of Technology. Hardware: Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC) Vax 11/780 (since 1977), Evans and Sutherland Picture
System, Ikonas Frame Buffer); Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984,
p.,119,133s. with ill. 8.34.
48 Ashley: Perfect Lives 1991; Machan: Ashley 1986; Nabakowski: Geld 1985.
John Sanborn and Dean Winkler used “Video Image Processing” for editing
(video synthesis and video editing).
Richard Wagner, “Oper und Drama” (“Opera and Drama”), 1952, on the
232
“leitmotif” as a conception of the music drame: Wagner: Oper 1994,
p.163,286,298-308,332s.,349-365,419,446ss., 492s., 532s. (On the “leitmotif”
in “Perfect Lives”: John Rockwell, cited in: Nabakowski: Geld 1985, p.91).
49 Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.110s.; Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics
1984, p.46ss.; Weibel: Geschichte 1984, p.32. Programming: Alvy Ray Smith,
Lance Williams und Garland Stern (at the Computer Graphics Laboratory of
the New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury/Long Island).
50 Knopfler 1994 in: Flanagan: Interviews (undated).
On the music clip “Money for Nothing”: Barron: Dire Straits 2006; Girl on
Film: Anniversary 2010.
On rotoscoping: Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.110,216.
51 Flückiger: Bodies 2012, p.10s.; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.425s.; Goodman:
Visions 1987, p.2s.,162s.,187.
On the economic efficiency of supercomputers for animations (using Digital
Productions as an example): Auzenne: Visualization 1994, p.86ss.
52 On the interpretation of “Sledgehammer”: Drewett/Hill/Kärki: Peter
Gabriel 2010, p.57-69,195-209.
53 Bussy: Kraftwerk 2006, p.154-157.
54 Flückiger: Bodies 2010, p.9 with ann.8; Flückiger: Effects 2008, p.424 with
ann.8; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer 1990, p.238; Morrison:
Computer 1994, chap. History 1980.
Motion Capture was developed by Jim Hanson and Brad de Graf (Morrison:
Computer 1994, chap. History 1980). In the closing credits of “Don´t Touch
Me” De Graf is named as one of the “body flexing software consultants”.
The face animation was realised by the interpolation of key frames using
software developed by Larry Weinberg. The body animation was created
with software from Konrad Witz.
55 Wikipedia: MTV Video Music Award 2012.
233
56 Fast following cuts resp. fast change of short sequences in music videos:
Poschardt: Video 2004, p.14.
After 1987 exceptions from the music video as a promotion for the concert
star are for example Daft Punk (because of their self chosen anonymity (f.e.
“909 Revolution” (1998), directed by Roman Coppola)) and Aphex Twin (f.e.
“Rubber Johnny” (2005) by Chris Cunningham).
57 Barron: Dire Straits 2006.
58 On the form of Cracktros: Botz: Kunst 2011, p.14; Tasajärvi: History 2004,
p.13.
Cracktros, since 1983 for Commodore 64: Botz: Kunst 2011, p.14,46,51s.,63s.
Examples by TRIAD und FAIRLIGHT: Botz: Kunst 2011, p.77s.
Programming languages of the cracktros: Botz: Kunst 2011, p.59s.
59 Botz: Kunst 2011, p.15.
60 Botz: Kunst 2011, p.46-50,103-107; Matis: Wundermaschine 2002,
p.283ss.
The illegal copies of computer games made and distributed by a cracktro
scene dominated by Commodore users caused a decrease of the sales being
earned by game enterprises with their versions for the Commodore computers. After all the game producers reduced the versions made for Commodore
personal computers.
Commodore had no success with its efforts to reach more clients of business
computers. One of the reasons for this failure was Commodore´s fame
as a producer of personal computers for gamers and creators of videos.
These people used the capabilities of Commodore computers for graphics
presentations and the tape deck for audio casettes (Tasajärvi: Demoscene
2004, p.12; Wikipedia: Amiga Software 2012, chap. Piracy). In 1994 the
image problems originating in these technical characteristics as well as other
reasons led to the bankruptcy of Commodore Business Machines.
In 1986 Andy Warhol demonstrated in a TV programme the capabilities that
personal computers offer to creators of graphics: He used a paint system
(Graphicraft by Commodore Amiga Inc.) on a Commodore Amiga 1000 to
rework a digital image representing Deborah Harry (Goodman: Visions 1987,
234
p.89). Warhol showcased how simple it was to use a Graphical User Interface
(GUI) (Lambert: Computer 2003, chap.6: The Act of Using) and presented the
graphics possibilities of the Commodore Amiga 1000. The demoscene did
not need programmes that kept users via GUI away from the source code.
61 Botz: Kunst 2011, p.132-153 (with an interpretation of Red Sector´s
Megademo 1989, from p.145 onwards).
62 Botz: Kunst 2011, p.15,220-232,241-249; Reunanen: Computer 2010,
p.47s.
63 Important producers of personal computers were in the seventies and
eighties: Xerox (Alto, 1972; Star, 1981); MITS (Altair 8800, since 1974); IMSAI
(8080, since 1975); Apple (Macintosh, since 1976; Apple II, since 1977);
Commodore (PET, since 1977; C 64, since 1982; Amiga, since 1985); Atari
(400/800, since 1979); IBM (IBM 5150 Personal Computer, since 1981). Lit.:
Augarten: Bit 1984, p.270-281; Friedewald: Computer 2009, p.366-409;
Matis: Wundermaschine 2002, p.271-288.
64 ZGRASS: Dietrich: Real Time Animation Techniques 1982; Jankel/Morton:
Computer Graphics 1984, p.84; Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann: Computer
1990, p.33.
Datamax UV-1 is a small computer constructed for ZGRASS. Bally planned to
market the Datamax UV-1 as a home computer. Datamax UV-1 should have
to compete with the Apple II (see ann.63). But Bally gave up this sphere of
business in 1980.
65 Vasulka, Woody: Bad, 1979 and Artifacts, 1980. In: see chap. IV.1.2 with
ann.45.
Vasulka, Steina: Selected Treecuts, 1980. In: Hatanaka/Koizumi/Sekiguchi:
Vasulka 1998, p.19.
66 Veeder, Mary Jane: Montana, 1982. In: Magnenat Thalmann/Thalmann:
Computer 1990, p.33s.; Popper: Electra 1983, p.418s.
Furthermore with ZGRASS:
Cuba, Larry: Calculated Movements, 1985. In: Youngblood: Cuba 1986.
235
Further examples: Jankel/Morton: Computer Graphics 1984, p.82 with ill.6.6,
p.84.
67 Diedrichsen: Kunstvideo 2004, p.73-78: Feinemann: Kunst 2004, p.87s.;
Theweleit: Frühgeschichte 2004, p.58-65; Weibel: Musik 1987.
68 Botz: Kunst 2011, p.14,17s.
69 On the Techno-Imaginary: Rötzer: Technoimaginäres 1988, p.66ss.; Rötzer:
Technoimaginäres 1989, p.55. The concepts of a “techno-imagery” are
bound to computer technology, meanwhile Villem Flusser defined the “techno-imagery” independent of this technology (see ann.76).
Telecommunication and sign distribution: Virilio: Bild 1989; Weibel: Beschleunigung 1987, p.110ss.,125.
70 Baudrillard: Ecstasy 1983, p.127 (“The subject himself, suddenly transformed, becomes a computer at the wheel, not a drunken demiurge of
power.”); Rötzer: Technoimaginäres 1989, p.55.
71 Baudrillard: Simulacres 1981; Virilio: Véhiculaire 1975; Virilio: Intervall
1990.
72 The Hyperreal: Baudrillard: Simulacres 1981, chap. VIII.
”Museumification” of the present: Baudrillard: Simulacres 1981, chap.1. Cf.
Jeudy: Welt 1987, p.10s.; Lübbe: Zeit-Verhältnisse 1990.
73 Floating signifiers: Derrida: Ecriture 1967, p.423s.; Rötzer: Technoimaginäres 1988, p.67.
Marketing strategies connecting distribution systems for different kinds of
media and the music videos within these strategies: Weibel: Musik-Videos
1986, p.27,38s.
Spectacle-organisation: Debord: Société 1967/1992, chap.1-3, p.9-41; Dreher: Performance Art 2001, p.353 with ann.574.
74 Dreher: Valie Export/Peter Weibel 1992, p.19s.
236
75 Baudrillard: Simulacres 1981, chap. XVII.
76 Villem Flusser uses the term ”techno-imagination” in a positive sense for
an exploration of the possibilities offered by the technological progress to
create new `technical images´ (Flusser: Umbruch 1998, p.169,209-222; Krtilova: Bild-Theorie 2010, p.11). Flusser explained these possibilities at a point in
time when the correlations between technical and social progress seemed to
open new perspectives on a better future.
77 Weibel: Raum 1986. Cf. Weibel: Beschleunigung 1987, p.40s.,117ss.,125;
Weibel: Ausstieg 1989, p.72.
78 Dreher: Valie Export/Peter Weibel 1992; Schuler: Weibel 1997, p.258263,276; Weibel: Stimmen 1988.
79 Gere: Culture 2008, p.142-149.
80 Weibel: Beschleunigung 1987, p.152: “High performance computers
should become cheaper like electricity in earlier times.”
81 Haraway: Cyborg Manifesto 1991, p.150.
82 Gibson: Zero 1986. Cf. Baudrillard: Videowelt 1988.
83 Dreher: Performance Art 2001, p.349s. with ann.571.
84 Wiener: Bio-Adapter 1965-66.
85 Cariani: Emergence 1991; Whitelaw: Metacreation 2004, p.217-221; see
chap. IV.3.4.
86 F.e. Rötzer: Technoimaginäres 1988, p.66ss.,73s.
87 Schmidgen: Unbewußte 1997, esp. p.76s.,145ss.: “[Gilles] Deleuze and
[Félix] Guattari...tell us that the technical machine is a representation of the
desiring machine.” (p.77)
237
88 Schmidgen: Unbewußte 1997, p.75-81.
89 Deconstruction: Derrida: Semiologie 1986, p.80s.
Dispositives: Foucault: Jeu 1977.
238
IV. Images in Motion
IV.3 Evolutionary Art
IV.3.1 Biomorphs
In the case of movie sequences the ”synthetic realism” 1 of computer animation (see chap. IV.2.1.3 and IV.2.1.4) is a result of compositions with
three-dimensional programmed objects in movable perspectival views. The
animators follow visions presented in the drawings of a storyboard: Although
the perspectival views of the three-dimensional elements are calculated and
their transformations follow the algorithms of the animation program, these
elements are reworked by the animators with an attention to details fulfilling
the requirements of the drawings being parts of the storyboard.
This patchwork character use William Latham and Karl Sims (see chap. IV.3.2)
in another manner than the movie animators: With the film´s storyline the
cinematigraphic function of the storyboard is cancelled, too. The storyline is
substituted by algorithmically structured generations of the computer animation.
From the biologic concepts of the evolution of cells and living beings Latham
and Sims derive the limitations of possible generations by environmental factors. Their animation programs contain evolution possibilities and humans –
the artist or observers – can replace the environmental conditions by selecting
values influencing the computing processes enfolding the programmed evolution in generations. Instead of hiding the character to be composited behind
cinematographic ”reality effects” 2 Latham and Sims develop their three-dimensional image worlds by intervening into the programmed generation. An
interplay between generative processes and artists´ interventions substitutes
the interplay between biologic evolutions and environmental factors.
239
For their Evolutionary Art Latham and Sims found suggestions in biological
research: Scientists use in theoretical biology models presenting concepts of
the evolution as computer programs. The conceptualisation of the biologic
evolutions´ possibilities is preferred over laboratory tests with real cells. 3
In the third chapter of “The Blind Watchmaker” (1986) Richard Dawkins presents a computer simulation of branching processes building “trees”. In the case
of repeated symmetric branches Dawkins reduces the amount of codes resp.
the “genes” containing the elements for the branching program. “Biomorphs”
with forms similar to plants and animals grow out of combinations and repetitions of these genes. 4 Dawkins takes up the term “biomorph” of the English
coologist and artist Desmond Morris. As “biomorphs” Morris designated the
animal-like figures of his late surrealistic paintings that were influenced by Yves
Tanguy. 5
Dawkins, Richard: The Blind Watchmaker, 1986, examples of a model for the
“evolution game” (Dawkins: Watchmaker 1986, p.70, fig.8).
240
Dawkins´ model shows the relation between genotypic codes (“genes”) and
phenotypic features (“biomorphs”) realised by these codes in recursive procedures. The biologic developments proceed “bottom up” without a superior
goal. From the “cumulative selection” 6 over generations arise context-sensitive
reactions between simultaneous developments. This sensitivity is exclusively
“locally determined”. 7
On the one hand there is an “evolution game” with development rules contained in the “genes” producing elements that vary by mutation, on the other
hand a “human selector” 8 can influence the development and is able to reduce
a multilinear plurality to a certain development line. 9
Dawkins highlights the difference between an unguided development in Artificial Life and the computer games simulating worlds. He distinguishes “computer games” from “evolution games”: The former are “designed by a human
programmer”, meanwhile in the latter case “the monsters that one encounters
are undesigned and unpredictable.” 10 For Dawkins “evolution games” consist
of the relation between development rules and pseudo-random producing
mutations.
IV.3.2 Evolution and Processing
In 1992 William Latham and Stephen Todd presented their creative work on
and with a program for the generation of biomorphic forms. At the IBM United Kingdom Scientific Centres in Winchester Todd developed the program for
an IBM 3081 Mainframe Computer (since 1980) with IBM 5080 (since 1983)
and 6090 Graphics Systems. 11 For William Latham Todd´s editors simplified
the selection of three-dimensional elements and their possible combinations.
The editors made it easier for Latham to concentrate himself on the best ways
to use the properties of the software. The artistic selection takes place in phases
and the program offers new possibilities for further creative phases. The editors
offer schemes with lines marking the limits and edges of objects. Later on,
241
colors, surface properties and shadows are added. With a “three space tracker”
Latham can move the virtual object in the image space. 12
Latham, William: Form Synth, 1989, detail of a drawing, 10 meter long
(Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.5, fig.1.6).
When Todd developed the software “Form Growth” with the “ESME (Extensible Solid Model Editor) programming tool” then he reconstructed characteristics of Latham´s “evolutionary trees”. In 1989 Latham presented these
drawings of the series “Form Synth”. 13 “Form Synth” furnishes a vocabulary
with three-dimensional elements being indicated by the CSG (Constructive
Solid Geometry) program as line drawings. 14 There are elements that can be
combined as “horns”. Via input to the editor Latham can determine the quantity and the combination manner of the elements. 15 The element combinations
in turn can build groups that are presented in the series “Mutations” (1991-92)
in random order next to and beneath each other. “Continuous evolutions” can
lead to “gene banks” for further selection phases and to animations with “life
cycles” determining how long “genes” will reappear in an animation. 16
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Latham, William: Horns, structure mutation with the software Mutator
(Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.99, fig.5.26).
Latham and Todd explain the development of their animations:
In our earliest animation, “The Conquest of Form” [1987] , the view
of the rigid forms moved but the forms themselves did not change –
so called `view animation´. Later in “A Sequence from the Evolution
of Form” [1989] the forms metamorphosed using a technique called
“gene interpolation” 17, but only a single form was visible at any one
time. Our latest animation “Mutations” [1991-92] illustrates the
process of a surreal evolution, involving breeding and growth, with
many forms animating with complex interactions. 18
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Latham, William: Mutations, film, 1992
(Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, unpaginated, fig.31).
In Todd´s program Latham takes on the function of a “human selector”
(see chap. IV.3.1). Latham describes himself as an “artist gardener” creating
his “parody” of Artificial Life science by following aesthetic criteria. 19 The
processing of forms in Latham´s and Todd´s “Evolutionary Art” doesn´t take
care about biologic criteria. This indifference can be understood as a “parody”
of the problems of the theoretical biology to design computer simulations as
reconstructions of the laws of the natural cells´ development (see chap. IV.3.1).
“Form Synth” already demonstrates with its selection of basic elements and
their combinations that it is not a biological model. Instead it only follows
sugestions by “biological forms”: “Our systems...often bear no relation to biological reality.” 20
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Sims, Karl: Panspermia, film, 1990.
In 1990 Karl Sims presents in the short film “Panspermia” an artificial world of
biological forms as an autonomous cosmos with recurring parallels to the evolution of geology and fauna on earth. For the program Particle Systems Sims
finds after the short film “Particle Dreams” (1988, see chap. IV.2.1.4.1) with the
artificial world of “Panspermia” a new adaptation of three-dimensional bodies
in processes of de- and reconfiguration.
The film sequences show the “artificial evolution” of recurring branchings and
mutations of three-dimensional elements with stem- and leaflike forms. In the
framework created by Sims´ software for Thinking Machines Corporation´s
Connection Machine CM-2 the human selection determines the progress of
the artificial selection. From the functions offered by the program the artist
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chooses a sufficient complex amount. These functions determine the constructions of two-dimensional elements (x- and y-axes). To these elements a third
axis (z-axis) with spatial depth is added for shading and textures.
“Genetic cross dissolves” use different properties of similar images as a basis
for further evolutions. Images with different genetic origins are used to construct third images connecting both branches. External image sources can be
integrated into these procedures and submitted to the general transformation
processes.
Sims, Karl: Primordial Dance, film, 1991.
“Primordial Dance” (1991) features the transformation of face shapes at the
end of a film with an image vocabulary being in general lesser oriented to biologic forms than “Panspermia” but more to abstract-organic forms and oriented to a design of the whole image surface. Evidently Sims is lesser interested to
demonstrate 3D effects but rather to present continuously changing structures
with spatial depth characteristics being generated by his program written in
Lisp. In 1991 Sims explained in his article “Artificial Evolution for Computer
Graphics” his programming method not without references to Richard Dawkins´ “biomorphs” and their two-dimensional branches. 21
246
Sims, Karl: Genetic Images, installation, Linz 1993.
This “artificial evolution” is supported by the parallel processing Connection
Machine CM-2 with 32 768 processors. It was developed by the Thinking
Machines Corporation, for whom Sims worked as an artist-in-residence. The
installation “Genetic Images” (1993) 22 demonstrates the capabilities of this
computer: 16 monitors present the evolutionary states of an image. Pressure-sensitive sensors are placed before each one of the monitors and make it
possible for observers to choose the preferred state that will be the origin for
the parallel processing presented on all monitors. The images on the screens
change every 30 seconds. 23
Compared to Latham and Todd Sims shifts the focus of the “human selector”
(see above) to the evolutions implemented by the software – the “functions”
using the “genotypes” to compute the “phenotypes”. 24 The “human selector”
doesn´t act like a sovereign creating “gardener” (William Latham, see above)
following criteria of visual perception, but as a selector of sequences provided
in the system. 25
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IV.3.3 Fractal Flames
In 1991 Scott Draves developed the “Fractal Flame Algorithm” and published
it in 1992 with the General Public License (GPL), that permits to develop
the program further: Mark Townsend did it in 2004 by translating Draves´
program from C to Delphi Pascal for his project “Apophysis”. 26 In 1999 Draves
transformed his tool for image processing in the screensaver “Electric Sheep”
into an ever changing animation: A network of computers generates new fractals out of elder fractals. After having installed the screensaver on their computers observers can choose fractals they like. Often selected fractals survive
longer within the network and will be presented for a longer time. With the
longer survival of the chosen fractals observers influence further evolutions.
“Fractal Flames” is based on repetitions of forms and generations by recursive
“affine” transformations. After these linear transformations follows a further
transformation phase with non-linear functions. In a third phase further
affine functions generate “a post transform”. The image generating process of a
“flame” can be completed by a “final transform”. 27
The “tone-mapping” is a “log-density mapping”: During the transformation
each pixel is beset several times. A “histogram” counts these fillings containing
informations about the “tone-mapping”. In the third transformation phase
(“post-transforms”) a further coordinate is added for the attribution of colours
to functions. The transformations are stored in two-dimensional caches until
the image generation is finished. The two-dimensional image generation provides three-dimensional optical effects. 28
Since 2001 a forth channel is added to the three colour channels. This new
channel prevents a too dark presentation of dark parts of the image in the cathode ray tubes. Since 2003 the “flame” manifestations are partially rearranged by
symmetry effects and thus simplified for the visual perception. 29
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Draves, Scott: Electric Sheep, internet-connected personal computers,
screensaver, 1999.
Screenshot (March 2011) with user manual.
In “Electric Sheep” the computers with installed screensavers receive fractal
animations from a “distributed system...with client/server architecture”. Each of
these “sheeps” is constituted by 128 frames and “160 floating point numbers”
as its “genetic code”. Observers can select preferred “sheeps” with a click on the
key marked with an arrow showing upward. The lifetime, that a “sheep” can
have in the system, depends from the amount of votes. Draves mentions Karl
Sims (see chap.IV.3.2) as an inspiring example for the “fitness” by the observers´ choices. Draves substitutes Sims´ supercomputer by a “distributed system”
built by internet-connected personal computers. 30
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Draves, Scott: Electric Sheep, internet-connected personal computers,
screensaver, 1999.
Screenshots of succesive phases (April 2012).
Since March 2004 net participants can send self-designed “genomes” via
“Apophysis” to the server of “Electric Sheep”. Then this server distributes the
“genomes” to “all active clients” (the computers constituting “Electric Sheep´s”
network). 31 The “clients” store the uploaded “sheeps”. These “sheeps” are transformed by the “clients” following the “genome specifying a frame to render”
received by the server. Then the “clients” send their transformations to the
server. The server integrates two machines. One of them “runs the evolutionary
algorithm, collects frames and votes, compresses frames, and sends genomes
to clients for rendering”. The other one sends the thus processed “MPEGs” via
internet to computers with installed screensavers. 32
250
Draves, Scott: Electric Sheep, internet-connected personal computers, screensaver,
1999. Screenshots of succesive phases (March-April 2012).
Draves developed with “Electric Sheep” the former Evolutionary Art for
mainframe computers further into a networked system whose output can be
received via screensaver and can shape the everyday life and work at personal
computers: The times of computer standstills are the times of “Electric
Sheep´s” screen presentation. It can become a habit during work breaks to
select between transformation states of “Electric Sheep”. “Electric Sheep” offers
a diversion that may facilitate the return to concentrated work.
IV.3.4 Emergence
Peter Cariani differentiates in “Emergence and Artificial Life” degrees of
emergence. Cariani points to Gordon Pask´s successful experiment from 1956
or 1957 with a solution of iron sulfide and electrodes giving rise to formations
of iron filings that become audio sensitive. In this extreme form of emergence
something new comes into being. 33 The limits of Evolutionary Art´s systems
251
are below this extreme because their goal is not to develop capabilities to adapt
themselves to environmental conditions up to self transformation but to use
self contaminations by elements from different evolution lines and states (via
interpolation and crossover) to construct visual structures integrating external
selections by artists and observers. They restrict the system´s possibilities to
generate structures out of its own resources.
Referring to Henri Focillon´s «La vie des formes» Niklas Luhmann explains
in “Art as a Social System” the relationship between “system and evolution” in
the “art system” as an autopoietic differentiation of forms – as “a re-entry of the
form into the form”. 34 In Evolutionary Art the program installed on appropriate hardware is the “system”, the computing processes generate the “evolution”
and when the author or observer chooses one of the interim results then he
supplies the disturbance that causes reactions in the following evolutions of the
system.
When Luhmann explains the “autopoiesis” in a system as its development
by internal differentiations causing growing capabilities to react to external
disturbances 35, then he presupposes William Ross Ashby´s “homeostasis”
as a recreation of the system´s balance via self-regulation reacting to external disturbances. Ashby features in his “law of requisite variety” internal
differentiations as a fundamental capability of a system to be able to react to
environmental conditions resp. external disturbances. 36 Luhmann transforms
Ashby´s “homeostasis” based on “requisite variety” into the “autopoiesis” of the
system that includes the excluded via “re-entry” if its internal differentiation is
sufficiently developed. 37
In “Art as a Social System” Luhmann defines the “communication system art”
as an autonomous system defining itself by marking limits (resp. by excluding
non-art) and including the heteronomous elements via “re-entry”. A disturbance doesn´t cause a system´s revision but provokes decisions that can allow
the system to stand the test by evolution or by exclusion of the disturbances.
The observers as participants of the “communication system art” can stimulate
the system´s evolution with critical contributions and provoke a shift of the
border between art and the environment. 38
252
In Evolutionary Art the participant is integrated as a selector of forms and is
then involved in the discourse on this art form as an insider, but as such he
never transgresses the interface between external observation and system-internal organization.
Evolutionary Art can be considered to be a plea for autonomous art within
the “communication system art”. With reference to exceedable technical limits
Evolutionary Art can be understood as pointing towards changeable characteristics. They offer new impulses for discourses in the “communication system
art”. 39 Thereby, questions concerning the self-demarcations of the system art
are at disposal for new discussions.
Annotations
1 Manovich: Realism 1992.
2 Manovich: Realism 1992.
3 Langton: Artificial Life 1993, chap. 1, p.25ss.; Reichle: Kunst 2005,
p.127,133.
4 Dawkins: Watchmaker 1986, chap.3, p.43-74.
5 Dawkins: Watchmaker 1986, p.55.
6 Dawkins: Watchmaker 1986, p.45,49.
7 Langton: Artificial Life 1993, chap. 4.2, p.40s.
8 Dawkins: Watchmaker 1986, p.57,60.
9 Dawkins: Watchmaker 1986, p.58, fig.4.
10 Dawkins: Watchmaker 1986, p.60.
253
11 Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.167,169: Before the IBM 5080 a
Vector General 3300 was used.
12 Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.170s.
13 Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.2-6,33s.,37s.
14 Todd: Techniques 1990; Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.134137,171-180. CSG is based on the WINSOM renderer developed in 1983 by
Peter Quarendon 1983.
15 F.e. “Structure mutation”: Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.99ss.
16 Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.102s.
17 Annotation: “This is usually called `parameter interpolation´, but `gene
interpolation´ fits better with our terminology.” (Todd/Latham: Evolutionary
Art 1992, p.109)
18 Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.109.
19 “Artist gardener”: Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.12,98,207,209.
“Parody”: “We create computer sculptures using a parody of genetic engineering.” (Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.208).
20 Todd/Latham: Evolutionary Art 1992, p.40.
21 Sims: Evolution 1991.
22 Sims: Evolution 1993; Sims: Bilder 1993, p.404s.
23 Whitelaw: Metacreation 2004, p.24.
On the technics of the Connection Machine: Langton: Artificial Life 1993,
chap. 7.7, p.61ss.
On the design of the Connection Machine: Thiel: Machina Cogitans 1993.
254
24 Sims: Evolution 1991, chap.2.1, 4.1.
25 Sims: Bilder 1993.
26 Draves/Draves: Flame 2010; Draves/Reckase: Flame 2008.
27 Draves/Reckase: Flame 2008, p.4ss.
28 Draves/Reckase: Flame 2008, p.9.
29 Draves/Reckase: Flame 2008, p.11.
30 Draves: Electric Sheep 2005.
31 Draves: Electric Sheep 2005, PDF p.1 (April 2012: The mailing list Genetic-design can be used to send contributions realised with Fractal Flame
editors to the list archive).
32 The server is programmed with Perl, meanwhile the clients are programmed with C, C++ and Objective-C. All codes are open source (GPL. In:
Draves: Electric Sheep 2005, chap.2, PDF p.2s.).
33 Cariani: Emergence 1991, p.789. Cf. Whitelaw: Metacreation 2004,
p.222s. During the experiment Gordon Pask said to Stafford Beer: ”It´s growing an ear.” (Pickering: Brain 2010, p.341s.)
Definitions of ”emergence”: Cariani: Emergence 1991, p.775s.; McCormack/
Dorin: Art 2001, PDF p.4.
34 Luhmann: Art 2000, p.184 with ann.34.
Luhmann´s reference to Focillon (Focillon: Vie 1934): Luhmann: Art 2000,
p.109 with ann.19, p.118 with ann.34.
35 Luhmann: Art 2000, p. 49-52, 185, 203ss., 207.
36 See chap. II.1.5 with ann.18 on Ashby´s ”homeostasis”; Luhmann: Art
2000, p.298.
255
37 Porr: Systemtheorie 2002, p.12s.
38 Dreher: Kunstwerk 2008, p.57; Luhmann: Art 2000, p.79.
39 For observers Draves´ ”Electric Sheep” can be used at work as described
at the end of chap. IV.3.3 and as a provocation in discourses about the ”communication system art”.
256
V. Reactive Installations and Virtual Reality
V.1 Operations of Observers
on the Interface to the Image Simulation
Between the seventies and nineties Myron Krueger, Jeffrey Shaw and Peter
Weibel realised reactive installations. The installations presented below react to
observer operations 1: A technical system using cameras or especially designed
surfaces as sensors can be provoked by observers with body movements to
react with an output. The computer-aided systems change their projections
of two-(Krueger) and three-dimensional (Shaw, Weibel) picture worlds in
reacting to the input being produced by observers and registered by sensors. If
observers act on or before an interface with the goal to change the projections
then they provoke questions about the self-orientation mediating between
spaces of the projected images and the real space.
With their operations on an interface in the real space the observers cause
changes in a not walkable virtual space. The navigation in an animated `space
of the image´ (Bildraum) with gravitationless objects is coordinated by observers on an interface under gravity conditions. Observers coordinate their
actions on the technical interface with the `spaces of the images´ in recursions:
The system´s possibilities can be reconstructed in cognitive reactions (observing operations) to the triggered mechanical reactions. For further explorations
of these possibilities observers modify their actions on the interface (observer
operations). These exploring observer operations cause modifications in the
cognitive efforts to reconstruct the system´s possibilities (observing operations). The question if the system can be reconstructed adequately with the last
reconceptualisation may lead to further observer operations.
257
Observers can construct a mental plan for the technical functions in a highly
simplified form if it seems to be useful for explorations of the virtual space
presenting the projected animated image on an interface. Recursions between
observing operations (Beobachtungsoperationen) and observer operations
(Beobachteroperationen) are parts of the investigations exploring the presented
programmed animations. Observers can construct a second plan containing
the relations between the technical interface and cognitive recursions to navigate their explorative behavior.
The artists and programmers did not publish the codes for the technical
functions of the installations explained below. The effects of these functions
can be tested by observers in operating on or before the installations´ technical
interfaces and looking on the projections or on screen presentations of the
animations.
Krueger: Myron: Psychic Space, 1971, ground plan
(Krueger: Reality 1991, p.26, fig.2.9).
258
In 1971 Myron Krueger´s “Psychic Space” was installed in the Memorial Union
Gallery of the University of Wisconsin. From the exhibition space an installation space was separated by partition walls. This space contained 48 black
pressure-sensitive base plates and a projection surface. The longitudinal walls
are made of black polyethylene. Observers were able to move on the base plates
between the rear projection on one narrow side and the other narrow side
being coated with phosphorescent paint. In moving on the plates observers
activated a sound program and an animation program. A minicomputer PDP11 since 1969) of the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) transmitted the
input of the pressure-sensitive base plates to a Moog Synthesizer (since 1964)
generating sounds. An Adage AGT-10 Graphic Display Computer supplied
the rear-projection with the ground plan of a labyrinth. Within the labyrinth
observers could move a rhombus by changing their locations on the base plates
– not without activating the sound generation.
The sound generation reacted to observers entering and leaving the “sensing
grid” as well as to actions like jumping on the base plates and lifting legs. The
latter two operations of observers suspended the sound generation. After a
`playtime´ used for explorations of the base plates observers could activate
high- and low-pitched sounds on different sides and recognised this interface
functioning like a keyboard of a musical instrument. But the distribution of
pitch levels on the “sensory grid” could rotate 90 degrees. This could cause
irritations.
The Adage graphics system´s monitor was recorded by a camera and the rear
projection presented its images in the environment. When observers entered
the enviroment then they saw the rear projection of a square. Via pressures
on the base plates observers could move the rhombus to the square. With the
approximation of the rhombus and the square the projection of the labyrinth
started. The projection of this configuration was dissolved if observers didn´t
move the rhombus within the limits of the labyrinth. The observers could
easier be successful in directing the rhombus to the goal because the projected
obstacles contained target-oriented barriers. But the labyrinth was dissolved
before observers could reach its innermost part. 2
259
Krueger, Myron: Videoplace, since 1974, installation set up.
Krueger developed “Videoplace” from 1974 to the nineties. 3 “Videoplace”
takes up the closed-circuit video installation prefigured in 1969 in Nam June
Paik´s “Participation TV II” 4 and modifies it: In Paik´s installation observers
could use a control panel to manipulate video images recorded by video
cameras and projected on monitors. Krueger replaces Paik´s interface (control
panel and cameras) by a series of programmes transforming the recordings
of a black/white-surveillance camera. The camera mounted underneath the
projection surface records observers and their operations “against a brightly
backlit sheet of translucent plastic”. On a computer with parallel active
“specialized processors” the software gathers the camera´s input as a “binary
image” transforming the observers´ contours in a field with ones and zeros for
recognised/non recognised observer operations. The software registers motions
of heads, hands, fingers, legs and feet. 5 These data are used by programmes
transforming and colouring the observers´ contours in different manners. If
obervers leave the camera´s range of vision then the system switches to another
animation programme. 6 “Videoplace´s” switching system and programmes
replace Paik´s control panel and the functions of the video synthesizer.
260
Krueger, Myron: Videoplace, since 1974, program “Individual Medley”.
The programme “Individual Medley” (since 1976 in b/w, since 1979/80 in
colour) was developed for “Videoplace” and uses overlaps of eight contours
recorded successively (“sampling-rate”) and stored them for the animation
programmes´ different kinds of colourising and sound generations. Observers
have to move, if they want to activate the programmes for animations and to
keep them running:
...a participant creates feedback for himself only as long as he keeps
moving. 7
“Critter” offers observers to act with their contours with and against a sign figure constituted by a circle – as its head – with two little circles as eyes and four
lines as legs: A dialogue develops between the machine creature and the observer – on the part of the observer based on the body language, without control
panel or manual. 8 “Individual Medley” and “Critter” are only two of fourteen
examples presented in 1991 by Krueger in his book “Artificial Reality II”. 9
261
Krueger, Myron: Videoplace, since 1974, program “Critter”.
In 1975 Krueger installed “Videoplace” for the first time in the Milwaukee Art
Museum: Two installations with camera-computer-projector units were located
in two rooms in 300 feet distance. In each room the contours of the persons
were projected who acted before the cameras of both installations. Observers
looked at their own contours and at the contours of observers of the other
installation: Observers in both rooms communicated with each other via the
projections. 10
In 1987 Krueger realised “Videodesk” for an “operator” being familiar with the
“Videoplace” system. If “Videodesk” is combined with “Videoplace” then the
operator is enabled to provoke the observers in “Videoplace” to interactions in
various ways.
262
Krueger, Myron: Videoplace, since 1974, with Videodsk, 1987. Krueger at the
Videodesk, studio in the Museum of Natural History, Vernon/Connecticut 1988.
The “Videodesk” operator sits on a table. On a monitor behind the table he sees
the contours of his hands recorded by a camera hanging from above the table.
This input is transmitted to the “Videoplace” system. Some programmes are
developed for the interactions between the observers´ contours in “Videoplace”
and the recordings of the operator´s hands in “Videodesk”.
In “Man-Ipulate” the observer´s silhouette falls over after being tossed on its
upper body by the operator´s hand, meanwhile in “Telecision” observers can
divide the contour of the operator´s arm as if they can separate his hand from
his body. 11 In “Artwheels” observers move their contours between the operator´s hands. 12
263
Krueger, Myron: Videoplace, since 1974, with Videodesk, 1987.
Program “Artwheels”.
Since 1983 Jeffrey Shaw develops reactive installations with image projections.
13 The observers´ coordinations between the orientations in real spaces and
spaces of images are provoked in “Legible City” (variants for Manhattan, Amsterdam and Karlsruhe, 1989-91) and in “The Virtual Museum” (1991) to be
organized in multi-layered ways: Observers are prompted to activate and control mutations of the space of the image by body motions (observer operations)
on the interface. Navigating in the virtual space with its three-dimensional
`gravitationless´ elements is made possible in realising body motions under the
conditions of gravity.
In “Legible City” the houses of a city´s simulation are replaced by letters. (In
the variants for Amsterdam and Karlsruhe) the letters possess the height of the
replaced houses and are parts of a text describing the urban situations reconstructed by the simulation. Before the projection wall a bicycle is mounted on
the floor allowing to turn the handlebars and to pedal. A potentiometer at the
handlebars measures the steering angle. A rear wheel tachometer gauges the
speed.
264
Shaw, Jeffrey: The Legible City, reactive installation, 1989-91.
A personal computer digitises these informations and transmits them to a Silicon Graphics Personal IRIS 4D/20TG Workstation (since 1988). The workstation calculates the location in the virtual urban space in accordance with the
observers´ operations on the bicycle. 14 Meanwhile observers with local knowledge pedal to move themselves in the simulation and try to imagine the real
street views they are supported by city maps in their efforts to identify the real
urban spaces. These maps are presented by a liquid crystal display mounted on
the handlebars: The display presents the biker´s location as a wandering point. 15
265
Shaw, Jeffrey: The Virtual Museum, reactive installation, 1991, presentation
by the artist at the Francisco Carolinum, Linz 1992.
This self localisation of the observer at an installation-external place is substituted in “The Virtual Museum” by a self localisation within the installation´s
space.
An observer sits on a chair in front of a monitor. If the observer sitting on the
chair moves his body then he activates the monitor projection and a rotable
base. On this base the chair and the monitor is mounted. Sensors react to
rotations of the chair and movements of its seat-back caused by observer operations. To the sensors´ data in turn react the image projection and the base.
In 1992 all walls of an exhibition space in the Oberösterreichisches Landesmuseum Francisco Carolinum (Linz) were painted with a black horizontal stripe
situated circa one meter above the floor. The first virtual space represents this
stripe and the rotable base. If the observer uses the chair to navigate himself in
the virtual space onto the stripe then it is usable as an interface to four virtual
spaces. Three of these spaces refer to art media like painting, sculpture and
cinema, meanwhile a fourth space thematises characteristics of computer animated environments via signs (“A”, “2”, “Z”) floating and moving without aim.
The floating and jigging signs illuminate the virtual space.
266
Shaw, Jeffrey: The Virtual Museum, reactive installation, 1991,
Oberösterreichisches Landesmuseum Francisco Carolinum, Linz 1992,
the second and third of five virtual spaces.
If an observer takes place on the chair-as-interface of the “Virtual Museum”
then he looks at the first virtual space as a simulation of the exhibition space
including the rotable base with chair and monitor, but without observer. If an
observer directs himself in the virtual exhibition space to the black stripe then
he recognises it as a switch to further virtual spaces integrating simulations of
the exhibition space without the rotable base. For the observer navigating within the virtual space the black horizontal stripe is `readable´ as an indication of
a switch function.
Within a sequence of spaces this switch function is a connecting part being
only possible in virtuality because it allows to enter a digitally animated space
and it is repeated in it as an entrance to other simulated spaces iterating the
stripe-as-switch, too: With the switch across the black stripe into the next
virtual space the observer is led from the actual virtual space to the next virtual
267
space. Nevertheless this interface within the animation offers no floor plan relating the simulations spatially to each other. The simulated passages represent
the passages (doors, wall-openings) in the exhibition space of the Francisco
Carolinum to adjacent rooms but the simulations of these architectural elements have no functions in the digital context.
Shaw writes on the availability of an arbitrarily expandable sequence of simulated spaces:
My installation of `The Virtual Museum´ embodies the idea of a single-room museum whose quantity of the virtual exhibition rooms can
be infinitely extended. 16
The installation reduces the arbitrarily continuable sequence of virtual spaces
to simulations of spaces reconstructing characteristics of `old´ media. With
this “remediation” 17 in three virtual spaces Shaw facilitates himself to expose
characteristics of 3D simulations in the fourth virtual space. The four spaces
are only a few parts within an arbitrarily expandable sequence of virtual spaces.
These parts are enfoldings of a partially unfolded and potentially further unfoldable media development.
At the Institut für Neue Kunst of the Städelschule in Frankfurt the installation
“On Justifying the Hypothetical Nature of Art and the Non-Identicality within
the Object World” was realised under the supervision of Peter Weibel. The
artwork combines four visual worlds conceptualised and programmed by staff
members of the Institut für Neue Kunst. When in 1992 the Cologne gallery
Tanja Grunert presented the installation an observer walked along a dark corridor to enter a room. It was illuminated by a reactive computer-aided image
projection as soon as the floor sensors were activated. Contact mats are set into
a floor area of 5 x 5 meters. The incoming visitor has just activated the projection when he is able to recognise the 32 pressure-sensitive elements in the floor
and their relations to the programmes of the visual worlds. The observer can
activate four coloured floor sensors to select the letters´ projection of the “text
world” (Constanze Ruhm/Bob OKane), an “architecture” respectivley “space
world” (Dieter Beck/Christian Möller), an “object world” (Akke Wagenaar) or
the “gas world” (Gideon May/Laurent Mignonneau).
268
Weibel, Peter u.a.: On Justifying the Hypothetical Nature of Art and the
Non-Identicality within the Object World, reactive installation, 1992.
Oberösterreichisches Landesmuseum Francisco Carolinum, Linz 1993
(Schuler: Weibel 1997, p.246, fig.113.6).
When an observer enters the installation room then he activates one of the
floor coloured sensors located next to the entrance and starts one of the four
visual worlds. The observer sees each of these virtual worlds unmodified until
he activates further grey sensors. 25 sensors offer to the observers possibilities
to coordinate scaling, proportion and rotation. Further three sensors allow to
control twirl, twist and wave functions. 18
Observers can use the floor sensors to influence the virtual worlds in different
ways. Especially the “gas world” has a highly developed life of its own and is a
specific variant of “artificial life” in Evolutionary Art (see chap. IV.3.1-IV.3.2).
Weibel designates the “variability” of self-unfolding virtual worlds as “viability”. 19
If observers want to switch between the virtual worlds or to modify one of
them then they have to change their distances to the image projection: The
activation of the sensors and the observer´s location are coupled to one another. In operating on the technical interface the observer´s attention switches
269
between the body coordination in the real space and the projected space of
the image – and vice versa.
In front of Barnett Newman´s big lengthwise rectangular paintings with monochrome planes and vertical stripes an observer´s attention switches between
the self localisation in the real space (image space) and the space of the image:
In displacing himself in the real space the observer tries to find out the best position for a switch into the space of the image. In turning their attention to the
space of the image observers switch from a cognitive-corporeal self orientation
in the real space with a peripheral visual perception of the picture as an object
on a wall to the orientation within the depth effects provoked by the concentration on the visual perception of the colour field with an ongoing peripheral self
orientation within the real space. This transition marks the interface between
observations of the real space and spaces of the images. 20
270
Newman, Barnett: Cathedra, 1951, oil and Magna on canvas, 96 x 204 inches,
Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam.
Barnett Newman and female observer in front of “Cathedra” (oil and magna on
canvas, 244 x 541 cm, 1951) in Newman ,s Front Street Studio, New York. Photo:
Peter A. Juley and Son. Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington D.C.
(Anfam: Abstract Expressionism 1990, p.147, fig.110).
271
The technical interface of the installation “On Justifying...” takes up this switch
between the image space (Raumbild) and the space of the image (Bildraum).
The technical interface provokes observers to refocusings and reconceptualisations by exploratory motions between the sensors in the real space and
focusings of the attention to the spaces of images. The image space/space of the
image (Raumbild/Bildraum) switch is the cognitive correlate to the technical
interface.
In their efforts to find out which sensors offer to activate which kind of image
transforming functions observers switch from a self orientation primary
focussed on the real space to a self orientation primary oriented to the space of
the image, from an image space/space of the image orientation to a space of the
image/image space orientation. If observers construct a cognitive interface for
their explorations on the technical interface between real space and the space
of the image then it presupposes an inside/outside switch in the relationing of
the image space and the space of the image: from the observer´s self orientation within the space of the image as `the inside´ and the orientation within
the real space as `the outside´ to the body coordination to activate the sensors
within the real space (`the inside´) with an observation of the produced changes within the space of the image (`the outside´), and vice versa. After changing
over from one virtual world to another one observers can repeat explorative
sequences of actions with refocusings on the image space and the space of the
image via inside/outside switch.
The installation “On Justifying...” focuses the attention of observers to the
inside/outside switch in a “duo-pluriversum” confronting the observers´ image
space with several successively changeable spaces of the image. A model for
“world observation” is put on by the operative relation between the technical
and the cognitive interface. 21 Weibel bases this model theoretically on an
“exo/endo interface” of the observer to the world refering to Otto Eberhard
Rössler´s “endophysics” and their concept of an “explicit internal observer”:
The virtual worlds are...a special case of endophysics.” 22
272
Annotations
1 Observer operations (physical level: body movements) and observing
operations (cognitive level: perceptual schemata, plans for the coordination
of actions, self orientation): Dreher: Performance 2001, p.20-23 with ann.12
and 14.
2 Dinkla: Pioniere 1997, p.72-75; Hansen: Bodies 2006, p.33ss.; Krueger:
Environments 1977/1996, p.476s.; Krueger: Reality 1991, p.24-31; Krueger:
Videoplace 1985, p.147.
3 Krueger: Reality 1991, p.43.
4 Paik, Nam June: Participation TV II, video-closed-circuit, three cameras
combined with a Paik/Abe synthesizer and four monitors, Galleria Bonino, New York 1971: Davis: Experiment 1975, p.189; Decker: Paik 1988,
p.65s.,151; Kacunko: Circuit 2004, p.187s.
5 Krueger: Reality 1991, p.105ss.
6 “The hardware of Videoplace”: “...the system consists of two general-purpose computers and a number of highly specialized processors including one
that executes forty million instructions per second.” (Krueger: Videoplace
1985, p.147)
Most parts of the software were written in C (Dinkla: Pioniere 1997, p.80;
Oelinger: Sinn 1999, chap. I: Aktion und Reaktion).
7 Krueger: Reality 1991, p.48. Cf. Dinkla: Pioniere 1997, p.81; Heim: Realism
1998, p.103; Krueger: Videoplace 1985, p.149; Krueger: Videoplace 1989,
p.210,213; Popper: Art 1993, p.113 with ill.190s.
8 Krueger: Videoplace 1985, p.148s.: ”There are approximately 100 states
that determine CRITTER behavior...Synthesized sound communicates the
personality of the creature.” Cf. Dinkla: Pioniere 1997, p.84-87; Kacunko:
Circuit 2004, p.235; Krueger: Reality 1991, p.46s.; Krueger: Videoplace 1989,
p.210s.; Oelinger: Sinn 1999, chap. I: Aktion und Reaktion.
273
9 Krueger: Reality 1991, p.46-56.
10 Krueger: Reality 1991, p.43.
11 Krueger: Reality 1991, p.58ss.
12 Krueger: Reality 1991, p.61s.
13 Dinkla: Pioniere 1997, p.104-128,132ss.,145s.; Klotz/Weibel: Shaw 1997.
14 Dinkla: Pioniere 1997, p.115, ann.302.
15 Cooperation of Jeffrey Shaw and Dirk Groeneveld. Software written in C
for Silicon Graphics Computer: Gideon May. Software for a personal computer: Lothar Schmidt. Hardware: analog-digital interface: Charly Jungbauer.
Conversion of the bicycle: version for Manhattan: Tatje van Vark; versions for
Amsterdam and Karlsruhe: Huib Nelissen (Colpaert/Shaw: Legible City 1990,
unpaginated). Lit.: Dinkla: Pioniere 1997, p.114-123; Klotz/Weibel: Shaw
1997, p.126-129,169; Manovich: Language 2001, p.260s.; Paul: Digital Art
2003, p.6s.,72s.; Popper: Art 1993, p.110s., ill.180-182; Shaw: Modalitäten
1989, p.209.
16 Shaw: Home 1994.
Computer: Silicon Graphics 4D/310VGX. Software: Gideon May. Hardware:
Huib Nelissen, Bas Bossinade. Lit.: Dinkla: Pioniere 1997, p.126s.; Dreher:
Kunst 1994, p.101ss.; Klotz/Weibel: Shaw 1997, p.132s.,171; Shaw: Museum
1992.
17 Bolter/Grusin: Remediation 2000, p.65.
18 The explanation of “On Justifying the Hypothetical Nature of Art and
the Non-Identicality within the Object World” is taken over almost verbatim
from: Dreher: Beobachter 1996, p.418.
Architecture of the installation: Christian Möller.
The floor sensors are connected by a “circuit board” with the 32 switchers of
a “button box”: Bob O´Kane.
274
Coordination of the virtual worlds with the “button box”: Gideon May.
Computer: Silicon Graphics 4D/320 VGX.
(Craemer: Rechtfertigung 1992, p.6s.; Möller: Architektur 1994, p.28ss.;
Schuler: Weibel 1997, p.288).
19 Weibel: Welt 1994, p.46,51; Weibel: Kunst 1997. Cf. Hünnekens: Betrachter 1997, p.60ss.
20 See Dreher: Weibel 1997, p.52s. with ann.62 on Barnett Newman´s explanation of the relation image space (“environment”) and space of the image
(“sense of space”).
21 “Duo-pluriversum”: Dreher: Weibel 1997, p.44ss.
“World observation”: Dreher: Performance 2001, p.27 with ann.24, p.407s.
22 Weibel: Welt 1992, p.10. Cf. Dreher: Weibel 1997, p.48ss. and Rössler:
Endophysik 1992 (Editor: Peter Weibel).
275
V. Reactive Installations and Virtual Reality
V.2 Seamless Total Simulation versus Interface Architecture
The goal of presentations with head mounted displays and data gloves was to
design the interface to virtual reality as seamless as possible. As it is usual in
their daily life´s body coordination, observers move their bodies in a gravitational world meanwhile they orientate themselves visually in a gravitationless
simulation. 1 Observers should be able to move in simulated worlds as if they
were real, nevertheless they should be able in the virtual reality to coordinate
operations transgressing the body actions under gravitational conditions.
Fleischmann, Monika/Strauss, Wolfgang: Home of the Brain, virtual reality
installation, 1991/92 (Kluszczynski: Data 2011, p.70).
In installations like “Home of the Brain” (1991/92) by Monika Fleischmann
and Wolfgang Strauss 2, “Placeholder” (1993) by Brenda Laurel and Rachel
Strickland 3 and “Osmose” (1995) by Char Davies 4 observers can enter and
explore the spaces of images with motions of feets, hands and eyes in using
virtual reality (VR) interfaces for heads and hands. The installations for data
276
helmets and data gloves need a limited real space enabling observers to act
obstacle-free in exploring the simulated worlds. In “Placeholder” the spaces for
the actions of two observers with data helmets and data gloves are enframed
by stones. By tactile means observers gain knowledge of the limited gravitation-bound area for their actions in a gravitationless virtual world binding the
capabilities for visual perception. 5
Laurel, Brenda/Strickland, Rachel: Placeholder, virtual reality installation, 1993.
On the opposite to these “inclusive environments” with `seamless entrances´
to simulations the “responsive environments” by Krueger, Shaw or Weibel
(see chap. V.1) offer observers thechnical interfaces as `seams´ between the
gravitation-bound real space and the simulated worlds. 6 The `seam´ as a
technical (interface 1) and cognitive interface (interface 2, see chap. VIII.2) can
be a subject of the observation models realised by artists and programmers as
“responsive environments”. 7
277
Davies, Char: Osmose, virtual reality installation, 1995.
From 1991 to 1993 Daniel J. Sandin, Thomas A. DeFanti and Carolina CruzNeira developed “CAVE” (Cave Automatic Virtual Environment) at the
Electronic Visualization Laboratory (University of Illinois, Chicago). In the 3
x 3 meter large room of this technical platform computer animations can be
presented by video beamers as rear projections on three up to six walls. The
animations can be abstract model worlds as well as a panorama-like simulation
of a world or a state of a world (for example reconstructions of a destroyed
monument´s original state). Observers wear stereo glasses (LCD shutter glasses) with sensors (between both glasses) recording their location and the head´s
motions. Perspective distortions in oblique views on the projection walls are
corrected:
Therefore, as the viewer moves around in the environment, the off-axis
stereo projection is calculated according to his/her position with respect
to the walls. 8
278
Sandin, Daniel J./DeFanti, Thomas A./Cruz-Neira, Carolina: CAVE, reactive
installation, Electronic Visualization Laboratory (University of Illinois, Chicago),
1991-93.
The installations of different works programmed for the “CAVE” can require
the mounting of other interface equipments for the observers´ navigations.
In “ConFIGURING the CAVE” (1996) by Jeffrey Shaw, Agnes Hegedüs and
John Lintermann observers are enabled to navigate in seven visual worlds by
moving a puppet´s limbs. 9 Observers switch from one visual world to another
by moving the hands of the puppet to its eyes.
The visitors are on the one hand `external observers´ exploring the programming of the virtual world and reconstructing its `internal observer´. 10 On the
other hand the observers are already included in an environment trying to immerse `seamlessly´ into its simulated world. But the real space used as a facility
for simulations has a limited size (10’ x 10’ x 9’/3,05 x 3,05 x 2,74 meter) and a
projected simulation remains an inaccessible world of optical illusions. In the
little cube the observers´ area for body motions is limited, and in the navigation through the projected space its illusion of depth has to be remembered for
the body coordination as being part of an inaccessible `mirror world´ behind
the projection walls.
279
Shaw, Jeffrey/Hegedüs, Agnes/Lintermann, John: Con FIGURING the CAVE,
reactive installation in the CAVE, 1996.
Dave Pape´s “Crayoland” (1995) 11 provokes observers to turn around if they
want to follow the landscape panorama being drawn with crayons and then
scanned. The margins of the virtual space (200´ x 200´/60,56 x 60,56 meter)
and the limits of the real space are coordinated with each other. In contrary
to the “Crayoland” is in “ConFIGURING the CAVE” the depth of illusion
constituting the space of the images blocked by repeated patterns of sign configurations or abstract forms: The forward driving navigation in the virtual
space is replaced by an observer behavior coordinating the puppet´s limbs to
explore the possible modifications of the animation´s four sides: The seeker of
the depth effect (immersion) is replaced by a sliding observer.
280
Pape, Dave: Crayoland, reaktive Installation im CAVE, 1995.
Parallel to the navigation within the virtual world the observers use their memory for self-orientations in a narrow real space prohibiting them to walk more
than some steps in one direction. But with operations on the technical interface
observers can move in virtual reality as if they walk in a much wider space than
in the real space of the “CAVE”: Observers `walk´ in simulated worlds often
meanwhile they stand still in the real space. If observers turn around to see the
simulated space on walls, floor or ceiling then they act out a `standturn´ (they
turn the body without walking) to move in the virtual world in circles: They
move with their eyes in the virtual world in another radius than their body
in the real space. A `seam´ between the real space and the projection is the
precondition for a `seamless´ navigation in the virtual world(s).
281
No training is necessary for the coordination of motions with the tracker and
one´s own body to navigate with the technical interface of the “CAVE” in virtual worlds. For observers this interface can seem to be an easy and intuitively
usable entrance to the virtual world, but it is not `seemless´ like the navigation
in virtual reality installations with data helmets and data gloves: The technical
interface (interface 1) and the cognitive interface of the observer for his coordination of body motions (interface 2) have to be approximated to each other for
cognitive intermediations (interface 3, see chap.VII.2.2, VII.2) between the real
and virtual spaces with their different constituents. These intermediations for
the development of adequate observing operations (action plans and schemes)
can result in requirements to further exploratory actions with the feet, the head
and the tracker. These characteristics allow to describe the “CAVE” as a navigable panorama with moving images (steuerbares Bewegtbild-Panorama). 12
Maurice Benayoun´s “CAVE” installation “World Skin” (1997-2003) shifts the
observer in the position of war zones´ tourists. Observers can´t see the spatial
depth of the war zones because it is blocked by the simulation of soldiers,
tanks and ruins. The technical interface included a navigation interface for one
observer and for further observers three little devices hanging from the ceiling.
These hanging devices are prepared for a camera-like use. Observers click with
a camera imitation on one of the war motifs projected on three walls. Then the
photographed `frozen´ moments of war scenes turn into white planes with the
outlines of the motif `clicked away´. After observers activated the sound of the
camera clicks several times the background noises of war activities are replaced
by the sound of rifle fire.
282
Benayoun, Maurice: World Skin, reactive installation in the CAVE, 1997-2003.
Benayoun creates the paradox of unmoved scenes of a warzone `vivified´ by
3D animation. With it the artist developed a narrative as well as a conceptual
context being especially appropriate for the technical platform CAVE. To
expectations concerning an immersion provoked by the allround simulation
of the CAVE responds Benayoun in thematising the expectations of warzone
tourists to experience the horrors of the past as illustrative as possible but not
too `close´. The cardboard-like presentation of war scenes prohibits heroisation and thematises expectations to simulations of historical constellations
(location and events). 13
Meanwhile in installations with data helmets and data gloves obervers combine
their coordination of body motions under the gravitational force `seamless´
with the simulation of weightless objects in an illusory space, the observers in
a “CAVE” simulation orientate themselves at a junction (`seam´) because only
a part of their motions in the narrow real space serves the navigation in the
virtual space with a usually wider simulated depth.
283
In “responsive environments” (see chap. V.1) observers have to accomodate
their body motions to technical interfaces with installation-specific designs
for explorations of the programmed possibilities to navigate in the spaces of
images. “Responsive environments” can not be explored without cognitive reconstructions (observing operations, interface 2) of the consequences that the
navigations in the spaces of images have for the body coordination at or on the
technical interface (interface 1): The `seam´ as the coordination of a technical
interface with the cognitive interface (for the self orientation and the coordination of body actions) provokes the coordination of different requirements of
the space of the image and the image space. The coordination of the two ways
of self orientation via switches from real spaces to spaces of images and from
spaces of images to real spaces (Raumbild/Bildraum, Bildraum/Raumbild)
demands a processual observation of the works modificating cognitive reconceptualisations several times to integrate new experiences: The body coordination on the technical interface and the orientation in the space of the
image are recoordinated in observing operations to accomodate the mental
reconstruction of an installation´s functions to new experiences and to develop
new explorative procedures as consequences from arising questions about
the installed work. This recoordination constitutes interface 3 in mediating
between interface 1 and interface 2 (see chap. VII.2.2, VIII.2).
The what and how of observations is presented in the three kinds of installations explained above (`seam´ in “responsive environments”, `seamless´ in
virtual reality, `seam´/`seamlessness´ in the CAVE”) as an interface problem
posing different requirements for observing operations mediating between the
orientations in the real space and the space of the image (interface 3).
Annotations
1 Davies/Harrison: Osmose 1996, chap. The Effect Osmose Has on Participants: “They [the immersants] seemed to involve an altered mind/body state.
In this state, it seems they paradoxically feel both disembodied (because of
the visual aesthetic, being able to float and pass through things) and embodied (due to reliance on breath and balance), simultaneously.”
284
On techniques of virtual realities and its use in “inclusive environments” (see
ann.6): Dinkla: Pioniere 1997, p.57-60; Grau: Art 2003, p.161-173; Halbach:
Interfaces 1994, p.170,187-214; Hattinger/Russel/Schöpf/Weibel: Ars Electronica 1990; Heim: Realism 1998, p.98-107; Hünnekens: Betrachter 1997,
p.54s.; Krueger: Reality 1991, p.65-76; Lovejoy: Currents 1997, p.203-208.
2 “Home of the Brain” thematises in its virtual world the discourse on virtual
reality via statements of Joseph Weizenbaum, Marvin Minsky, Vilém Flusser
und Paul Virilio. These four computer scientists and philosophers of media
inhabit four houses arranged around a “forum”. The “techno-imaginary” (see
chap. IV.2.1.4.4) is articulated in a medium presenting and reflecting its own
characteristics. This virtual space was used by observers with physical disabilities to realise motions being impossible under gravitational forces for visitors
without disabilities (hardware: Computer von Silicon Graphics und Apple,
VLP-Dataglover, Eyephone. Software: Stew, Wavefront, In-House SW). Lit.:
Fleischmann: Jetztzeit 1996, p.401s.; Grau: Art 2003, p.217-231; Kluszynski:
Data 2011, p.14s.,24,26,41s.,66-73.
3 Hardware: Silicon Graphics Onyx Reality Engine, 2 personal computer
(“PC clones”) with 2 Crystal River Engineering Convolvotrons, Macintosh II
computer with Sample Cell Audio Processing card, 2 Silicon Graphics VGX
computer, NeXT computer, Virtual Research VR helmets, Sony microphones,
Yamaha sound processors, sensor system “the Grippees” (developed by
Steve Saunders for “Placeholder”). Programmers: Raonull Conover, Glenn
Fraser, Graham Lundgren, Catherine McGinnis, Douglas McLeod, Michael
Naimark, Chris Shaw, Rachel Strickland, Rob Tow, Lloyd White. Software: C,
UNIX, Minimal Reality Toolkit, ALIAS animation software, TCP. Lit.: Hayles:
Virtuality 1996, p.15-21; Heim: Realism 1998, p.68-72, fig.3.5-3.7; Laurel/
Strickland: PlaceHolder 1994; Laurel/Strickland: Placeholder 1996; Laurel/
Strickland/Tow: Placeholder 1994; Lovejoy: Currents 1997, p.204s.
4 Observers obtain VR interfaces outside of the installation´s chamber: In the
chamber the observers move with this interface in the simulations of ceiling,
clouds, water, branches and plants via inhaling and exhalation, among other
actions. In the virtual space these operations cause up- and downward
movements. Hardware: Silicon Graphics Onix Reality Engine 2, Division
285
DVisor HMD, Polhemus Fastrak for the measurement of head positions and
the backbone gradients. A respiratory waistcoat serves for the measurement
of the chest´s elongation and contraction. Animation: Georges Mauro with
SOFTIMAGE 3D (“SoftImage SAAPHIRE and DKIT development libraries...
SGIs Performer and GL graphics libraries.” (Davies/Harrison: Osmose 1996,
chap. Technical Details)). Custom Software: John Harrison. Sound: Rick
Bidlack, Dorta Blaszczak with MIDI on a Macintosh computer. Localisation:
Crystal River Acoustetron. Lit.: Davies/Harrison: Osmose 1996; Grau: Art
2003, p.193-201; Hansen: Bodies 2006, p.108-113,135; Heim: Realism 1998,
p.162-167,171, fig.6.1-6.4; Lunenfeld: Davies 1996; Manovich: Language
2001, p.261; Paul: Digital Art 2003, p.126s.
5 Via data helmets the observers are transfered to three places – a cave, a
waterfall, a river valley – in the ennvironment of the Banff National Park in
Alberta/Canada. There they appear optionally as “Spider, Snake, Fish, and
Crow.” (Heim: Realism 1998, p.71; Laurel/Strickland/Tow: Placeholder 1994.
Cf. Hayles: Virtuality 1996, p.17).
6 “Inclusive environments”: Bricken: Worlds 1991, p.364.
“Responsive environments”: see chap. II.3 with ann.14.
7 The use of the terms “seam” and “seamless” was inspried by Mark Chalmers´ use of the terms “seamful” and “seamless” (Chalmers/MacColl: Design
2003). Cf. Strauss/Fleischmann: Architektur 2003, unpaginated, chap. Das
Verschwinden der Interfaces: “The new interfaces between humans and machines can´t be taken as barriers anymore, because they are interfaces with
tendencies either to disappear or to become invisible.”
“The interface as a location of seams” (“Die Schnittstelle als Nahtstelle”):
Neitzel/Nohr: Spiel 2006, p.16.
8 Cruz-Neira/Sandin/DeFanti: Surround-Screen 1993, p.137. Technical
equipment: Cruz-Neira/Sandin/DeFanti: Surround-Screen 1993, chapter 1.3,
p.136ss. Cf. Grau: Art 2003, p.3s.,238,247,299; Heim: Realism 1998, p.99107; Kacunko: Circuit 2004, p.111,642; Robbin: Shadows 2006, p.123-127.
9 Shaw: Movies 2002, p.271s.; Paul: Digital Art 2003, p.128s.
286
10 The “internal observer” is constituted by the possibilities programmed
for (external) observers being enabled by the technical interface to activate
functions of the system (Dreher: Weibel 1997, p.60, ann.49).
11 Pape: Crayoland 2002.
12 Vgl. Heim: Realism 1998, p.98-107 on the differences between the
“perceptive immersion” in “HMD VR” and the “apperceptive immersion” in
“CAVE VR”.
13 At the end of “CAVE” presentations the visitors of the Ars Electronica
Center in Linz received colour prints of the motifs photographed by them.
Hardware: Two Silicon Graphics Onyx Reality Engines. Programmers: Patrick
Bouchaud, Kimi Bishop and David Nahon. Sound: Jean-Bapiste Barrière.
Lit.: Benayoun/Barrière: World 1998; Grau: Immersion 2004, p.268; Hansen:
Bodies 2006, p.88-94, fig.1.8; Wilson: Information 2002, p.705ss.
287
VI. Net Art: Networks, Participation, Hypertext
VI.1 Computer Networks
VI.1.1 From Timesharing to the Internet
In the sixties and seventies American scientists asked if computers can´t be
used for other purposes than for calculation tasks. The quest for alternative
functions led to efforts to develop adequate interfaces for terminals serving as
accesses to central mainframe computers and as a means to communicate with
participants on other terminals (see chap. VI.2.1).
After the development of solutions for “multi-tasking” by dividing a processor´s capacities the computer researchers worked out “multi-access”. It offers
accesses from several terminals or “operators” to a central computer:
...during the normal running of the machine several operators are using
the machine during the same time. To each of these operators the machine appears to behave as a separate machine. 1
Between 1957 and 1959 the concept for timesharing was developed to ameliorate the use of the computing power. Timesharing made possible a better utilisation of computer capacities being accessible from various terminals. Since
1964 the first workable timesharing systems were realised. 2 These systems
subdivided the computing time of a computer in sections lasting milliseconds
and distributed these sections to the programmes started by the participants on
the terminals. The time needed by a computer to response via timesharing to
requests by terminals rested within the “timespan of seconds”. 3
In the sixties Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider and Douglas Carl Engelbart
conceptualise the interface between humans and computers as a cooperation
of several participants using the same “intelligence augmenting tool” 4 for
operations with “symbols” 5: to store character strings, to retrieve documents
288
from the memory, to process these data and to store the processed data. 6
A keyboard and an electronic pen or a mouse are the means to process
characters presented on a monitor. With these means functions can be easily
activated. 7 Computers formerly used as calculators can be used with these
forerunners of menus´ icons dominantly to process text and graphics.
Wilson, Roland B.: Cartoons for Joseph Carl Robnet Licklider´s
and Robert W. Taylor´s “The Computer as Communication Device”, 1968
(Licklider/Taylor: Computer 1968/1990, p.26).
289
During the sixties and the seventies the development of the human-computer
interface and the development of computer networks are joined: The terminals
connected with mainframe computers via timesharing are replaced by computers connected to networks via high performance cables. The interfaces of these
computers (keyboard, mouse, desktop, see chap. VI.2.1, VII.2) anticipate the
interfaces being usual by the personal computers since the eighties.
Since the end of June 1970 the XEROX Palo Alto Research Center is formed as
a private research organisation. There William K. English, Alan C. Kay, Robert
M. Metcalfe, George E. Pake, Robert W. Taylor, Larry Tesler, John Warnock
and others develop networks between microcomputers, the Alto (1972/73) as
a precursor of the eighties personal computers. 8 After the local area networks
with terminals connected to mainframe computers 9 the ARPANET was first
installed in 1969 as a new development of networks. It connected the computers of American universities working on military projects via cable systems
(Ethernet) using dedicated lines faster than telephone cables. 10 In the eighties
further networks were installed for specific research projects like MILNET
(Military Network, since 1983), BITNET (Because It’s Time NETwork), WSFNET (National Science Foundation Network) and CSNET (Computer Science
Network). 11
A technical precondition of the internet developed Paul Baran with his concept
for “packet switching” dividing digitised elements in packets and adding informations being necessary for the recombinations after the posting of the packets
via varying connections (cables and hosts) to the target computer. “Nodes”
(hosts) receive the packets and send them to the next well-functioning “node”
(“rapid store-and-forward design”). Non-functional “nodes” are circumvented.
With this concept Baran formed in 1964 the basis for decentral networking.
12 Between 1968 and 1970 the members of the Internet Message Processing
(IMP) Group Will Crowther and Dave Walden solved the routing problems
of the “packet switching” for the ARPANET with only 150 instructions in
machine language. This was only one tenth of the number of commands determined as acceptable in the definition of the framework conditions for the
ARPANET´s development. 13
290
Baran, Paul: The Spectrum of System Connectivity, 1964
(Baran: Communications V 1964, p.6, fig.1).
Protocols code and decode the data packets. In 1970/71 the transfer of data
from one computer to another was made possible by the file transfer protocol
(FTP). 14 In the ARPANET the TCP/IP protocol (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) coordinated the transfer of data packets between
networks. This protocol constituted the fundament of the later developed internet and its protocol layers. 15
Beside the high capacity cables of the ARPANET networks were built in the
eighties connecting personal computers via telecommunication in using
modems with acoustic coupler on which the telephones´ handsets had to be
placed. The dial-in procedures with the program MODEM to bulletin board
systems, newsgroups and MUD´s 16 were complicated. Before the Mosaic
Browser (since 1993) was developed for the World Wide Web 17 participants
operated in the internet in using commands that had to be learned. 18 Since
291
1980 the timesharing services being offered on universities´ computers were
used to built the first nodes between the networks. These nodes constituted
the fundament for the server structure of the internet being extended in the
nineties. 19
During the eighties and the early nineties the participants of Bulletin Board
Systems (BBS) developed an awareness of “virtual communities” 20 communicating with each other in writing from remote places without time delay. The
free and open software of networks constantly developed further as well as the
abolished division between readers and authors (see chap. VI.1.2) are cornerstones of the demand for a free, unrestricted data exchange initiating the start
of net activism. In the nineties activists rejected efforts to restrict web accesses
through censorship, copyright, charges and other barriers. 21
In 1985 the network The WELL (the Whole Earth ´Lectronic Link) started
in Sausalito/California. Its system was based on a BBS programme for video
conferences (PicoSpan für Unix) offering all participants access to a database.
22 The WELL was an online proceeding of the information exchange constituting the core of the “Whole Earth Catalog”. After its first print in autumn 1968
Stuart Brand edited updates until 1994. This `catalogue in progress´ featured
books and technologies inspiring people living in the Bay Area´ s surroundings
of the commune keepers and the grassroots activism. Buckminster Fuller´s
all-encompassing world view was the main inspiration:
The insights of Buckminster Fuller are what initiated this catalog. 23
292
Brand, Stewart (ed.): Whole Earth Catalog. Fall 1968: Buckminster Fuller
(Brand: Earth 1968, p.3).
The transformation of the print version into The WELL included fora being
open for the readers´ propositions and contributions. The “network forum” for
the communication between the authors of the print versions was developed
further into public conferences and newsgroups. 24
Following Fred Turner the counterculture of the sixties´ New Communalist
movement with estimated between two and six thousand communes in the
U.S.A., many of them located in the Bay Area, was converted in the eighties in
“virtual communities” by The WELL. 25
One of the public conferences on The WELL was the Art Com Electronic Network (ACEN, see chap. VI.1.2). 26
293
VI.1.2 Participation in Networks of the Eighties
The I.P. Sharp Associates Network (IPSANET) offered clients accesses to its
mainframe computers. With acquirable network-specific terminals clients
were able to reach nodes being connected with transocean cabels and a “packet
switching” transmission technique. 27 In April 1979 I.P. Sharp Associates Network put capacities at the disposal of artists communicating with each other
for two hours in a Computer Communications Conference from terminals
in 19 towns of America, Australia, Japan, Canada and Austria. 28 Since 1980
artists could employ a mailbox system developed by Gottfried Bach for ASCII
e-mails in the I.P. Sharp Associates Network. In 1982 this “Artbox” developed
further to ARTEX (Artists´ Electronic Exchange Program). Until 1990 30 artists used ARTEX in projects with participants operating on terminals located
in several places. 29
Nodes of the I.P. Sharp Associates Network.
294
User manual for ARTEX in the I.P. Sharp Associates Network, November 1982.
“14 artists or groups” living in 15 cities (Amsterdam, Athen, Bath, Florenz,
Frankfurt, Honolulu, Istanbul, Pittsburgh, San Francisco, Sydney, Tokyo,
Toronto, Vancouver, Wellfleet, Vienna) participated in the project “The World
in 24 Hours”. In 1982, during the Ars Electronica Festival in Linz, Robert
Adrian X administrated the telephone connections to the I.P. Sharp Associates
Network. At 12.00 a.m. local time people in the participating cities could get
295
in contact with the organisation centre in Linz. In their changes from place to
place during 24 hours the participants followed the midday sun around the
globe. Participants in Linz had three telephone lines to interchange faxes and
videos with varying participants. For a telephone long distance transmission a
Slow Scan TV Transceiver transformed videos into audio signals. They had to
be retransformed into video signals on the receiver side. I.P. Sharp Associates
Network provided “Artbos and Confer programs” as well as opportunities to
transmit computer graphics. Via the Confer program the participants in 15
cities were connected to the organisation centre in Linz. Many participants
used the “Computer Timesharing (I.P. Sharp APL/Network)” as well as
telefax and slow scan television. In Linz the resulting output was presented on
partition walls installed in the foyer of the ORF-Landesstudio Oberösterreich.
“Connectivity” 30 was the main feature of “The World in 24 Hours”. 31
Adrian X, Robert: The World in 24 Hours. Österreichischer Rundfunk (ORF),
Landesstudio Oberösterreich, Linz 1982: posting up of telefacsimiles from Tokyo,
Frankfurt and Wien.
296
In 1983 Roy Ascott organised a collaborative writing project: Participants in
Bristol, Honolulu, Paris, Pittsburg, Sidney, Vancouver and Vienna cooperated
in writing text contributions for the roles of a “planetary fairytale”. On projections in the Musée d´Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris visitors of the exhibition
“Elektra” could follow the writers developing «La Plissure du Texte» in the
e-mail network ARTEX. 32
Ascott, Roy: La Plissure du Texte, 1983. Tom Klinkowstein and Greg McKenna at
a terminal for the I.P. Sharp Associates Network in La Mamelle, San Francisco.
297
Ascott, Roy: La Plissure du Texte, 1983. Text contribution (detail)
from Vancouver for La Princesse.
298
In 1985 Norman White initiates a translation chain in “Hearsay”: Within 24
hours Robert Zend´s “The Message (For Marshall McLuhan) ” (published in
Zend´s “From Zero to One”, 1973) was sent on I.P. Sharp Associates Network
from one participating centre to the next and translated. The eight participants
in eight centres in England, America, Canada and Japan modified the text from
one translation to the next. For comparisons the following quotes offer the
English versions from the start and the end of the chain: “...a General behind
the pillar stopped fingering the bosom of the maid of honour” is changed into
“The king sat calmly on his festive chair, his hand on a woman´s breast.” 33
White, Norman: Hearsay, 1985. Left: the start of the web documentation.
Right: the end.
299
Within the I.P. Sharp Associates Network the costs of a connection did not
change with different distances of recipients. With Bulletin Board Systems like
The WELL (see chap. VI.1.1) “it was almost impossible to link networks across
the oceans due to the slow modem speeds and high phone costs... 34
In the projects for the I.P. Sharp Associates Network mentioned above the
participation was limited to invited guests working within the context of art.
These projects presented the participants´ contributions successively. But this
is not a use of the connectivity as a precondition for a participation in favor
of the interactions´ social aspects – in contrast to Kit Galloway´s and Sherrie
Rabinovitz´s Los Angeles based project “Electronic Cafe”. In 1984 the café of
the Museum of Contemporary Art and four cafés in districts with publics of
different ethnic groups offered to their visitors terminals with connections to
the bulletin board of the Community Memory in Berkeley. The navigation
in the Bulletin Board was designed as simple as possible. The Bulletin Board
System included a database with texts and photos created by participants.
A telewriter could be used by participants as a pen to make up handwritten
documents – texts and drawings – and to post them. Video prints could be
transfered via a Slow Scan Video System (SSTV). Participants on terminals
of two different cafés could draw simultaneously on an image, store it in the
database for images and publish it. 35 For the first time a Laser Optical Disk
Recorder was used as a database for images in a network. 36
The project can be understood as a “prototype of all internet cafés” as well as of
the “context-based systems” 37, the platforms of the nineties´ internet refering
to urban contexts. Gene Youngblood writes on the “Electronic Café”:
...the information environment as commons, equally accessible to everyone. 38
300
Galloway, Kit/Rabinovitz, Sherrie: Electronic Café, Los Angeles 1984.
Diagram of the installation´s functions as they were installed in each café
(Youngblood: Raum 1986, p.298).
301
Youngblood features the inclusion of image documents into the network, the
openness of the Bulletin Board unedited for contributions of all kinds and the
possibility to send contributions anonymously as characteristics of the “Electronic Café”:
Democracy is threatened if we can´t participate anonymously in
communities defined by telecommunication, not geography. 39
With the usability of terminals for participants of different income groups
and the urban context of Los Angeles as a social reference framework the
“Electronic Café” anticipates in 1984 “context-based systems” of the nineties
like “De Digitale Stad” in Amsterdam (since 1993) and the “Internationale
Stadt” in Berlin (1994-98) 40 using the availability of personal computers and
telecommunication networks in efforts to build a new community. The social
and libertarian aspirations of the sixties and seventies were combined in the
eighties and nineties with the widely distributed personal computers 41 in ways
offering virtual and urban communities to complement each other.
Galloway, Kit/Rabinovitz, Sherrie: Electronic Café, Los Angeles 1984.
Links: Videoprints. Rechts: Telewriter.
302
In spring 1986 the artists´ group Art Com opened a “public conference” on
the Bulletin Board System The WELL (see chap. VI.1.1). In 1986 Carl Eugene
Loeffler, Lorna and Fred Truck, Anna Couey and others installed the Art
Com Magazine on The WELL and as a newsgroup on USENET informing
their readers on current developments of the art, computer technology and
networks. The readers are invited to post comments and to engage themselves
as editors:
Art Com Magazine attempts to realize publishing as a creative (art
publishing as art work) and communicative medium shaped by the
community that reads it. 42
Anna Couey´s invitation to participate takes up the openness for cooperation
being usual in The WELL: In Bulletin Board Systems a reader reacts to existing
contributions with his own comments and with them he offers impulses to
other readers for a continuation of the dialogue. Couey´s conception of the art
work as a “communication system” takes up the sixties and seventies developments of an engaged art and anticipates the later collaborative writing projects.
George Landow and others address the later emerging change of a person´s
roles between reader and author and designate it as “wreader” (writer/reader).
With it they mark the changeover from a participative action art to direct
social interactions between remote participants. 43
303
Art Com Electronic Network: Start Menu, since 1990
(Couey: Art Works 1991, p.128, fig.1).
In 1989 Anna Couey, Carl Eugene Loeffler and Fred Truck installed the Art
Com Electronic Mail for the distribution of books, videos and software by and
on artists. On the one hand the Whole Earth Catalog was extended in the Art
Com Electronic Mail by product descriptions for the section media art. On
the other hand a precursor of contemporary webshops was installed with a
“checkout cashier”.
In 1990 a Bulletin Board was started and organised as a Virtual Museum containing descriptions of art works written by the authors´ group “the Normals”
(with Anna Couey). The “Couey Virtual Museum of Descriptions of Art” could
be extended by new contributions from “wreaders”. The Virtual Museum was
open for descriptions of concepts for works either waiting to be realised or
being notations independent from realisations:
Users variously describe their experience of seeing a work of art, or
create their own through description. 44
304
The Normals: Couey Virtual Museum of Descriptions of Art, Art Com Electronic
Network, since 1990 (Couey: Art Works 1991, p.129, fig.2).
305
Some collaborative projects by ACEN anticipating future forms to use the
internet for literature were “The Heart of the Machine” of Dromos Editions
(Ian Ferrier and Fortner Andersen, since 1987), “Das Casino” by Carl Eugene
Loeffler and Fred Truck (1987-88) as well as “Exquisite Corpse” by Gil Mina
Mora (since 1988). “In the Heart of the Machine” was a novel in instalments.
In preparing the next chapters the authors incorporated biographies sent by
participants. “Das Casino” was a “bulletin board topic” with participants writing a dialogue in a “conceptual game of roulette”. The topic included the fictive
money Casinobux and a program generating random numbers. An alternative
to this “participatory text performance” offered Mora´s “Exquisite Corpse” in
transforming the surrealist strategy of a collaborative successive creation of
drawings («cadavre exquis») into a text-producing strategy: Participants could
not read more than the last line of the newest contribution. The 69th contribution was chosen as the end of the text. 45
In the internet the cyberspace frequently invoked in the eighties was not an
illusionary space for the observers´ immersion but a space for dialogues and
discussions. The internet was described by initiators of ARTEX projects like
Robert Adrian X and Roy Ascott as an information room with worldwide
accesses. 46 ARTEX participants could use the oversea cables of the I.P. Sharp
Associates Network meanwhile the participants of The WELL constituted
locally limited communities like ACEN on the West Coast of the U.S.A. by the
reasons mentioned above. Their members could meet each other if the result of
written dialogues was the fixation of a date for a direct communication on the
complicated navigation in the internet. 47
The “Electronic Café” was constituted by the telecommunications between
population groups living apart from each other in the urban context. The telecommunication can be used in a local context to undermine social and racial
barriers being kept alive in urban spaces. Contrary to such locally based works
the projects of Ascott and ACEN integrate remote participants in experiments
transgressing established literary forms.
In the seventies the journal “Radical Software” offered a forum to video artists
to exchange informations about new video techniques and various kinds to use
them. The articles published in “Radical Software” could point out the juxtapo306
sition of two cultures – social-critically engaged on one side and experimental
formal on the other side – but not mediate between them (see chap. IV.1.1). In
networks these both sides are connected tighter to each other because in public
conferences a distributed authorship is practiced deconstructing hierarchies
between authors and recipients. The experiment is the practice of distributed
authorship: Social engagement and intelligent uses of media are no longer
artistic strategies complementing each other in no other way than by “Radical
Software´s” contextualisation within an alternative culture encompassing both
sides unconnected. The one-way communication of cinema and television got
its first alternative in the seventies´ Community TV via cable or radio. 48 In
the eighties a second alternative is added by a two-way communication in fora
being part of projects like the boards and topics of ACEN. In web projects since
the nineties video engagement and discussion fora complement each other.
In this third alternative media experiments and social criticism are no longer
opposites (see chap. VI.3.4). 49
Annotations
1 Strachey: Time Sharing 1960, p.340. Cf. Bunz: Geschichte 2009, p.39s.;
Friedewald: Computer 2009, p.128-137.
2 An example for an early Time Sharing system: “The Sumerian Game” by
BOCES and IBM, in 1965/66 tested by students (see chap. VII.1.3.2).
3 Friedewald: Computer 2009, p.129.
4 “Intelligence augmenting tool” (“intelligenzverstärkendes Werkzeug”):
Friedewald: Computer 2009, p. 122,130s. Cf. Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000,
p.1,10ss.,19ss.,23s.,28-32,36s.; Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.72s; Licklider/
Taylor: Computer 1968/1990, p.26s.
5 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.13; Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.22s.
6 Engelbart/English: Research 1968; Licklider/Taylor: Computer 1968/1990;
307
Rheingold: Community 1994, chap.3.
Licklider: Symbiosis 1960/1990, p.5: “Severe problems are posed by the fact
that these operations have to be performed upon diverse variables and in
unforeseen and continually changing sequences. If those problems can be
solved in such a way as to create a symbiotic relation between a man and a
fast information-retrieval and data-processing machine, however, it seems
evident that the cooperative interaction would greatly improve the thinking
process.”
Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.6: “In such a future working relationship between
human problem-solver and computer `̀̀clerk, the capability of the computer
for executing mathematical processes would be used whenever it was
needed. However, the computer has many other capabilities for manipulating
and displaying information that can be of significant benefit to the human
in nonmathematical processes of planning, organizing, studying, etc. Every
person who does his thinking with symbolized concepts (whether in the form
of the English language, pictographs, formal logic, or mathematics) should
be able to benefit significantly.”
Ebda, S. 37: “These new ways of working are basically available with today‘s
technology--we have but to free ourselves from some of our limiting views
and begin experimenting with compatible sets of structure forms and processes for human concepts, human symbols, and machine symbols.”
7 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.69s.; Licklider/Taylor: Computer 1968/1990,
p.25,29s. Cf. Friedewald: Computer 2009, p.132 with ill.29, p.136s.
8 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.149,153,158 (Alto Ethernet interface, end of
1973); Friedewald: Computer 2009, p.250,257,260-269,275-292,337s.; Matis:
Wundermaschine 2002, p.269s.; Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.3.
9 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.72.
10 ARPANET: Bunz: Geschichte 2009, p.83-91; Roberts: ARPANET 1995;
Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.29-41.
ARPANET until the end of 1972: 24 sites were connected. Among them are
American universities, the Department of Defense, the National Science
Foundation, NASA and the Federal Reserve Board. Until 1977 the ARPANET
308
connected 111 mainframe computers. It was abandoned in 1990 (Stewart:
ARPANET 1996-2012).
11 Matis: Wundermaschine 2002, p.309; Rheingold: Community 1993,
chap.3.
12 Baran: Communication 1964; Baran: Communications I 1964; Bunz:
Geschichte 2009, p.57-63; Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.3; Warnke:
Theorien 2011, p.20-26.
In 1968 Donald Watts Davies developed a packet switching procedure at the
British National Physical Laboratory independent from Baran. The developers
of the ARPANET knew the proposals of Baran and Davies on packet switching (Hafner/Lyon: Wizards 1998, pdf p.41ss.; Matis: Wundermaschine 2002,
p.306; Roberts: ARPANET 1995; Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.26-29).
13 Hafner/Lyon: Wizards 1998, pdf p.64,73; Pias: Computer 2010, p.122s.
On the technical implementation of the “packet switching” in the ARPANET:
Mutis: Wundermaschine 2002, p.306s.; Roberts: ARPANET 1995.
14 Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.3; Scheller/Boden/Geenen/Kampermann: Internet 1994, p.47-70.
15 Bunz: Geschichte 2009, p.100-108; Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.43-47,7686.
16 Bulletin Board Systeme, since 1978: Rheingold: Community 1993, Introduction.
Newsgroups: Usenet News, ab 1980: Arns: Netzkulturen 2002, p.17s.; Rheingold: Community 1993, chap. 4.
MUDs: Multi-User Dungeons (since 1979/80). Among others, “Adventure
Games” were played in MUDs. In these games questions were presented
and the players are asked for the right answers. Rheingold describes the
addictive character of the MUDs´ fictional worlds (Rheingold: Community
1993, chap.5).
17 Berners-Lee: Web 1999, p.68-71,79,99; Scheller/Boden/Geenen/Kamper309
mann: Internet 1994, p.282-293.
18 Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.2 and 4.
19 Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.4.
20 Rheingold: Community 1993, Introduction; Turner: Counterculture 2006,
p.159-162.
21 Arns: Netzkulturen 2002, p.24-29; Barbrook/Cameron: Ideology 1996;
Barlow: Cyberspace 1996; Stallman: Copyright 1996; Stallman: Software
2002; Lessig: Code 1999.
22 Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.2; Turner: Counterculture 2005, p.499;
Turner: Counterculture 2006, p.3,141s.,144.
23 Brand: Earth 1968, p.3. Vgl. Turner: Counterculture 2006, p.57.
24 Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.2 and 4; Turner: Counterculture 2005,
p.496,499; Turner: Counterculture 2006, p.7,79s.,84,86,89,142,151s.
25 Turner: Counterculture 2005, p.487,503; Turner: Counterculture 2006,
p.5s.,63s.,142,146ss.,158s.,161s.
26 Couey: Cyber Art 1991; Couey: Art Works 1991; Loeffler: Telecomputing
1989, p.129; Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.2.
27 Moore: History 2005.
In 1991 Robert Adrian X said about the terminal: “I had a terminal at home.
I even have it at home, now it is an object for a museum collection. It looks
like a big portable typewriter. It contains only a keyboard with a 300 baud
acoustic coupler, and it printed everything on thermal paper. People without
terminal had to visit one of I.P. Sharp´s offices. The equipment was quiet
expensive at that time – circa 2000 $ for a new unit. I bought my machine
second hand for circa 600 $.” (Baumgärtel: Interview 1997)
310
28 Interplay, 4/1/1979, from 8.00 to 10.00 p.m., organised by Bill Bartlett
(Adrian X: Kunst 1995, p.10; Breitwieser: Re-Play 2000, p.300).
29 Adrian X: Kunst 1995; Braun: Video 2000, p.4s.; Breitwieser: Re-Play 2000,
p.300; Couey: Cyber Art 1991.
30 Ascott/Loeffler: Connectivity 1991.
31 Duration: from 9/27/1982, 12.00 a.m., to 9/28/1982, 12.00 a.m. ( Linz,
local time). Lit.: Adrian X: Raum 1989, p.142,145; Adrian X: Welt 1982
(quotations, p.146); Braun: Adrian X 2001, p.114-119; Arns: Interaction 2004,
chap. Electronic Space as “Communications Sculpture”; Braun: Video 2000,
p.421s.; Breitwieser: Re-Play 2000, p.302; Daniels: Engineering 2010, p.21;
Grundmann: Art 1984, p.86-99.
32 Berry: Thematics 2001, p.66: “The result of this collaborative endeavor...
is like a very extensive `corps exquis´ (played without the element of concealment) mixing languages, role playing, and rambling narratives in such
a way as to make it nearly impossible for an outsider to follow.” Lit.: Adrian
X: Kunst 1995, p.11; Ascott/White et al.: Plissure 1983; Braun: Video 2000,
p.422s.; Breitwieser: Re-Play 2000, p.304; Daniels: Engineering 2010, p.22;
Grundmann: Art 1984, p.24,35s.,59-68; Heibach: Literatur 2003, p.88s.; Popper: Art 1993, p.124,134.
33 Baumgärtel: Immaterialien 1997, chap. Freude am (ASCII-)Text; White:
Hearsay 1985.
34 Adrian X: Interview 2001, p.63.
35 Youngblood: Raum 1986, p.298.
36 Software: Lee Felsenstein and his former colleagues of the Community
Memory Networks, Berkeley (since 1973, Slaton: Community Memory 2001).
37 Arns: Interaction 2004, chap. Social Networking, Participation.
311
38 Youngblood: Raum 1986, p.357.
39 Youngblood: Raum 1986, p.358.
Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.2 on the opposite practice of The WELL:
“Nobody is anonymous.” It was not possible to disconnect “pseudonyms”
from the “real userid”.
40 Arns: Netzkulturen 2002, p.52-55; Baumgärtel: Internet 1998, chap 2.1.
41 Stewart Brand, founder of The WELL (see chap. VI.1.1), to Howard Rheingold: “The personal computer revolutionaries were the counterculture.”
(Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.2)
42 Couey: Art Works 1991, chap. Art Com Magazine.
43 The “wreader” is thematised by scholars as reader eliciting relations in
hyperfictions. There are transitions from an active reading of hyperfictions
to the participation in collaborative writing projects (Heibach: Literatur
2003, p.50 with ann.86; Landow: Hypertext 2004, chap. Animated Text; Rau:
Wreader 2001; Simanowski: Tod 2004, p.87). The reader is mentally activated
by multilinear links (see chap. VI.2.2). A wreader acts in virtual fora similar to
authors of public letters when he tries to provoke with his own remarks other
readers to react critically to his contribution.
44 Couey: Art Works 1991.
45 Couey: Art Works 1991 (quotations); Couey: Cyber Art 1991; Gangadharan: Mail Art 2009, p.292ss.; Loeffler: Art Com Electronic Network 1988,
p.321; Loeffler: Telecomputing 1989.
Judy Malloy´s hyperfiction “Uncle Roger” (1986-87) is featured in chap.
VI.2.2.
46 Adrian X: Kunst 1984, p.79 (ARTEX): “If artists´ telecomm is to have any
reality it must seek to operate on a global basis...Artists who really want to
operate in the electronic space of telecommunications...must take into account the equipment available to their partners in other parts of the world...”
312
Ascott: Art 1984, p.35s. (ARTEX): “...the act is indifferent to the geographical
location of its contributors...There can be this sense of out-of-body experience, joining up with others in the aetheric, electronic, and totally timeless
space.”
47 Rheingold: Community 1993, chap.2.
48 Taesdale: Videofreex 1999; Dreher: Radical Software 2004, chap. video
and TV.
49 Dreher: Participation with Camera 2007, chap. TV-Programme and Participation, with ann.9 and 10; Dreher: Radical Software 2004, chap. Documentation and Intervention, Mapping & Acting.
313
VI. Net Art: Networks, Participation, Hypertext
VI.2 Hypertext
VI.2.1 “As We May Think”: From Vannevar Bush to Ted Nelson
Hypertext and networks had their own prehistories before they grew together
in the web. Hypertext, especially the link as a concatenation of texts and text
passages, became a central form of web presentations. The next chapters retrace the history of exploring computers connected by telecommunication and
hypertexts as parts of one fabric (web). 1
In 1945 Vannevar Bush combined in “As We May Think” 2 the technics to
store bits of knowledge with possibilities to retrieve them and to work out
connections between the stored data. In his concept for “Memex” – a precursor
of a computer – Bush thematised the problems to store images and texts. He
pointed to possibilities, how the stored data can be recalled, and developed an
intelligence augmenting tool: A researcher should be enabled to use “Memex”
as an “enlarged intimate supplement to his memory”. 3
In Bush´s concept comparisons between parts of more encompassing documents are made possible by two viewing screens being mounted on a table.
The screens enable the researchers to view data stored on microfilms. To store
further documents on microfilms they have to be placed on a glass plate to
photograph them.
314
Bush, Vannevar: Memex, 1945, illustrations (Life, 10th September 1945, p.123s.).
315
“Memex” enables its users to set up and store connections between parts of
different documents: The table contains a keyboard enabling researchers to
control the linkage mechanics. With this equipment chains of links can be
stored and recalled as “trails”. Bush´s mechanical assistant for thought processes enables researchers to work out connections between different sources and
to recall them as often as wanted.
In his concept for a memory machine Bush presents “associative indexing”
4 as a technically augmented cognitive procedure to work out connections.
With his unrealised machine Bush anticipated concepts for human-computer
interaction. Machines developed to augment human cognitive capabilities are
established in contemporary research procedures as indispensable means. 5
At the Augmentation Research Center (Stanford Research Institute, Menlo
Park/Kalifornien), directed by Douglas Carl Engelbart since 1959, researchers
develop Bush´s concept of a memory machine since the sixties on terminals
being equipped with graphical displays (on cathode ray tubes), keyboards, key
set and mouse (since 1963). The terminals are connected via timesharing (see
chap. VI.1.1) to the computing capacities of a mainframe computer. 6
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Augmentation Research Center, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park: terminal with monitor, manual, keyset and mouse, ca. 1964.
In 1960 preliminary concepts were developed by Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider.
He reflects in “Man-Computer Symbiosis” on the project-related organisation
of a team with participants cooperating on terminals. 7 In 1962 Engelbart
explains in “Augmenting Human Intellect” how a structure for databases and
the accesses to them on terminals can be created in using the contemporary
technical possibilities as adequate as possible to facilitate the working out of
research subjects. Engelbart adds to Benjamin Lee Whorf´s key assumptions
on the conditioning of thinking by languages 8 a further assumption on the
influence of the means for data processing on cognition. 9 The interfaces and
the database structures should be constructed to cause cognition-augmenting
effects:
By “augmenting human intellect” we mean increasing the capability of
a man to approach a complex problem situation, to gain comprehension
to suit his particular needs, and to derive solutions to problems. 10
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According to Engelbart the cognitive capability to manipulate symbols can be
coordinated with the capabilities of computers to find ways of enabling humans
to develop with computing processes more complex hierarchical structures. 11
Engelbart mentions cards with notches as a predigital ancillary system. As a
further development of this mechanical thinking via “edged-notched-system”
Engelbart introduces a digital “notedeck” presenting the next element of an
“associative trail” automatically. 12 An “electronic computer equipment” can
facilitate the administering of “thought kernels” via “linkages to other statements” for the development of “new concepts” 13 in a more helpful manner
than mechanical systems with card boxes are able to do 14:
It takes a repertoire of surprisingly few such primitive processes [which
a particular machine can execute] to enable the construction of any
symbol-manipulation process that can be explicitly described in any
language. 15
Lists can be subdivided into “string[s] of substructures”. Engelbart refers to
propositions of several authors 16 to coordinate cognitive affordances being
posed by the “manipulation of list structures” with the capabilities of computers to store symbols and to simulate “dynamic systems”. 17 In 1962 Engelbart
picks these propositions up and explains possibilities to represent links and
their recalls on a monitor. 18 He conceptualises links `directional´ in levels of
“substructures”: “A network of lines and dots that looked something like a tree”
constitutes a graphical structure for “antecedent-consequent links that have
been established.” 19
The scientists of the “Research Center for Human Intellect” (AHI) within the
Stanford Research Institute used “bootstrapping” 20 as a method to work out
the “oN-Line System” (NLS) for cooperations on several terminals. On the 9th
December 1968 Engelbart presented this system being called the first hypertext
system in his lecture lasting 90 minutes at the “ACM/IEEE-Computer Society
Fall Joint Conference” (Brooks Hall, San Francisco). Engelbart used a keyboard
to present NLS in its then comtemporary development stage. On a large projection the spectators followed Engelbart´s moves between the substructures of
NLS. He demonstrated the concatenation of texts and text passages via “jump
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to link” command. 21 As an example Engelbart presented the “dictionary cross
reference” in a “glossary of the NLS documentation.” 22 Live presentations of
scientists showing parts of NLS at the Augmentation Research Center in Menlo
Park were inserted into Engelbart´s presentation in San Francisco via videoconferencing. In this lecture the interrelationships between the development of
a database´s structure and collaboration became evident. 23
Engelbart, Douglas: Lecture, ACM/IEEE-Computer Society Fall Joint Conference,
Brooks Hall, San Francisco 1968. Screenshot of Engelbart,s keyset, keyboard and
mouse from YouTube.
In 1965 Theodor Holm Nelson defines the term “hypertext” 24 in “A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate”:
Let me introduce the word “hypertext” to mean a body of written material or pictorial material interconnected in such a complex way that
it could not conveniently be presented or represented on paper. It may
contain summaries, or maps of its contents and their interrelations; it
may contain annotations, additions and footnotes from scholars who
have examined it. 25
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The link as a “connector, designated by the user, between two particular
entries” concatenates parts of different “lists”. With cross references between
links Nelson loosens Engelbart´s hierarchy of “substructures”. If “items” are
concatenated by links then they can constitute a “trail”. Comments can be added to the “trails”. Via links series of list entries (“sequences”) can be transferred
between lists. Nelson´s “file structure” is determined by “entries”, “lists”, “links”
and “sequences”. 26
Nelson, Theodor Holm: Hypertext links in ELF (“Evolutionary List File”),
diagram, 1965 (Nelson: File 1965/2003, p.142).
In 1970 Nelson and Ned Woodman installed “Labyrinth: An Interactive Catalogue” in the exhibition “Software – Information Technology: Its New Meaning
for Art” curated by Jack Burnham for the Jewish Museum in New York. The
“interactive catalogue” contained a restructuring of the exhibition´s catalogue.
The restructuring was implemented on a DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) PDP-8 (since 1965). Visitors of the exhibition could find out ways
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between the linked parts of the catalogue and received a print with a directory
of their “trail” from link to link. 27
In the “non-linear systems” of hypertexts “annotations, additions and footnotes” 28 can be integrated and concatenated by “jump-links” as they were used
in the “Labyrinth”. 29 According to Nelson concatenations proove the connectedness of everything with everything else. In 1974 he writes in “Computer Lib/
Dream Machines”:
Everything is deeply intertwingled. 30
This connectedness was for Nelson a proof of “the wholiness of the human
spirit”. 31 This “wholiness” was technically reconstructed by the web as hyperlinks, constructing a fabric of documents from concatenation to concatenation.
Following the links from a start document principally all other files in the web
can be reached. 32
VI.2.2 Hyperfiction for CD-ROM and the Web
Basic elements of hypertexts are “lexia” 33 with “labels” (or titles) and a description or explanation. Index cards can be placed one behind the other or beside
each other from edge to edge meanwhile the sequences of the cards follow the
semantic fields of the labels. By way of derogation from this principle of index
cards it is possible to concatenate not only labels of lexia but parts of their
descriptions, too. 34 This hypertext practice recured in hyperfictions of the late
eighties and nineties. They were constructed with programmes like HyperCard
or Storyspace and stored on disks. Also web projects of the nineties take up this
hypertext structure (see chap. VI.2.3). Nevertheless several hyperfictions were
realised for the internet before this kind of literature was distributed on disks
(see chap. VI.1.1).
321
Malloy, Judy: Uncle Roger, File 1: A Party in Woodside, Art Com Electronic Network Datanet Artwork, 1987 (Malloy: Narrabase 1991, p.196, fig.1).
Under “topic 14” of ACEN´s public conference Judy Malloy uploaded her
literary text “A Party in Woodside” – “a story about Silicon Valley” – between
1st December 1986 and 29th January 1987 as “records” containing from 1 to
18 text lines to be called up by participants of the Bulletin Board System The
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WELL (see chap. VI.1):
Everytime I logged on to the WELL, I uploaded one record of the story.
Each record was posted with a keyfield where the keywords were listed
so that readers could download the story if they choose and put it into
any commercial database. 35
Once the lexia were readable in the sequence of their downloads Malloy constructed “Uncle Roger” in 1987 as hyperfiction for the ACEN Datanet beginning with “Party in Woodside” as the first of three parts. Each part contained
a “collection of keyword links that produced chains of linked lexias...” 36 Either
an observer read “A Party in Woodside” in the same sequence as in “topic14”
or he selected a “keyword” from an index and followed the links between lexia
being offered to him. If readers looked for other links then they could return to
the index with “keywords”. Judy Malloy characterises “Uncle Roger” as “a filmic
novel written by a visual artist, a collection of memories that exist between the
speech and the pre-speech level.” 37
Malloy, Judy: Uncle Roger: A Party in Woodside, Entry 11 in Art Com Electronic
Network, Topic 14, 1986 (Malloy: Narrabase 1991, S.198, Fig.4).
323
Malloy, Judy: Uncle Roger: The Blue Notebook, Record No.39, 1986, monitor
presentation (screen shot of a short film by Dene Grigar).
In 1987 Jay David Bolter and Michael Joyce presented the programme “Storyspace” during the First Hypertext Conference being held at the University of
North Carolina (Chapel Hill). The programme for personal computers (with
the operating systems Macintosh or Windows) is a tool to create “interactive
fiction[s]”. 38 Three manners to navigate between connected lexia can be selected: “tree map, chart view, or Storyspace map.” 39 The “storyspace map” visualises the concatenations as arrows and the concatenated lexia as writable cards
(“writing spaces”) spread loosely within a window. Links from and to parts of
lexia are represented as fold-up cards containing only the relevant text part.
The “Storyspace Roadmap Feature” indicates the links of a lexia and the reader´s link trail. 40 Furthermore “Storyspace” can be used as an editor to integrate
several lexia as windows with their own menus on one monitor presentation:
This structure was mostly used in didactic hypertext projects. 41
324
Kahn, Paul/Landow, George Paul/Launhardt, Julie/Peter, Ronnie: The Dickens
Web, Storyspace Map, 1992, disk, Eastgate Systems, Inc.
Landow, George Paul/Lanested, Jon: In Memoriam Web, 1992, disk, Eastgate
Systems, Inc.: lexia as windows with their own menus.
325
In 1987 Michael Joyce created “afternoon: a story” with “Storyspace” for a disk
(today available on CD-ROM) edition of Eastgate Systems. The text divided in
539 lexia with 905 links provokes readers to explore the relations between the
parts as well as to guess which person of the text is identical with the person
guiding the readers (the narrator). 42 Readers can find their paths through the
story with search entries in Storyspace´s navigation bar. Lexia with irritating
labels (the key words in the light gray bar) can be `flipped through´ in a predetermined sequence via enter/return key.
Joyce, Michael: afternoon: a story, 1987, disk, Eastgate Systems, Inc.
(illustration: CD-ROM version for Intel Mac, 2011).
Up to the 36th lexia a story is unfolded that seems to be told mostly by the poet
Peter, as the connections between the lexia suggest. 43 Peter meets his employer
Werther. During the dinner Peter reflects his relation to Werther´s firm and to
his wife Lolly.
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Peter is confused: He believes to have seen an accident involving his former
wife Lisa and his son Andy. Peter´s efforts are not successfull to find Lisa and
Andy via phone calls. By the end of the linear sequence determined up to the
36th lexia readers are forced to explore the links between lexia in using other
functions than the return key. A window containing a selection of further
leading links can be opened with a click on the icon for browsing designed as
an opened book. Readers can use this function as well as click on words with
(non marked) links in the lexia to find passages through the story. Readers can
choose different paths to search out the course of the story: “Afternoon” “is not
nonlinear, but multilinear.” 44
A reader choosing links can not avoid to cross the same lexia at different paths.
45 Nevertheless the connections between lexia point to a final solution of the
conflicts. The concatenations provoke the readers to search investigatively
the relations between persons, especially what happened to Lisa and Andy.
However readers don´t receive an answer to this question 46 – despite Lolly´s
guess that Peter was the driver who caused his son´s death after an irritiation
by seeing Lisa in “Werth´s truck”. 47
Espen J. Aarseth argues against an understanding of “Afternoon” as a “a reconfiguration of narrative”. He pleas for hyperfictions becoming “ergodic” by the
reader´s efforts to explore the story in selecting paths between the heterarchical structured links 48:
A hypertext such as Afternoon has all three: description (“Her face was
a mirror”), narration (“I call Lolly”) and ergodics (the reader´s choices).
Unresolved here...is the conflict between narration and ergodics, between
narrative and game. 49
“Ergodic” are the functional elements – in “Afternoon” the links being selectable and activatable by the reader. According to Aarseth the “ergodic” and
narrative aspects of “Afternoon” should not be played off against each other:
He characterises Joyce´s hyperfiction as “an important limit text, on the border
between narrative and ergodics”. 50 Deviating from Aarseth “Afternoon” can
be characterised as containing mutually supportive ergodic and narrative elements: a complementary relation versus the assumption of a “border”.
327
From 1987 to 1992 each Macintosh computer was delivered together with the
programme HyperCard. The basic elements were “stacks” with virtual cards.
The caracteristics of all cards could be defined on a background layer. The
content of the cards could be created with the object-oriented, easy applicable
programming language HyperTalk. An editor made it possible to add texts and
simple graphical elements to each card. Also, the creation of larger databases
was made possible by HyperCard. 51
Examples for Hypermedia with HyperCard are Amendent Hardiker´s “Zaum
Gadget” from 1987 and William Dickey´s “Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra” from
1988. Hypermedia are hypertexts augmented by graphical and audible media. 52
In “Zaum Gadget” the text material for the lexia stems from an English translation of the manifest “The Letter as Such” (1913) by Viktor Vladimirovich Khlebnikov and Alexei Kruchonych. Links to other lexia are marked graphically.
Into the lexia Hardiker integrates images and sounds. The sounds start automatically or they are activated by mouseover. Between the text parts of a lexia
appear static or moving images. Furhtermore in some lexia pop-ups and dialog
boxes are prompted to setup. 53
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Dickey, William: Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, 1988, disk.
Dickey combines in his hypermedia works text, images and audio files with
navigation functions. “Zenobia” 54 contains not only unmarked and difficult
to find click fields with links connecting to further cards. Links can be located
in a part of a card as indications to relations between concatenation cards. In
their efforts to find the links readers should expore “Zenobia´s” textual and
graphical elements. Links can be located in parts of cards in ways that can
indicate relations between concatenated cards. “Card 3” presents two graphics:
a mirror-inverted repeated swordsman and the head of a bull. This head on
the upper left corner contains a link meanwhile the lower left part shows the
following text: “Left hand holding the right/Stabs where the gaze centers.”
According to Deena Larsen the “button...on the bull´s head emphas[es] the
importance of Dickey´s use of the word “gaze” in the text. 55
329
Moulthrop, Stuart: Victory Garden, 1991, North Garden, disk, Eastgate Systems,
Inc. (illustration: CD-ROM version for Intel Mac).
In 1991 Stuart Moulthrop created “Victory Garden” with Storyspace. Since
1992 it was distributed on disks (now available on CD-ROM) by Eastgate Systems (1992). 993 lexia can be either called up in a predetermined sequence or
the navigation between the links is possible in the same manners as in Joyce´s
“Afternoon” with its 2804 links. In “Victory Garden” most of the lexia contain
dialogues. The network of relationships being unfoldable across the links narrates the relations between American individuals of two generations in 1991,
during the first golf war. The navigation page offers accesses to this network of
individuals. It consists of a survey map divided in three further maps for the
north, the centre and the south. These maps of a garden provide access to 39
paths between the lexia. 56 According to Beat Suter the maps offer a “certain
330
kind of a labyrinthian garden with crossing ways” and demonstrate “the spatial
text structure in a persuading manner.” Contrary to Joyce´ s “Afternoon” a
reader of “Victory Garden” finds many accesses and a limited amount (six) of
alternative ends of the story. 57
Internet hyperfictions with a source code following the HTML standards defined by the World Wide Web consortium (W3C) contain much less links than
Joyce´s “Afternoon” and Moulthrop´s “Victory Garden”. 58
In “Zeit für die Bombe”/“Time for a Bomb” (1997) Susanne Berkenhager is
content with 102 lexia and not more than four links on each webpage (plus
anchors). On webpages with several links the text is divided in various blocks
with letters in different colours. Between the blocks the perspectives of the
actors change – mostly Veronika, Vladimir or Iwan – and in the blocks the
links lead to text parts continuing the story from the same perspective. Between jumps and arrivals of links appear automatically and for a short time
sentences with no other characteristics than to transport: They enforce the
reader´s impression of a story moving forward rapidly in whatever perspective
he may choose.
331
Berkenheger, Susanne: Zeit für die Bombe/Time for a Bomb, 1997,
hyperfiction on the web.
Berkenheger offers a love story `with bomb´: To meet Vladimir Veronika
travels to Moscow. At the station Veronika encounters Iwan instead of Vladimir who has fun with Blondie in the meantime. When Veronika finally meets
Vladimir then she notices the absence of the bag with the bomb that she has
brought with her for him. Iwan, abondoned by Veronika, sits before this bag
and reflects what he can do with the bomb. After the readers were called by
Iwan to follow him they get the chance to fire by clicks the bomb from afar. The
readers get the chance to do the same a little bit later with the hand grenade.
The author does not represent these detonations as explosions appearing on
monitors but as a change in the tale´s progression. The paths of some links lead
to Iwan´s death at the end of the story – and the next link brings the reader
back to the start.
Common to Berkenheger´s “Zeit für die Bombe” and Joyce´s “Afternoon” is
the multilinearity as a constituting part of the dynamics of the story´s progress.
332
In Berkenheger´s work nothing else than the links underlining some words
and letters lead to further webpages meanwhile in the hyperfictions by Joyce
and Moulthrop mentioned above the reader not only clicks on parts of the
lexia leading further but on pathways, too. These pathways appear in a specific
window denoting alternatives to other lexia.
59
The hypertextual procedures of net literature and the permutational procedures
of computer literature with its further developments in the web can be distinguished. Permutational uses of texts presented Christopher Strachey´s “Love
Letters” (1952, see chap. III.1.2) and the stochastic texts of Theo Lutz (1959, see
chap. III.1.3) or Gerhard Stickel (1965, see chap. III.1.3). They demonstrated
the results of algorithmic syntax reductions and the fillings of variable syntax
positions with stored textual elements. These databases contain words being
selected to be used as material for the programmed accesses.
This separation of programmed functions and databases with (parts of) texts
is recurring in newer works like, for example, Simon Bigg´s “The Great Wall
of China” (1996). Biggs selects Franz Kafka´s story “The Great Wall of China”
(“Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer”, 1917) as the word material for a syntactical oriented generation of sentences. The web project shows to observers fragments of Kafka´s text – four lines with four words each – in the left column.
Biggs divided Kafka´s story in ten chapters. The small central column includes
Chinese characters as icons of bottoms being usable to switch between the
chapters. The right column presents the generated sentences: with an adequate
syntax but provoking question marks concerning its semantic conclusiveness.
Mouse movements across the three columns provoke new generations. The
generating processes are executed fast – too fast for observers to be able to read
them. A static positioned cursor effects only a localisation of the text motion
but doesn´t stop it. The generating process can be stopped by positioning the
cursor on the central column or on the image: Only in this way the generated
text is legible. According to Anna Munster “everything becomes pure movement, pure transmission”.
333
Biggs, Simon: The Great Wall of China, 1997, web project.
For Christiane Heibach the text motion creates a “text wall” (“Textmauer”)
being interpretable as a comment on Kafkas story. But Biggs´ far-reaching
efforts to program the generation of texts are only justifiable if readers undermine the “text wall” effect and stop the text motion (see above): Often the
generated texts repeat words within one sentence. The relations between syntax
and semantics appear mostly absurd as if the elements need to be brought into
a new sequence. The generating process evolves presentations provoking the
readers´ selecting cognition: The generating process does not substitute the
reader´s cognition. 60
Florian Cramer offers on his web site “Permutations” (1996-98) web reconstructions via Perl scripts containing instructions for data processings to be
executed on servers. The project permits to elicit digital reconstructions of
works like “Systema infinitum” (Anonymous, 1717) and Raymond Queneau´s
«Cent mille milliards de poèmes» (Paris 1961) in a game-like manner. In “Here
comes everybody” a text automat generates combinations of syllables as an
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inventor of words. An initial text includes syllables, combinations of syllables,
words and word combinations. The syllabels of these text parts contain links. A
click on a syllable starts a process of selecting sentences with words containing
the clicked syllable out of a digitised “Finnegans Wake” by James Joyce (London 1939). The words of the selected sentences are disassembled in syllables.
The syllables for combinations are chosen by stochastic criteria how often
certain syllables follow one after another (see chap. II.1.2). To the resulting text
the programme adds the links being relevant for repetitions of this sentence
generation. 61
Cramer, Florian: Here Comes Everybody, permutations, 1996-98, web project.
Without activations by observers the system of “Here comes everybody” does
not start computing processes using the results of elder processes as initial
points, meanwhile in Generative Art computing processes usually unfold
algorithms autonomously and sometimes observers can use their selections for
interventions in not more than subordinated computing processes (see chap.
335
IV.3.2-IV.3.3). The autonomous life of a continuously running or a stepwise
activable system offers changing presentations as output to surprised observers
or provokes reactions of indifference or helplessness. However hypertextual
organised net literature does not decompose narrative elements but splits them
multilinear, and – compared to printed books – it modificates the possibilities
to (re)construct semantic relations in using media technologies. A search for
layers of meaning is in generative literature only accidentally successful, meanwhile hypertexts are determined by the human control of semantics.
In hypertexts each of the links between texts and their parts is chosen by
humans and stored digitally. These links can be inserted into the functions
programmed for databases and their organisations of lexia. Several authors
can contribute to the development of text archives based on such databases.
The text archives can be kept open for actualisations and expansions. So the
archives of such collaborativre writing projects remain works-in-progress.
Participants of scientific research projects can use an “abductive” digressing
reading 62 supported by “associative indexing” (see chap. VI.2.1) in their common search for new approaches (see “nic-las”, chap. VI.2.3).
VI.2.3 Collaborative Writing Projects in the Web
In December 1994 Douglas Davis installed “The World´s First Collaborative
Sentence” in the web, technically assisted by Robert Schneider and Gary Welz.
This early web project of an artist presented a writable field and asked for
contributions.The text contributions of participants were published one after
another on a webpage. After a growing number of contributions they were
partitioned and published on several web pages. In 2003 the amount of pages
grew up to 23. 63 A program was installed to prevent the use of full stops in
contributions. But already the punctuation marks on the first web page prove
the circumvention of the programmed full stop prohibition by contributors.
336
Davis, Douglas: The World´s First Collaborative Sentence, 1994, web project.
Many contributions are written as stream of consiousness. In part several fonts
were used and image files were inserted. Media being not pastable into the
writeable field were uploaded by Susan Hoeltzel, the director of the Lehmann
College Art Gallery, and Douglas Davis. 64
Douglas Davis realised participation projects like the TV programmes “Elektronik Hokkadim” (1971) and “Talk-Out: A Telethon” (1972). Spectators could
react to the already broadcasted parts of the show by telephone comments.
These reactions were transmitted on TV as parts of the live show. 65 At the
beginning of the seventies artists´ participation projects in TV broadcasts
transgressed the “one-way communication” being usual in contemporary mass
media (see chap IV.1.1 with ann.12).
In 1994 Davis used the opportunity to receive server space and technical
support to be able to install on the web a project for remote participants. More
337
than twenty years after his first TV projects Davis could use the web for a
public “two-way communication”. 66 The collaborative writing project was not
protected against spam and asocial contributions. After a longer while of trouble-free working of the system for collaborative writing it became nevertheless
necessary to overwrite contributions with the term “censored”.
Collaborative writing projects were just realised by members of ACEN on
“The WELL” (see chap. VI.1.2). Gil Mina Mora´s “Exquisite Corpse” (1988, see
chap. VI.1.2) was constituted by a continuation of the writing process from one
participant´s contribution to the next contribution of another participant and
so forth. This project anticipates Davis´ collaborative writing project for the
web. Participation projects as alternative TV were modificated for the internet
and web by Mora and Davis. The contemporary possibilities of a remote
communication became technically constitutive for projects realising “two-way
communication” 67 for the emancipation from the passive comsumption of a
culture determined from a few purportedly for the people (“one-way communication”). 68
After Davis´ collaborative writing project from 1994 other collaborative writing projects were installed on the web for the creation of novels by distributed
authorship. 69 Deviations from such collaborative writing projects with mostly
linear evolving narratives without links between their parts are participation
projects with “associative indexing” (see chap. VI.2.1) as a key feature.
Since 1999 Dragan Espenschied and Alvar Freude offer the ˛˛Assoziations-Blaster” for contributions first in German, then in a further version in
English. It simplifies a sliding between links across disparate contents. In 27th
October 2002 the popular collaborative writing project stored already 327900
contributions and 23682 keywords. 70 Espenschied and Freude take up the
hypertext model of cards with labels and texts with links (see chap. VI.2.2), but
they add a space for the writing of contributions.
338
Espenschied, Dragen/Freude, Alvar: Der Assoziations-Blaster, first contribution:
Wurzelgnom, January 1999, web project.
The links are automated: If the text of a contribution includes words being part
of the keyword archive then they are linked automatically. For a keyword with
several contributions the system chooses one of them as a link.
A filter can be adjusted to present only the contributions being rated with a
certain amount of points (user rating). If the filter is adjusted to let pass more
than one contribution for a keyword than the programmed selection of contributions uses pseudo-random procedures.
After participants wrote three contributions to the keywords already stored
then they can enter new keywords. The system scores the contributions: Criteria for the awarding of points are for example the length of the participants´
texts and the valuations of other participants. A participant´s point account
grows with his activities and the valuations of the others. This point account
can be used by participants to valuate other contributions.
339
The ˛˛Assoziations-Blaster” has no keyword register. Instead of such a register
the “Blaster” offers several accesses to the collectively created and changing
text labyrinth. The homepage presents a selection of five keywords as accesses.
Furthermore readers can choose the last contribution and a keyword being fed
by a random procedure. Alternatives to dig in the “Blaster” offer the search for
labels and words being used in the explanations of the labels.
Via “Web-Blaster” words in texts of any webpage can be linked with contributions in the “Blaster´s” database: The automated links of the “Web-Blaster” are
transferred to external texts. So the “Web-Blaster” offers further accesses to the
lexia of the “Assoziations-Blaster”.
Readers can escape a dead end of links by choosing “get away links” („FluchtLinksʼʼ).
The ˛˛Assoziations-Blaster” refers to the “meaning potentials” 71 of a word
so far as they are grasped by contributions and links. The concatenation by
automated links illuminates, lets unexplained or doubts the text semantics of a
contribution in facing it with other contributions. 72
Since 1999 Joachim Maier and René Bauer develop “nic-las” (“nowledge
integrating communication-based labeling and access system”) offering a
systematisation of the ways to create association fields cooperatively. “Stalker”
is a version of “nic-las” without a predetermined theme and open for all participants. The already written contributions were embedded by participants in the
functions offered by “nic-las” for the creation of relations between lexia. Participants can integrate further contributions into the growing hypertext system.
Research groups can use “nic-las” as a closed system: Such groups can get their
own versions of the system for contributions by invited participants being
bound to themes and to mutually agreed frameworks.
340
Art & LanguageNY (Burn, Ian/Corris, Michael/Heller, Preston/Menard, Andrew/
Ramsden, Mel/Smith, Terry): Blurting in A & L: an index of blurts and their
concatenation (the Handbook)..., New York/Halifax 1973, p.58s.
In 1973 a precursor of hypertext systems for a discourse by a group of participants was published in print: In the booklet “Blurting In A & L” 73 American
members of the artists´ group Art & Language resystematised the content of
their own texts. They divided members´ contributions for “The Annotation”, an
only vaguely defined project, into sections and attributed labels to them. They
added not seldom the same label to several sections. The sections were sorted
and numbered according to the alphabetical order of their labels.
In “Blurting In A & L” the lexia were tagged with “typed concatenations” 74:
An arrow or an “&” marked two concatenation types. The arrow designates
concatenations between more closely related units. This concatenation type
341
can be semantised as “`...because of...” or “`...in order that...´”, meanwhile “&”
marks open relations leading out of the narrower relations designated with an
arrow. The introduction proposes for “&” semantisations like “`...and then...´”,
“`...and so...´”, “`...and next...´”, but also “`either...or...´” or “`...but...´”. Both
concatenation types can be connoted as `annotative´ (arrow) and `associave´
(“&”). 75 For each of these two concatenation types lists with numbers of other
lexia are added to each lexia. The members of the artists´ goup decided about
the labels relevant for the wider (“&”) and closer (arrow) contexts of a lexia and
about its two concatenation lists.
An index lists the labels of lexia alphabetically. The numbers of the lexia are
indicated to the right of their labels. On the next 72 pages follow the 408 lexia
with the numbers indicated in the index. So a reference system was constructed by accesses for readers to the semantic network either via the index or via
accidental hits by browsing through the pages and by reading across lines,
labels and pages.
The published print of “Blurting in A&L” was readable like a cut through the
ongoing dialogue between the members of Art & Language. They wanted
to demonstrate an intermediate result and with it an intermediate stop in their
discourse process: a stop pointing to a going-on. With their open debate on
the problem to develop a concept of art reacting to contemporary evolutions of
theories in several disciplines the members of Art & Language contradicted the
established paradigm of the art object as an immediately perceptible unique
object of an author. Art & Language substituted the fixation of the art world
and established art theories on portable objects with questionable modes of
ascribing the status of art to them by a printed presentation of a discourse investigating these fixations and ascriptions as dubious concepts.
342
Art & LanguageNY (Burn, Ian/Corris, Michael/Heller, Preston/Menard, Andrew/
Ramsden, Mel/Smith, Terry): Blurting in A & L: an index of blurts and their
concatenation (the Handbook)..., New York/Halifax 1973/Online version.
ZKM 2002.
The Online-Version developed in 2002 at the Center for Art and Media in
Karlsruhe (ZKM) presents the index with the labels of the 408 lexia in the left
column. On the right of the index two columns are placed beside each other.
Each column shows one of the lexia. After a click on one of the numbers with
links the linked lexia can be read on the other column. This online presentation
makes it possible to compare the linking and the linked lexia. This comparison
made possible by the web version offered the print version only then when the
concatenated lexia were printed on the same double page.
343
Bauer, René/Maier, Joachim: nic-las, Stalker, since 1999, web project.
Compared to “Blurting in A & L” “nic-las” offers a dynamic system open for
further contributions and with more complex possibilities to structure a network of semantic fields. With collaborative writing systems like “nic-las” members of Art & Language could have been enabled to invite participants and to
publish the ongoing discourse.
In “nic-las” cards with labels (see chap. VI.2.2) are developed further to “digitale Zettel”/“digital notes” including contributions of several auhors to one
label. Each card contains writing spaces for comments. The comments will be
presented within the commented “Zettel”/“note”.
Contributions entered as “local objects” are figured under one lebel only,
meanwhile “the dynamic objects” reappear in several “digital notes”. Terms in
the texts of “digital notes” are linked automatically with further “digital notes”
being labelled with the same terms.
Within a “nic-las” project participants can install “digital notes” with new labels
(“new diff ”). These labels can be integrated into “topics” containing relations
344
between labels. The “topics” can be called up as “digital notes” and as parts of
a “structure”. The “structure” of a project is presented above a horizontal band
containing the label. Participants can choose between the “structure” with
hierarchical formations above the horizontal band and an alphabetical list in
the left column under the band. Furthermore the horizontal light grey band
includes the “topics” on the right side in extracts of the “structure” facilitating
to recognize how the labels are situated in the structure.
Bauer, René/Maier, Joachim: nic-las, Stalker, rhizomatic structure, since 1999,
web project.
345
The graphic presentation of the “structure” is designated as “rhizomatic”. The
form of this structure shows from left to right and from top to bottom descending hierarchies. A label in a higher position of the hierarchy can be repeated under a label in a lower position. The system does not exclude cases with
higher positioned labels including themselves as lower elements. 76 Therefore
the hierarchy is not a logical, but a graphical form to visualise relations.
Each “note” includes a section called “unbewußte”/“unconscious”. This “Irritationswerkzeug”/“irritation tool” either passes “deleuzianisch”/in a manner
named “deleuzian” a selection of contributions to the reader, or it lets recur
“Freudianisch”/“Freudianic” deleted texts.
With “Looking-Glass” external web pages can be commented and integrated
into a project without to copy and store them as “Textbaustein”/“textual
component”. The now defunct section “subvisual” showed material found in
the web: Java applets took links and images from the search engine Google.
With each activation of a “digital note” new discoveries were shown. The digital
“unconscious” and the “subvisual” expanded “associative indexing” (see chap.
VI.2.1) as a source for inspirations to gain further proposals.
The members of a research group can inspire themselves mutually in using
“nic-las” with or without agreed subject. The project “Stalker” in “nic-las”
demonstrates a system with expanding digital notes without mandatory subject
and only dependent from interests of the participants. The participants´
plurality of writing styles must not undermine the interplay between entries
but rather can create an increasingly dense network of “intertexts” 77 provoking
to write further entries and new “digital notes” if contradictions and gaps in
argumentations are recognisable.
Research goals can be crystallised in the course of a cooperation on a “nic-las”
project in using the intertext relations as auxiliary means. A research group can
appear as an `intertext implicit author´ 78 via the efforts of its members to create coherent argumentation lines. That does not exclude multifarious ruptured
dialogues distributed over “topics” and “digital notes” with efforts recognisable
for readers to gain a plausible argumentation.
346
“Nic-las” fulfills the demands to computing systems defined in Douglas Carl
Engelbart´s concept of the “augmented intellectual worker” with a digital
“card index box” serving “as a memory machine”. 79 The private card index box
of scholars like Johann Jacob Moser (1701-1785), Georg Friedrich Wilhelm
Hegel (1770-1831) or Niklas Luhmann (1927-1998) is replaced by a memory
machine being easier to handle: The cards with references noted by hand are
superseded by a digital medium with an administration of stored documents
and automated links.
The system “nic-las” with its selectable modes for the integration of links in
a “structure” and its automated links demonstrates how programmed system
requirements and concatenations chosen by participants following semantic
criteria can be combined. The storing of files according to choices following
individual criteria and the processes generated algorithmically – hypertextual
as well as automated procedures – penetrate each other in digital memory
machines and create semantic nets being open for further developments by one
or several authors. 80
The concepts of hypertext developed by Vannevar Bush, Douglas Carl Engelbart and Theodor Holm Nelson (see chap. VI.2.1) are realised in the “Assoziations-Blaster” as an endless digression and in “nic-las” as a possibility to
densify interpenetrating problem fields to structured semantic nets. Both net
projects are examples for a successful convergence of hypertext and participation – for different requirements.
The projects of Computer Art provoke to differentiate `uncommon implementations of programs´ from `uncommon programs´: `systems with strange
behaviours´ versus `strange systems´. `Strange systems´ are integrated in art,
philosophy and natural sciences as unusual models being able to challenge
common mindsets, meanwhile a conspicuous output of computing processes
can be designated as `strange behaviours´ directed by programmes constructed
in usual manners.
“Nic-las” offers hypertext to the participants of a project as a concatenation of
indications, remarks and ideas being useful in cooperations for creations of
new approaches, methods and mindsets. Symbolic interactions as insightful
347
communications avoiding `strange behaviours´ are indispensable but the
strength of “nic-las” is to facilitate in scientific cooperations the search for new
aspects, problems and themes without being bound to established expertise
limits. If participants´ `strange behaviours´ stimulate discussions then they can
provoke challenges and new developments of systems.
The manner of “nic-las” to install hypertext is more than only a strange, new
implementation: It is a `strange system´ with possibilities to avoid the disturbances in communications caused by `strange behaviours´ of participants and
to integrate such aberrations as inspirations: The `strange system´ facilitates
the collaborative jump out of the “normal science” to a “paradigm-shift-off ”. 81
Annotations
1 Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.155.
2 Bush: Think 1945. Cf. Gere: Culture 2008, p.69s.; Idensen: Schreibweisen
2001, p.229-233; Landow: Hypertext 1993, p.14-18; Warnke: Theorien 2011,
p.144-147.
3 Bush: Think 1945, Chapter 6.
4 Bush: Think 1945, Chapter 7. Cf. Gere: Culture 2008, p.70; Idensen: Schreibweisen 2001, p.231ss.; Landow: Hypertext 1993, p.15s.
5 Hayles: Literature 2008, p.47-57; Licklider: Symbiosis 1960, p.4.
6 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.29-32,60-86,95-102; Engelbart: Intellect
1962, p.68ss.,72s.
7 Licklider: Symbiosis 1990. Cf. Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.105s.
8 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.40s.,45s.; Engelbart: Intellect 1962,
p.21s.,24; Whorf: Language 1956.
348
9 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.34-41; Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.29.
10 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.1.
11 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.42.
12 “Notedeck”: Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p. 59s.
“Associative trail”: Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.51 with an explicit reference
to Vannevar Bush´s “associative indexing”.
13 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.61ss.
14 Krajewski: Zettelwirtschaft 2002, p.162-170.
15 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.64.
16 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.65s.
17 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p. 65ss.
18 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.85-89.
19 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.87s.
20 In “bootstrapping” the developers employ themselves as model users
and extrapolate from these experiences concepts for programming (Bardini:
Bootstrapping 2000, p.143-147).
21 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.138.
22 Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.148.
23 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.138-142; Engelbart/English: Research
Center 1968; Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.147s.
24 Ted Nelson´s earliest use of the term “hypertext” in a lecture at Vassar
349
College (Poughkeepsie/New York) on February 1965 is documented in:
Wedeles: Professor Nelson 1965.
25 Nelson: File 1965/2003, p.144.
26 Nelson: File 1965/2003, p.138s. Cf. Nelson: Computer 1974/2003, p.330s.
on “collateral structures”.
27 Burnham: Software 1970, p.18s. New in: Montfort/Wardrip-Fruin: Media
2003, p.250s.
28 See the quotation above (with ann.25).
29 Nelson: Machines 1981/2003, p.452s.
30 Nelson: Computer 1974/2003, p.307,329.
31 Nelson: Computer 1974/2003, p.306s.
32 Landow: Hypertext 1993, p.35.
33 Landow: Hypertext 1993, p.52s.
34 Bolter: Space 2001, p.35s.; Kuhlen: Hypertext 1991, p.84s.,89s.,96s.,333s.;
Landow: Hypertext 1993, S.4,7,9,23.
35 Malloy: Uncle Roger o.J.
36 Malloy: Uncle Roger 2012. In 1997 Judy Malloy used “UNIX shell scripts”
to programme “Uncle Roger” for the ACEN database (Malloy: Narrabase
1991, p.200; Malloy: Uncle Roger 2012).
37 Malloy: Narrabase 1991, p.197.
38 Bolter/Joyce: Hypertext 1987.
350
39 Funkhouser: Poetry 2007, p.153 with ann.8.
40 Landow: Hypertext 1993, p.111.
41 Tan: Storyspace 2002.
The most famous example: Kahn, Paul/Landow, George Paul/Launhardt,
Julie/Peter, Ronnie: The Dickens Web. Eastgate Systems, Inc. 1992. Lit.:
Landow: Hypertext 1993, p.48,96-100; Landow/Kahn: Hypertext 1992 with
chap. 2.2 (p.151ss.) on the first version realised in 1989 with Intermedia and
its reprogramming until March 1992 with Interleaf World View (for Windows)
and Storyspace (for Macintosh).
42 Aarseth: Cybertext 1997, p.88; Douglas: End 2000, p.96,102; Suter: Hyperfiktion 1999, p.123.
43 Douglas: End 2000, p.98.
44 Bolter: Space 2001, p.128.
45 Douglas: End 2000, p.98; Walker Rettberg: Piecing 1999, Chapter
“Nietzschean Repetition?”
46 Bachleitner: Formen 2010, chap.1.4, p.25ss.
47 Douglas: End 2000, p.100ss.,104ss.; Walker Rettberg: Piecing 1999, Chapter “Nietzschean Repetition?”
48 Aarseth: Cybertext 1997, p.1,85,89.
49 Aarseth: Cybertext 1997, p.95.
50 Aarseth: Cybertext 1997, p.94s.
51 Kuhlen: Hypertext 1991, p.V; Needle: Rumors 1987; Nielsen: Multimedia
1995, p.57-62.
351
52 Funkhouser: Poetry 2007, p.157; Nelson: File 1965/2003, p.144.
53 Funkhouser: Poetry 2007, p.158.
54 Montfort/Wardrip-Fruin: Media 2003, CD-ROM: 1980s, [Poems by William] Dickey 1988-90.
55 Larsen: Preface 2003.
56 Bolter: Space 2001, p.130-137.
57 Zitate: Suter: Hyperfiktion 1999, p.160, cf. p.124.
Accesses and alternative endings: Bootz: Basique 2006, chap. Que sont les
hypertextes et les hypermédias de fiction, 2.3.2; Douglas: End 2000, p.40.
58 Suter: Hyperfiktion 1999, p.54,124.
59 Bachleitner: Formen 2010, chap. 1-6, p.38ss.; Hautzinger: Buch 1999,
chap.5.4, p.107-114; Simanowski: Berkenheger 1999; Simanowski: Interfictions 2002, p.130s.; Suter: Hyperfiktion 1999, p.111ss.
60 Simon Biggs: Introduction 1996: “The inspiration for this project began
with the short story of the same name by Franz Kafka. The database for the
work consists of all the individual words in the original Kafka story. There are
no linguistic structures stored in the system beyond the individual words.
All sentences and grammar structures are formed `on the fly´ through object
oriented and behavioural programming techniques, based on pattern recognition, redundancy algorithms and Chomskian Formal Grammars. Formal
Grammars are used at the sentence level to generate individual sentences
and ensure a degree of correctness in syntactical formation. This basic
grammar system is augmented with many small ad hoc functions for dealing
with plurality, conjugation, tense, etc. Most of these functions operate at the
word level, but depend on `self-reading´ texts and backtracking techniques.
Pattern recognition techniques are used at the higher level of content
generation and contextualisation. This strategy has been employed as it was
the objective to avoid having any form of `story-telling´ model in the system.
352
The artist also wished to avoid using behavioural (Artificial Life) or Agent (for
example, modelling a `story-telling´ agent) based techniques, as the intention
has been to create a system where the story, its subjects, actions and context, would emerge from the formation of the language itself, as something
simultaneously written and read. Although at this point this technology is still
in early development it does lead to a prose form that is very open, unexpected in its results and poetic.”
Lit.: Bachleitner: Formen 2010, chap. 3.2, p.96s.; Heibach: Literatur
2003, p.222ss. (quote p.222) and CD; Heibach: Texttransformation 2000,
chap.2,3,5; Munster: Media 2006, p.175s. (quote p.176); Simanowski: Aleatorik 2002.
61 Cramer: per.m]utations 1998.
62 Wirth: Gedanken 1999.
63 In ca. 2005 many of the last entries were substituted by repetitions of the
term “censored”. In June 2007 it was impossible to call up the participants´
entries on the website of the Lehmann College of Art Gallery (According to
informations published on the website Whitney Museum of American Art the
collaborative writing project was installed on the web site of the Lehmann
College of Art Gallery. There it was open for new entries from 1994 to 2005).
In October 2010 these entries were found stored in the Internet Archive.
Since July 2011 or earlier the archive informs about the blocking of accesses
to the stored documents of the project. In 6/25/2012 the website of the
Whitney Museum contained a documentation of the contributions to Davis´
“The World´s First Collaborative Sentence” on 21 web pages. In (between
9th June and 28th August) 2013 a “Restored Historic Version” and a “New
Live Version” were installed on the Artport-Site of the Whitney Museum.
64 Baumgärtel: net.art 2.0 2001, p.60ss.; Heibach: Literatur 2003, p.173ss.;
Idensen: Schreibweisen 2001, p.253s.; Stallabrass: Internet 2003, p.60-63.
65 Dreher: Radical Software 2004, chap. Video and TV with ann.19.
66 “one-” and “two-way communication”: Paik: Untitled 1971. Quote in:
353
chap. IV.1.1 with ann.13.
67 see ann.66.
68 This is a variation of Carl Andre´s statement “Art is what we do. Culture is
what is done to us.” (Rose/Sandler: Sensibilities 1967, p.49).
69 Example: Klinger, Claudia: Beim Bäcker, 1996-2000.
Lit.: Heibach: Literatur 2000, p.324s.,329; Heibach: Literatur 2003, p.168s.;
Simanowski: Bäcker 2000; Simanowski: Interfictions 2002, p.27-34.
70 Statistics of the German version from 10/27/2002. Statistics of the same
version from 6/16/2012: 1046527 contributions to 77566 keywords.
71 Halliday: Explorations 1973, p.59,64; Norén/Linell: Meaning 2007, esp.
chap.3, p.389s.
72 Heibach: Literatur 2000, p.330s.; Heibach: Literatur 2003, p.178-181;
Idensen: Schreibweisen 2001, p.255-258; Ortmann: Netz 2001, p.67-72;
Simanowski: Leichtigkeit 2000; Simanowski: Interfiction 2002, p.46-53,163.
73 Art & LanguageNY: Blurting 1973.
74 Dreher: Art & Language 2002, chap. III.2 with ann.29; Kuhlen: Hypertext
1991, p.34,106,111,118,246,339.
75 Art & LanguageNY: Blurting 1973, p.5s.; Dreher: Art & Language 2002,
chap. III.1.
76 This contradicts Russell: Principles 1903, chap. X, §100s.
77 Bauer: Intertext 2009, chap. 3, p.18-42; Idensen: Schreibweisen 2001,
p.263.
78 Dreher: Mitschreibeprojekt 2002/2004, chap. intertextimpliziter Autor.
354
79 “Augmented intellectual worker”: Engelbart: Intellect 1962, p.103 (see
chap. VI.2.1).
“System of notes as a memory machine”/„Zettelsystem als Gedächtnismaschine”: Krajewski: Zettelwirtschaft 2002, p.141,151.
80 Bauer: Intertext 2009, chap. 5.3, p.67-79; Dreher: Mitschreibeprojekt
2002/2004, chap. intertextimpliziter Autor and chap. Wen kümmert´s wer
schreibt?; Idensen: Schreibweisen 2001, p.258-262; Suter: Literatur 2005,
p.215-219.
81 “Normal science”: Kuhn: Structure 1996, esp. p.11,25,27,30,34-38,42ss.
“Paradigm-shift-off”: Atkinson/Baldwin: Post-War 1972, p.167 (Terry Atkinson
and Michael Baldwin are English members of the group Art & Language. Cf.
Dreher: Blurting in A & L 2002, chap. II.1).
355
VI. Net Art: Networks, Participation, Hypertext
VI.3 Net Art in the Web
VI.3.1 Web: Hypertext, Protocols, Browsers
In the first half of the nineties a number of developments were crucial for the
evolution from the internet to the web. These developments yielded prerequisites for net art.
Until 1993 Gopher and the web were competing internet systems. When the
University of Minnesota decided to introduce an annual fee for the Gopher
software then the CERN (Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire) in
Geneve released their competing WEB Software as public domain software:
The internet participants chose the open web software. Open Source became a
fundamental condition for a far reaching distribution of the web.
A consequence of the developments facilitating the access to the internet, the
surfing and the setting up of a website – the web browsers and the definition of
web standards (protocols) – was a sharp increase of internet participants in the
nineties. In 1993-94 the developments from the internet to the web culminated
in the web browser “Mosaic”, the formation of the W3 (WWW) Consortium
for the definition of standards and the reports in newspapers and journals on
the growing number of participants from 2,63 millions in 1990 to 9,99 millions
in 1993. In December 1995 the number grew to 15 millions. In June 1993 130
sites were stored on servers. Two years later pages of 23.500 sites could be
called up online. 1
A proposition for a new project provided the impulse for a chain of developments resulting in the web: In 12th November 1990 Tim Berners-Lee and
Robert Cailliau presented in “World Wide Web: Proposal for a HyperText Project” the plan for a web constituted by linked hypertext documents to be stored by
the European Organization for Nuclear Research on several servers of the CERN:
356
HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a
web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. It provides a single
user-interface to large classes of information (reports, notes, data-bases,
computer documentation and on-line help). We propose a simple
scheme incorporating servers already available at CERN.
Berners-Lee and Cailliau suggested that the implementation of simple browsers on “the user´s workstations” provides accesses to the “Hypertext world”.
Furthermore applications were planned enabling web participants to add
documents. 2 This and the definition of protocols as binding guidelines for
networks between components of different types 3 constituted a framework for
the construction of a network between the CERN´s various servers: The Web
arose from a project of the European research center.
From 1990 to 1991 the Web Browser WorldWideWeb (December 1990), the
first version of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP version 0.9, 1991, see
below) and the tags of the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML tags, 1991, see
below) were developed at the CERN. 4
Berners-Lee, Tim: Browser WorldWideWeb, 1990.
Screenshot of a NeXT Computer, CERN.
357
The browser “WorldWideWeb” was a means to store and open files in formats
(PostScript, films, sound files) supported by the NeXT system (for computers
made by NeXT). Files stored on FTP- and HTTP-servers could be called up
with “WorldWideWeb”. The browser contained a WYSIWYG (What You See Is
What You Get) editor usable to open pages in separate windows, to edit and to
link them. If web participants wanted to control presentations of the browser
then they had to define the properties of “basic style sheets” in using the “style
editor”.
Pei-Yuan Wei was inspired by HyperCard when he developed the browser “Viola WWW”. In 1992 he presented the finished version for Unix´s X Windowing
System. In 1993 Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina offered “Mosaic” as a browser
easy to install on the operating systems Windows, Mac OS and Commodore
Amiga. “Mosaic” became the most used browser followed already at the end of
1994 by Andreessen´s “Netscape Navigator”. These are steps of the prehistory
leading to the “browser war” between Netscape and Microsoft. In 1998 the last
one won the competition with the “Internet Explorer”. 5
Andreessen, Marc/Bina, Eric: Browser NCSA Mosaic 1.0, 1993. Screenshot of an
Apple Computer with the operating system Mac OS 7.1.
358
Technical standards are the precondition of the internet´s data traffic. These
standards are defined by protocols. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) was
already used in the ARPANET since the seventies as a part of the TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) family of internet protocols
and defines now the technical standards for the uploading of files to servers. 6
For the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines since 1983 the functions of
seven layers, from the physical layer to the application layer. The fourth layer
defines the segmentation of the data stream and the avoidance of the traffic
congestion: The TCP determines the function of the transport layer and offers
a uniform technical basis for the upper application-oriented layers (from the
fifth to the seventh layer). These layers are liberated by the flow control of
the transport layer (the fourth layer) from the transport tasks controling the
physical connection (the first layer), the transmission between nodes (the
second layer) and the routing to the destination layer (the third layer). For the
transmission with different systems of networking and telecommunication the
transport layer (the fourth layer) organises the segmentation of data packets so
that the application-oriented layers (from the fifth to the seventh layer) process
only byte streams similar to a computer´s data transfer of a file from a hard
disk or from a storage medium to the working memory. 7
359
The seven layers of the OSI reference model (Yao: OSI 2011).
The data transfer between computers is regulated by the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol. It was defined in 1996 by the W3 Consortium and the Internet Task
Force (IETF) in HTTP V 1.0. When the computer of a web participant starts a
request then the Transmission Control Protocol establishes a connection to an
HTTP server via a port (usually Port 80) and finishes this process with either
an error message or a connection. 8
The Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) consists of a locator (URL), marking
the location of the computer storing the HTML document to be found, and the
name (URN) of this file. 9
Since 30th September 1998 the Domain Name System (DNS) is coordinated
by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). 10
The URL addresses consist of letters and are stored and managed in a big database. The DNS system coordinates the URL addresses with the IP addresses
constituted by ten digits. The IP addresses are the basic elements of the TCP/
IP standards. The providers´ DNS servers receive automatically the actual
360
informations being necessary for the coordination of URL addresses with IP
addresses. The DNS servers´ translations from the established URL addresses
to the IP addresses offer opportunities for censorship: By this intervention not
only specific webpages but all contents of a website are blocked. 11
The source code with commands for browsers to present webpages is a further
component of the web. The “Standardized Generalized Markup Language”
(SGML) was the basis of the format that was used in documents at CERN
(SGMLguid). In 1991 Tim Berners-Lee defined in “HTML Tags” 20 HTML
elements: Many of them were influenced by SGMLguid. 12 In November 1995
Tim Berners-Lee and Dan Connolly determined the first official standard
HTML 2.0. In this document HTML is described within point 3 as “an application of SGML”. 13 The tags between angle brackets as marks for commands and
the oblique strokes for the ends of commands reoccur from SGML to HTML
– in Tim Berners-Lee´s own words:
SGML was being used on CERN´s IBM machines with a particular set
of tags that were enclosed in angle brackets, so HTML used the same
tags wherever possible. 14
HTML and its extension to XHTML 15 became the standard types for documents to be presented in web browsers. Film, image and sound files can be integrated into these document types. 16 Net artists thematise since 1995 HTML
in web projects (see chap. VI.3.2) and problematise since 1997 the browser
presentations of documents and links (see chap. VI.3.3).
VI.3.2 HTML Art
Tim Berners-Lee wrote on his browser/editor “WorldWideWeb”:
I never intended HTML source code...to be seen by users...But the
human readability of HTML was an unexpected boon. To my surprise,
people [at the CERN] quickly became familiar with the tags and started
writing their own HTML documents directly. 17
361
It is easy to learn to operate with the HTML code. This facilitates the construction of web pages in writing the source code. It is not necessary to write the
sign combinations for links, anchors and other commands, because they can
be called up per mouse click with easy to use and freely downloadable editors.
If editors offer simple to use interfaces as work surfaces hiding the source
codes then they can cause traces in the source code demonstrating the user´s
inability to control the code. The source codes presented by the browsers show
the traces of editors as these include, for example, unnecessary code elements
or copyright informations of the programming firm.
In comparison to the hyperfictions for CD-ROMS (see chap. VI.2.2) early web
projects by artists expose new scopes as results of the possibilities to control the
browser presentations of webpages via their source codes. These include functional and graphical elements like cells, frames and layers as well as possibilities
to integrate files stored on distant servers into one webpage. These codes
include affordances to observers to explore the functions embedded in browser
presentations and to reconstruct their programming. With this open relation
between code and presentation the web projects presented below contradict
the “dictatorship of the beautiful appearance” 18 determined by the “Graphical
User Interfaces” (GUI) shown on the screens of personal computers: The
browsers include possibilities to call up the source code and editors are means
to modificate it in contrast to code hiding interfaces with buttons for clicks
activating functions. The internet in times of the World Wide Web provokes
doubts about the achievements of the personal computers with their desktops
and possibilities to produce documents not only in a simplified manner but in
a manner predetermined by the programmers of the GUI.
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Friese, Holger: unendlich, fast..., 1995, web project (screenshot 2010).
Holger Friese´s “unendlich, fast...”/“nearly infinite...” (1995) consists of a
browser field with a nearly complete blue surface. In the source code bgcolor=“#000088”, the RGB value for “Navy/low blue”, determines the colour and
its extension is organized by repetitions of the command <br>, the code for
line breaks. In scrolling the blue plane in the browser up and down two white
signs can be found several times repeated within a narrow field: There are stars
and three lines with equal length arranged parallel above each other. These
signs can be called up neither as signs of the alphabet nor as keys on manuals.
Into the blue plane Friese integrated a screenshot of a postscript file (file name:
“ende.gif ”). He writes on this screenshot:
And that´s the true reason why the background is blue, it is a screenshot
of a Postscript file (the data structure that´s sent to a laserprinter to draw
a lemniscate) which had a blue background on a very old DOS operated
computer. 19
The signs constitute “a lying eight, the sign for infinity, in a form readable by
computers.” 20 The white signs of the image file appear on the monochrome
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plane isolated and subtracted from their former context. The “infinite” blue
apears only “nearly” infinite, as the title says, because it is interrupted by these
white signs and has a finite height and width.
Jodi: wwwwwwwww.jodi.org, 1995, web project (screenshot 2012).
Jodi (Joan Heemskerk and Dirk Paesmans) connect in wwwwwwwww.jodi.org
(1995) graphically unusual designed webpages containing some text elements
with links often being recognisable only via cursor movements. Many pages
present repeated images. Some of the images or image series contain links
opening new images. The images are only seldom made with a digital camera.
More often two-dimensional computer graphics are presented, and sometimes
animated.gifs are shown. The HTML code is used to call up the same stored
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images several times within a webpage. Text elements can be components
of the images as well as parts of the HTML document. HTML functions like
<blink> or javascript like the “function scrollit” (automated scrolling) as well as
photo sequences in animated gifs are means to control the `moving´ monitor
presentations of the webpages. Some links are designed via the tag <form
action> as buttons with the forms of formulars.
Jodi: wwwwwwwww.jodi.org, 1995, web project: text becoming visible
after being marked by mouse-over (screenshot 2012).
“Accept” buttons are located under “agreement” declarations parodying copyright regulations and disclaimers. The remark “Texts for bots only” can be
found in the source code of a page whose browser presentation shows nothing
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more than the text “Worm food” with an “accept” botton located below. The
source code includes word sequences like “hackcrackphreakwarez” and hints to
the culture of sharing open content (“warez”) and the hacker scene. If someone
moves the cursor over the black field between the “Worm Food” headline and
the “accept” button then he can read the text of the source code in black letters
on blue background as a part of the browser presentation.
Jodi: wwwwwwwww.jodi.org, 1995, web project: browser presentation of the
source code written in ASCII (screenshot 2012).
The first page presents in some browsers a source code in ASCII flashing (not
all browsers `blink´). ASCII is an abbreviation for “American Standard Code
for Information Interchange” substituting letters by number combinations.
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Platforms for ASCII Art collect and store typograms created with ASCII elements forming patterns sometimes looking either like diagrams or sometimes
like pictures. Jodi uses the browser to dissolve the configuration of ASCII elements with a figurative contour on the level of the source code into an irritating sequence of signs: lines, dashes, points and cyphers in repeating sequences
and variations. The whole field of this code presentation contains a link leading
to another page of this web project.
Jodi: wwwwwwwww.jodi.org, 1995, web project: a detail of the first page´s
source code (browser presentation, Screenshot 2012).
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If these webpages and the relations between them refer to a common concept
then it is the variation of forms, not seldom irritating because of the overall
impression of repleteness. Jodi´s manner to explore the possibilities to design
webpages must have been a provocation for observers interested in contemporary web design. 21
In “My boyfriend came back from the war” (1996) Olia Lialina contitutes a
hyperfiction in concatenating webpages via frames (without scrollbars). The
frames enclose words, word combinations or sentences. Only a few frames
include images (without text), in one case also an animated gif. The frames are
divided up into `frames in frames´: In clicking on texts or images within the
frames links are activated causing the opening of new pages. In the meantime
the webpage is divided into further frames.
Lialina, Olia: My boyfriend came back from the war, 1996, web project
(screenshot 2012).
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In comparison to Douglas Carl Engelbart´s predigital model of notched cards
stringed together edge-to-edge (see chap. VI.2.1 with ann.12) the cards or the
contents of the frames in “My boyfriend came back from the war” are digitally
set `into motion´: from adjacent card edges to a grid constituted by grey
frames whose contents on black backgrounds become `mobile´. The notches
are substituted by Lialina´s selection of links on fields within frames opening
further frames within linked fields.
Lialina, Olia: My boyfriend came back from the war, 1996, web project
(screenshot 2012).
At the beginning the first frame fills the screen over the entire height and contains an image of a window at the top right as well as an image of a couple at
the lower left. 22 After a click on the first frame´s couple appears on the right
side a second frame with a front view of Lialina´s face. The left frame includes
no further leading concatenation, meanwhile the right frame is divided from
click to click in further frames with texts and images. Clicks on one of these
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frames cause at first changes in the frame content (images or texts) and then
a division of the frame in two or four further frames. The end of the click
sequences on frames causing their divisions is marked by monochrome black
fields as frame contents. At the lower right appears not a further black field but
instead a white frame presenting – as the source code tells – the text “LOOK,
it´s so beautiful” in white letters on a white blackground. The text became
visible in the browser Netscape 4 by mouse over for a short time. Lialina wrote
to Roberto Simanowski about this presentation: “It was made invisible to be
an invisible link. You can see it if you select it.” 23 A click on this white frame
leads to a frame with a mailto-function to Lialina´s e-mail address, and – in the
actual version (2012) – on a line under the mailto-function to a link leading
to the platform “Last Real Net Art Museum” offering copies, variations and
alternatives to Lialina´s “My Boyfriend came back from the war” being programmed by artists from 1998 to 2012.
Lialina, Olia: My boyfriend came back from the war, 1996, web project
(screenshot 2012).
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The history of a woman wanting to marry a soldier is laid out by Lialina in a
multi-branched but nevertheless sequential manner from left to right and from
top to bottom. Words in several adjacent frames point to narrative interrelationships or yield parts of sentences being dissolved in further clicks.
The artist matches her narrative strategy with the permutational possibilities of
the frame combinations: The frame permutations and the combinations of sentence fragments are coupled. Lialina uses a frame-hypertext narrative strategy
resulting in possibilities to play with semantically occupied fields provoking
readers to follow the prearranged narrative direction. 24
Shulgin, Alexei: Form Art, 1997, web project (screenshot 2012).
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Source codes built for purposes are showcased by Alexei Shulgin purposeless
in browser presentations. The title “Form Art” (1997) recalls the HTML command for web forms (<form>). Shulgin utilizes input fields, control bottons
and checkboxes in a HTML art augmented by Javascript and Java. These elements are distributed on webpages. Clicks on the control bottons and checkboxes open new browser windows demonstrating again constellations with
input fields, control boxes and checkboxes. 25 In “Form Art” the forms are not
used to send data to a server for further processing but to activate functions of
the artistic project´s webpages like a marquee constituted by checkboxes.
The examples presented above are the results of experiments with the possibilities of programming browser presentations with HTML: The relevant browsers
were Netscape Navigator 1 through 3 and Internet Explorer 1 through 3. The
web projects presented below use uncommon link strategies to thematise the
internet as a developing public archive.
Shulgin, Alexei: Link X, 1996, web project (screenshot 2012).
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Alex Shulgin in “Link X” (1996) and Heath Bunting in “_readme – own, be
owned, or remain invisible” (1998) selected words for the construction of URL
addresses: The artists set “www.” before the self chosen (Shulgin 26) or found
words (Bunting 27) and added the top level domain “.com” used world wide
for commercial sites. Contrary to Heath Bunting´s concentration on URL
addresses ending with “.com” Shulgin changes between “.org” and “.com” and
the resulting URL addresses lead in some cases to various websites. The words
combined with links in the way described led in the time of the projects´
creations only seldom to documents meanwhile around 2000 unused URL
addresses became rare. The words readable in the browser presentations deliver
materials for the construction of links that can be used to explore the web as
data space. In the early phase of the web this strategy was an interesting investigative attitude towards the arising data landscape.
Bunting, Heath: _readme – own, be owned, or remain invisible, 1998,
web project (screenshot 2012).
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URL addresses with the top-level domain .org are provided for organisations.
Despite nonexisting restrictions this top-level domain is used mostly by organisations with charitable aims. The URL addresses of the top-level domain
.com are reserved for the e-commerce. Among them are the websites of firms,
often internationally operating corporations. If owners of websites occupied
URL addresses similar to firm names then either they could receive money es a
result of an out of court settlement for a voluntary cession, or they were faced
with claims and lawsuits.
In 1999 eToys, the American shipment of toys, tried to force the Swiss artists´
group etoy in an out of court settlement to hand over their URL address etoy.
com. After an interlocutory injunction the firm Network Solutions deleted
etoy.com from the main register of URL addresses in December 1999. Network
Solutions was responsible for the administration of .com addresses. Not only
etoy´s website was not accessible any more but their mailbox, too. This sanction was not covered by the court decision.
After several negotiations without agreement the members of the Electronic
Disturbance Theater and RTMark followed a strategy putting eToys under
pressure at several levels until the management withdraw the lawsuit at the
beginning of 2000.
During the Christmas season in 1999 virtual sit-ins were realised with the
tool “FloodNet” to prevent sales on the website eToys.com for a short time.
With the use of the software “FloodNet” developed by members of the group
Electronic Disturbance Theater not the content of a website being the target
is changed but the access is slowed down and blocked in extreme cases. A
java applet runs reload calls: In three parallel frames a website is loaded in
three-seconds-cycles. The server of a website is asked for a non-existent URL
address and the “server error log” indicates its non-existence to web participants. Simultaneous FloodNet calls by many web participants can cause
an overload of the “server error log”. In these cases the accesses to targeted
websites are blocked. 28
The virtual sit-ins were combined with a successful press campaign. Both
together damaged the image of eToys. The share price decreased dramatically
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and in February 2001 eToys filed for bankruptcy protection after disappointing
Christmas sales. The “ToyWar” demonstrates the appropriation of the data
space by corporations. 29 Bunting´s textual instrument exploring the segmentation of the commercial data space anticipates the problems causing etoys´ self
defence.
The examples of HTML Art presented above explore web fundamentals and
lead the attention of web participants to HTML as a basic tool to create webpages. The possibilities to use the web must not be prefabricated by platforms
such as social networks following frameworks mostly guided by commercial
interests, and it is not necessary to use only these platforms. In the context of
the web 1.0 e-commerce and the free exchange of informations were opposites,
meanwhile in the web 2.0 platforms support and promote the exchange of
informations between registered users because this boosts the profit of the
platform owners: For advertisers and platform owners the users became game
balls.
Contrary to that in the web 1.0 the net participants, while building their own
websites and using tactical tools like “FloodNet”, understood themselves as
acting on their own behalf and according to their own benchmarks. If these
actors wanted to resist restrictions then they organised campaigns and looked
for participants. They used and use means resulting from the tactical possibilities offered by the free web distribution of informations and by activistic web
tools being free of charge.
VI.3.3 Browser Art
The examples presented in chapter VI.3.2 demonstrate the programming for
browser presentations and the use of links as accesses to site-external webpages. The examples chosen for this chapter bring these two aspects together
in their ways to thematise browser functions: They present not only browser
functions (art for browsers) but also alternatives to popular web browsers (art
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as browser) being offered by Netscape and Microsoft (Internet Explorer).
The Web is used as a resource for data accesses in “without addresses” (1997)
by Joachim Blank and Karl-Heinz Jeron 30 as well as in Mark Napier´s “The
Shredder” (1998). 31 These projects offer web participants possibilities to select
accesses to documents stored on servers connected via the internet, but both
projects do not offer ways to influence the modification of these webpages.
Meanwhile Napier makes the input of an URL address possible, “without
addresses” provokes web participants with the question “tell me who you are”
to write entries. Then it uses these entries as keywords in search systems (Altavista und Yahoo), selects a webpage and constructs with it a new webpage. The
selected URL address is noted on the transformed document. This document is
stored in an archive.
Blank, Joachim/Jeron, Karl-Heinz: without addresses, 1997, web project
(illustrations of the project documentation by Blank & Jeron).
Modified webpages are stored in “The Shredder´s” archive. In contrast to the
access to these files in “without addresses” a blue-white map offers a controlled
access to the archive´s recently stored and transformed webpages. If a web participant moves the cursor over the map (without street names) partitioned in
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fields then the line in a text box changes. This text line consists of an IP address
of the web participant and his entries.
Napier, Mark: The Shredder, 1998, web project (screenshot 2012).
In “without addresses” the answers to the question “tell me who you are” are
used to generate and store entries of the map fields´ virtual habitants. Mouse
clicks on the map fields´ orange points open the files containing the informations on the virtual habitants. The files generated by an algorithm using
the input of web participants contain the pseudo-identities of a fictive town´s
inhabitants.
“Without addresses” and “The Shredder” transform the lay-out of the found
webpages. In “without addresses” the text found via search systems and
transformed in a digital handwritten-like font overlies a picture taken from
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the source document. From the webpages being called up by net participants
in entering URL addresses “The Shredder” shows on the top left side of the
transformed webpage the links included in the source document as lines
overlapping each other. This column presenting links overlies the images
shown distorted and overlapping: With the measures of length and width the
proportions of the images are changed. In these distorting manner the illustrations are integrated into the transformed webpage. The source code is shown in
little and overlapping letters on the left column. Fragments of the source code
appear in big letters in a second column moved to the right. These letters lay
over the letters of the left column.
“Without addresses” and “The Shredder” use arbitrary documents called up in
the net as basic materials for the computing processes controlled by algorithms.
The results of the computing processes on servers controlled by Perl partially
still allow to reconstruct the orignal elements. The two projects by Blank &
Jeron and Napier demonstrate the relation between the source code and the
browser presentation as depending on a modifiable technical configuration.
The following projects add to the browsers for presentations of webpages alternative browsers presenting aspects of the data traffic.
Projects modifying webpages on the server side like Napier´s “The Shredder”
are labeled as “art browsers” and distinguished from “browser art” like Shulgin´s “Form Art” (see chap. VI.3.2). 32 But then it is impossible to designate the
alternative browsers as “browser art”. The most obvious and in the following
chosen way out of the resulting terminology confusion is to designate only
projects as “art browsers” making alternative browsers available for download:
Projects by Blank & Jeron and Napier modifying presentations within available
browsers are not categorised as “art browsers”.
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I/O/D: Web Stalker, 1997, browser (photo from the monitor, August 2000).
The art browsers “Web Stalker” by I/O/D (Matthew Fuller, Colin Green, Simon
Pope, 1997) 33 and Maciej Wisniewski´s “Netomat” (1999) 34 thematise the
data flow provoked by links and search systems. They addressed aspects not
presented by the most used contemporary browsers (Internet Explorer, Netscape Communicator): the data traffic between servers initiated by the URL
addresses in links. “Web Stalker” visualised the relations between linked webpages diagrammatically as an ongoing process capturing the documents from
link to link via crawler, meanwhile in “Netomat” links of search systems are
used to present the found files with their contents as a data stream of findings.
After the “Web Stalker” was downloaded and opened, a void, monochrome
black or selectable purple or blue window appears. Users drag rectangles and
correlate them with the functions described below. Each user cares for visual
clarity in selecting the windows´ functions, sizes and locations.
After the input of an URL address “Web Stalker” starts to look for the links
of this webpage, then follows the links of the linked webpages, and so forth.
A diagram (“Map”) visualises this link structure as an ongoing computing
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process. Webpages are represented as circles and the links as lines. With the
growing amount of links the circles become brighter. The “crawler” shows
the URL address it is dealing with actually. A scale visualises how much of a
webpage´s source code the “Web Stalker” has investigated. “HTML stream”
presents the source code as a part of the dataflow grasped by the crawler and
directed by the links from document to document. The “Dismantler” enables
users to draw circles out of other windows (drag and drop). The “Dismantler”
preserves the link structure of an URL address, as it is presented in the diagram
with circles and lines. Users can select via clicks on circles the URL addresses
indicated at the upper side of “Dismantler´s” and “Stash´s” rectangles. If such
a circle is dragged into “Extract” then a text is presented being the result of a
readout of the source code and the computing processes initiated by this code.
This text can be stored as .txt file. If circles are dragged into “Stash” then the
URL addresses can be stored in a text file. These addresses can be copied and
called up with an usual web browser.
Wisniewski, Maciej: Netomat, 1999, browser
(photo from the monitor, October 2000).
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“Netomat” shows a data stream of images (ignored by the “Web Stalker”) and
text fragments. 35 If the “Netomat” is started after the activation of a web connection then the art browser begins its data access. In the browser window on
the bottom right “Netomat” informs how many text, image and sound files are
activated. The direction and speed of the data flow on the browser presentation
can be modified with cursor movements. If the cursor position is directed from
the centre to an edge then the presentation of the data stream is accelerated.
The flow direction changes contrary to the cursor movements. A text input in
the bottom line starts a new data stream after the Enter key is pressed. Because
the memory function can´t be stopped the files indicated in elder data streams
don´t disappear after the start of a new stream. Appearing text fragments can
supply suggestions to further text inputs provoking the integration of new
documents in the visualisation of memorised elements.
Wisniewski prevents directed data access. Text input causes surprise findings
without enabling users to select elements out of the data stream and to recontextualise them: The browser surface presenting the data stream does not
contain click functions.
“Netomat´s” use of documents found in the web dissolves the data constellations being defined by the source codes for the browser presentations of webpages: Texts are fragmented and pictures isolated. The “Netomat” substitutes
the usual browser presentation of static webpages by the presentation of a data
flow. This flow doesn´t loose its character to pass found web documents over
to the user while he is tipping further text fragments: The surprising findings
– the images and texts – can´t be substituted by results of a targeted search for
specific topics.
Instead of the “Netomat´s” exploration of the content of webpages, the “Web
Stalker” visualises the dial-up progressing from link to link: The computing
processes for the connection buildup cause progressing diagram configurations.
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Jevbratt, Lisa: 1:1, every IP, 1999, 2001-2002, web project (screenshot 2009).
The web as an expanding archive of files linked to each other is tapped by the
“Web Stalker” only partially starting with an URL address chosen by a web
participant. Lisa Jevbratt´s 1:1 (1999, actualised in 2001-2) visualises the IP
addresses of homepages found by crawlers. The overview demonstrates a Web
1.0 with an amount of websites that could seem to be not too big for a data
visualisation of them all. Nevertheless in 1999 a crawler needed too much time
to capture all available IP addresses of homepages. A crawler of the artists´
group C5, with Jevbratt as its member, gathered “two percent of the spectrum
and 186,100 sites were included in the database.” 36 In Jevbratt´s visualisations
of the accessable homepages, for example in “every IP”, the clarity of the visual
arrangement and its combination with functionality (the links to the webpages)
suffer from the mass of found IP addresses.
DNS servers translate the URL addresses of websites in IP addresses (see chap.
VI.3.1). Jevbratt´s visualisations present the IP addresses of homepages as a
dataspace with its own `geography´: The IP addresses with 10 numbers make it
possible to define `distances´ – close and distant relations – between them.
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Katastrofsky, Carlos: Area Research, 2004, web project (screenshot 2007).
The projects “Neighbourhood Research” and “Area Research” (2004) by
Carlos Katastrofsky (Michael Kargl) thematise the proximity or distance of IP
addresses in searching for nearby IP addresses to the URL addresses inputted
by web participants. In Katastrofsky´s projects the process of searching can be
repeated by the input of further URL addresses, meanwhile Jevbratt visualises
the results of two finished crawler actions (1999, 2001-2). The projects by
Jevbratt and Katastrofsky complement the aspects of web data traffic shown by
the art browsers “Web Stalker” and “Netomat”.
The art browsers “Web Stalker” and “Netomat” are yielding for experimental
more than for instrumentalising and target-oriented observation-manners.
Aspects of the semantic web (as a vocabulary used by humans in speach acts
and connected to semantic fields) are of primary importance in collaborative
writing projects with databases as stores for contributions (see chap. VI.2.3),
meanwhile the art browsers show technical procedures. The two levels of
information in a technical and semantic context thematised in cybernetics (see
chap. II) and information aesthetics (see chap. III) remain important aspects of
a “problematic”. 37
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VI.3.4 Net art, Context Art and Media Activism
The relation between cybernetic models (see chap. II.2) and cybernetic sculptures (see chap. II.3) can be understood as a prefiguration of the relation
between models of a net practice and net art: Just as the cybernetics´ concept
of models defines a relation between theoretical statements and a built model
(model level 1) and demonstrates with it possibilities to artists how they can
install machining processes gaining the status of models as exemplary realisations (models level 2), so the net art tries to realise a net practice being
exemplary in a non-commercial information context as net activists defended
it against hazards: The free information exchange in a deterritorialised data
world becomes a model (model level 1).
In the web the term “art” does not signify a status declared by institutions and
defined within discourses but a provision of models being technically successful as well as an offer for the observation of net conditions: They are models for
an exemplary net practice (model level 2). Net activists feel themselves obliged
to react to critical observations of net conditions in demonstrating who how
and with which interests determines these conditions or tries to change them.
This causes net art to demonstrate the consequences of the confrontations of
interests and power structures.
Collaborative writing projects (see chap. VI.2.3) and alternative browsers (see
chap. VI.3.3) offer web practices provoking net observations (as reflexions).
Either the daily routines of web participants calling up prepared unchangeable
contents are questioned by models of participation, or the preconditions are
created for critical observations of the net conditions being basic for the quotidian supply of documents.
In the context of the experimental video culture in the seventies Dan Sandin
and Phil Morton extended the “Analog Image Processor” to an open platform
for developers and provided with the “Copy-It-Right-Licence” an early example for Open Source and Open Content (see chap. IV.1). This open form to
distribute products integrated artists of the demoscene in the eighties into their
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common ways to develop the programming of personal computers (see chap.
IV.2.1.4.3) and to use later the internet´s possibilities for a no-cost distribution
of their animation codes.
In comparison to elder media the web facilitates works-in-progress for the
development of software (Open Source) or for the construction of knowledge
systems (Open Content) meanwhile commercial oriented producers try to
establish closed systems in the form of scarce and costly final products. On
the one hand the barrier between producer and consumer vanishes in the
gift economy, on the other hand this barrier is uphold by the distributors and
salesmen. One of the effects of the web is a wider gap between the open source
model with an unlimited distribution and a cooperative production on the
one hand and, on the other hand, the commercial distribution models now
augmented by e-commerce with a digital rights management based on software
for copy-restriction mechanisms to be installed on the computers of the customers.
Since 1999 the relations between Open Source, Open Content and new distribution models were discussed on four Oekonux conferences. Richard Stallman,
Eric Steven Raymond, Richard Barbrook, John Perry Barlow and Lawrence
Lessig became in the eighties and nineties the most famous net activists writing
on Open Source and Open Content.
In net activism restrictions for further developments of software and its distribution by copyright and patent laws were and are discussed as barriers
blocking a free exchange of data and a cooperative development of software.
This activism fights against economic, juridical and technical obstacles restricting a free data exchange. Platforms like “Illegal Art” (2002-6, now only parts
of the original web contents are stored in the Internet Archive: sound, video)
and “Kingdom of Piracy” (2002-6) show how artists thematise basic problems
of web usage and their working conditions restricted by copyright and patent
laws. The technical, economic and legal conditions for the accesses to data as
well as for the downloads, modifications and distributions of files constitute an
important part of net art´s context. If projects of net artists show web conditions in an exemplary manner and demonstrate the tensions between technical
possibilities and restrictions by proprietary practices then the projects become
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either a part of net activism (Negativland/Tom Maloney, see below) or they
transgress – for example by the provision of tools (model level 2) – the limits of
art towards activism (The Yes Men, see below).
Medosch, Armin (ed.): DIVE: An Introduction into the World of Free Software
and Copyleft Culture, FACT in Liverpool, 2003, web plattform (screenshot 2012).
The comprehensive project “DIVE: An Introduction into the World of Free
Software and Copyleft Culture” was integrated into the platform “Kingdom
of Piracy”. “DIVE” focuses on relations between software development and a
free distribution (Open Source) without the restriction practices supported by
copyright and patent laws. With “DIVE” “Kingdom of Piracy” became in 2003
the most comprehensive and most concise platform for relations between free
software, net activism and net art.
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The Yes Men/Detritus/Doll, Cue P.: Reamweaver Version 2.0, tool, 2002. Screenshot of the creation of a pseudo-mirror site of the World Trade Organization´s
website.
One of the activistic projects of the platform was “The Yes Men´s Reamweaver”.
In 2002 Gladwin Muraroa of The Yes Men, Nickie Halflinger of Detritus and
Cue P. Doll (Amy Alexander) developed “Reamweaver Version 2.0” with Perl.
If the tool for automated modifications of sites was installed via FTP access on
a server than it enabled web participants to create parodying pseudo-mirror
sites (They seem to be a `mirror´ or the copy of a site with another URL address but with their modifications they comment the copied sites). “Reamweaver” was launched by RTMark and supported by interested web participants. 38
Fakes of the World Trade Organization´s (WTO) site are examples of the tool´s
uses. 39 When critical pseudo-mirror sites are censored then “Reamweaver”
enables web participants to create in a short time-span new counterfeits with
further critical and parodying statements.
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First page of a two-page invitation of the Media Tank to “Illegal Art Extravaganza”, the special events to the travel exhibition “Illegal Art: Freedom of Expression
in the Corporate Age”, Old City´s Nexus Gallery, Philadelphia 2003.
Carrie McLaren, editor of the “Stay Free Magazine”, curated the travel exhibition “Illegal Art: Freedom of Expression in the Corporate Age”. The exhibition
and its site presented many examples from art, film and music showing repetitions and modifications of copyright protected sources. Legal protection
was provided by the Chilling Effects Clearinghouse. In this association the
Electronic Frontier Foundation and the law schools of five American universities collaborated (Berkman Center for Internet & Society/Harvard University,
Stanford Center for Internet & Society, Samuelson Law/Technology and Public
Policy Clinic, University of California, University of San Francisco Law School,
University of Maine School of Law).
The copyright does not protect authors against the exploiters of their rights.
Rather the copyright is used by exploiters as a means to establish connections
between the exploit of rights and jurisdiction in a strategically calculated
manner disempowering authors (Links to the webpage “Copyright Articles”
connected to texts about abuses by the copyright industry).
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The website of the exhibition presented film extracts, animations, musical
works and artworks in different media – partially with their history of jurisdiction: Some lawsuits were not completed by a judgement in the time of the
travel exhibition´s presentations. The complaints (“cease-and-desist-orders”) of
the copyrights´ owners and exploiters disregard often “Fair Use” (see below),
nevertheless the defendents frequently relent before a lawsuit starts because
these lawsuits last long and the financial expenses are high.
The curator´s intention was to present to a broad public the misuse of the
copyright as a restraint of artistic creativity instead of its protection 40 and to
disturb the copyright industry´s lobbying and accusatorial practice. The
exhibition offered to authors of newspaper reports an occasion to discuss the
perversion of the copyright into a Corporate Right. 41 Beside the San Francisco
Museum of Art no other museum with a wider collection of 20th century art
exhibited “Illegal Art”, even though they are affected by the effects of an accusatorial practice disregarding “Fair Use”: Neither Marcel Duchamp´s L.H.O.O.Q.
(1919) nor Pop Art could be created under contemporary legal relationships.
The copyright industry stigmatises takeovers of some parts of an art work protected by copyright as piracy, as intellectual property theft. “Illegal Art” exhibits
examples of the ways artists use procedures to copy and quote with – mostly
ironic – defamiliarizations or alienations. This “recombinant theater” 42
parodies and comments the contemporary mass culture by its manners to pick
specific objects up. The technical possibilities of precise digital copies without
losses in quality are used in procedures of appropriation and modification to
articulate criticism of the mass media´s spectacle organisation. Procedures of
quotation, plagiarism and transformation are used for an unveiling, exaggerating or alienating criticism of economic and social conditions; takeovers “for
purposes such as criticism, comment...” permits the “Fair Use Doctrine” of the
US law. 43 Entertaining modes of recycling and activistic-critical recombining
strategies are (combinable) takeover practices to intervene in strategies of the
copyright industry (corporations and their lawyers) to control the use and
distribution of the mass culture´s signs. On this point we are faced with artistic
and activist (re-)appropriations.
The website of “Illegal Art” itself was an example for the procedures of a “com389
munication guerilla” 44 using strategies of (re-)appropriation ironically: When
the homepage was opened then a window started presenting the following
text: “ELECTRONIC END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR VIEWING
ILLEGAL ART EXHIBIT WEBSITE AND FOR USE OF LUMBER AND/OR
PET OWNERSHIP”. As soon as a reader of this parody of a license clicked on
“I agree” then the contract and the homepage disappeared.
“Illegal Art” was conceived as a plea for an extension of the “Fair Use Doctrine´s” applicability. This extension is a conclusion drawn from the practices
of the (re-)appropriation culture. Negativland outlined applications of the “Fair
Use Doctrine” being adequate from their point of view:
...we would have the protections and payments to artists and their administrators restricted to the straight-across usage of entire works
by others, or for any form of usage at all by commercial advertisers.
Beyond that, creators would be free to incorporate fragments from the
creations of others into their own work. 45
Negativland/Maloney, Tim: Gimme the Mermaid, film, 2000/2002.
Negativland and the former Disney film animator Tim Maloney assembled
390
different sources in creating Gimme the Mermaid (2000/2002, an exhibit of
“Illegal Art”) as a comment on the behaviours of owners and administrators of
copyrights. Copyrights protect properties and property is an important part in
an economic-based power structure: Copyrights save property and property
is power. A telephone voice of a lawyer for the music industry was visualised
as the speech of the mermaid Arielle (the figure was a part of a Disney
production) and was set to music in creating a cover version of Black Flag´s
Gimme Gimme Gimme: “I own it or I control it...You can´t use it without my
permission.” The decision on the appropriation of a copyright protected “it”
is not taken by the critic but by the criticized person: That´s the situation the
“Fair Use Doctrine” should prevent. The barriers for the downloads and further
processing created by one-sided interpretations of the copyrights and the “Digital Millenium Copyright Act” (DMCA) 46 threaten the net architecture created
for free access.
Art forms and their distribution in legal, economic and media contexts determine each other. Because the production of art can´t be separated from production conditions as artists thematise them via critical self-embedding. If Tim
Maloney shows the strategies of copyright administrators with the means the
administrators tried to prevent then he needs a good defender. In “Illegal Art”
the practice to bundle activist efforts is organised as legal assistance for artists
creating test cases for legal proceedings. After the verdicts for or against the
works featured in “Illegal Art” it is possible in comparable cases to anticipate
future verdicts.
Annotations
1 Arns: Netzkulturen 2002, p.21s.; Berners-Lee: Web 1999,
S.69,72ss.,79,97ss; Gere: Culture 2008, p.152s.; Warnke: Theorien 2011,
p.49,52; Weiß: Netzkunst 2009, p.30s.
On the growth of the amount of users from 1995 to 2002 and the number of
websites from 1993 to 2002: Matis: Wundermaschine 2002, p.312s.; Warnke:
Theorien 2011, p.48s. Cf. Hyperakt/Vizzuality/Google Chrome Team: Evolution (2012): In 2011 2.27 milliard participants used the web.
391
2 Berners-Lee/Cailliau: WorldWideWeb 1990.
3 Berners-Lee: Web 1999, p.33-37.
4 Berners-Lee: Web 1999, p.28-31,38-45.
5 Browser “WorldWideWeb”: Berners-Lee: Web 1999, p.45s.; Berners-Lee:
WorldWideWeb Browser o.J.; Matis: Wundermaschine 2002, p.311; Wikipedia: WorldWideWeb 2012.
Other browsers: Berners-Lee: Web 1999, p.56s.,64,67; Matis: Wundermaschine 2002, p.315s.
6 FTP: Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.36.
TCP/IP: Plate: Grundlagen 2012, chap. 11: TCP/IP; Warnke: Theorien 2011,
p.43-46,51.
7 Bunz: Speicher 2009, p.100-106; Kahnwald: Netzkunst 2006, p.49s.; Plate:
Grundlagen 2012, chap. 11: TCP/IP; Weiß: Netzkunst 2009, p.37ss.,41s.
8 HTTP V 1.0: Request for Comments/RFC 1945. Warnke: Theorien 2011,
p.86-90.
9 Since 2002 defined in RFC 3305. Precursor: RFC 1630, 1994 and others. Executing scientists: W3 Consortium/IETF (Berners-Lee: Web 1999, p.36s.,39s.).
10 Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.64; Weiß: Netzkunst 2009, p.36.
11 Postel: Domain 1983 (RFC 881); Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.62-76; Weiß:
Netzkunst 2009, p.33-36.
Censorship with DNS filter, an example: Dreher: Link 2002-2006, chap.
ODEM.
12 Berners-Lee: Web 1999, p.41s.; Palmer: History undated; WWW Consortium: HTML 1992.
13 Berners-Lee/Connolly: Hypertext 1995 (RFC 1866).
392
14 Berners-Lee: Web 1999, p.42 (quotation), 41-44.
15 XHTML 1.0, January 2000, reformulation of HTML 4.01: WWW Consortium: XHTML 2000/2002.
16 Warnke: Theorien 2011, p.96s.; Weiß: Netzkunst 2009, p.50.
17 Berners-Lee: Web 1999, p.42.
18 “Dictatorship of the beautiful appearance”/“Diktatur des schönen
Scheins”: Stephenson: Diktatur 2002 (German title of Stephenson: Beginning
1999).
In a lecture Holger Friese demonstrated the recognizable traces of the
“Großes Data Becker Homepage Paket”: “Das kleine Homepagepaket”, shift
e.V., Berlin, 1/23/1999 (Dreher: Unendlich 2001).
19 Friese: Selection 2008, p.24s.
20 Friese: Artworks 2008.
Lit.: Dreher: Unendlich 2001; Rinagl/Thalmair/Dreher: Monochromacity 2011;
Vannucchi: Friese 1999.
21 Berry: Thematics 2001, p.84s.; Cramer: Discordia 2002, p.71,75,78; Cramer: Statements 2011, p.235ss.,243; Greene: Internet 2004, p.40s.; Kerscher:
Bild 1999, p.110.
22 Lialina and a filmmaker at Moscow´s film club “CinePhantom”. Further
pictures are based on stills “from the Hollywood film `Broken Arrow´”
(Baumgärtel: [net.art] 1999, p.129).
23 Simanowski: Hypertext 2001, part 4; Simanowski: Interfictions 2002, p.95s.
24 Compare the opposite explanations of the relation frame – narration by
Julian Stallabrass and Roberto Simanowski: According to Stallabrass the
observers click “through screens without orientation” (Stallabrass: Internet
393
2003, p.58s.), meanwhile according to Simanowski the “reading process follows the [narrative] linearity fairly close” (Simanowski: Interfictions 2002, p.93.
Cf. Berry: Thematics 2001, p.80ss.; Manovich: Language 2001, p.324s.).
25 With scripts developed by Laszlo Valko. Lit.: Greene: Internet 2004, p.80s.
with ill.54; Weiß: Netzkunst 2009, p.203-235, 375ss.
26 Greene: Internet 2004, p.42s. with ill.23.
27 Heath Bunting repeats the text of the following newspaper article: Flint,
James: The Power of Disbelief. In: The Daily Telegraph, 4/8/1997 (on Heath
Bunting). Lit.: Arns: Netzkulturen 2002, p.67s.; Arns: Readme 2006; Berry:
Thematics 2001, p.196-199; Greene: Internet 2004, p.42-45; Heibach: Literatur 2003, p.110s.; Stallabrass: Internet 2003, p.29s.
28 Dreher: Radical Software 2004, chap. Electronic Disturbance: Tools, Sites
& Strategies.
29 “Toywar”: Arns: Netzkulturen 2002, p.62-65; Arns: Toy 2002, p.56-59;
Drühl: Künstler 2006, p.283-293; Greene: Internet 2004, p.125ss.; Grether:
Etoy 2000; Gürler: Strategien 2001, chap. Toywar; Paul: Art 2003, p.208s.;
Richard: Anfang 2001, p.213-223; Richard: Business 2000; Stallabrass: Internet 2003, p.96-101; Weiß: Netzkunst 2009, p.199,254-265; Wishart/Bochsler:
Reality 2002.
30 “Without addresses” is no longer stored on a web server. It was “programmed with Perl and Postscript. The resulting Postscript file was rendered
to a GIF file in using pbmplus.” (Karl-Heinz Jeron, e-Mail 8/15/2012, in German) Lit.: Blase: Street 1997; Dreher: Stadt 2000, chap. without addresses;
Gohlke: Go o.J.; Huber: Browser 1998, chap. 4.1 Joachim Blank/Karl-Heinz
Jeron: without addresses.
31 “The Shredder” was programmed in Perl and Javascript. Lit.: Greene:
Internet 2004, p.99ss.; Kahnwald: Netzkunst 2006, p.18s.; Napier: Shredder
1999; Napier: Shredder 2001; Simanowski: Interfictions 2002, p.151,161;
Stallabrass: Internet 2003, p.47.
394
32 Kahnwald: Netzkunst 2006, p.7-11. Cf. Galloway: Browser 1998; Simanowski: Interfictions 2002, p.165,151 (Simanowski labels “The Shredder”
and I/O/D´s “Web Stalker” presented below as “art browsers”); Maciej
Wisniewski in Hadler: Informationschoreographie undated: “The `Netomat´ is
no longer a browser art but rather an art browser.”
Overviews on alternative browsers were offered by the Browserdays being
organised in different cities (Amsterdam, Berlin, New York) and in 2001 at
the “Browsercheck” presented in Berlin at “raum 3” “under everyday conditions”.
33 “Web Stalker” was developed in Lingo, the programming language
for Macromedia Director. Lit.: Baumgärtel: Browserkunst 1999, p.88,90;
Baumgärtel: [net.art] 1999, p.152-157; Dreher: Politics 2001, chap. I/O/D:
Web Stalker; Fuller: Means 1998; Gohlke: Software 2003, p.58s.; Greene:
Internet 2004, p.78,84-87; Heibach: Literatur 2003, p.213s.; Kahnwald:
Netzkunst 2006, p.16ss.; Manovich: Language 2001, p.76; Paul: Art 2003,
p.118s.; Simanowski: Interfictions 2002, p.165s.; Stallabrass: Internet 2003,
p.21,23,39,55,126; Weibel/Druckrey: net_condition 2001, p.276s.; Weiß:
Netzkunst 2009, p.235-242.
34 Dreher: Informationschoreografie 2000, chap. Netomat; Fourmentraux:
Art 2005, p.86s.; Greene: Internet 2004, p.131; Heibach: Literatur 2003,
p.214; Kahnwald: Netzkunst 2006, p.21s.,40s.; Manovich: Language 2001,
p.31,76; Stallabrass: Internet 2003, p.126; Weibel/Druckrey: net_condition
2001, p.80s.
35 In 2000 the author could not call up the sound files on Windows 98.
According to Wisniewski it was possible to call the sound files with fast
connections, meanwhile low connections required to deactivate the sound
function. Wisniewski offers not any more the download of “Netomat” on
netomat.net. Also the documentation offered by Wisniewski on this site is no
longer available.
36 Jevbratt: 1:1 2002. Cf. Jevbratt: Infome 2003, chap. abstract reality: “1:1
was originally created in 1999 and it consisted of a database that would
eventually contain the addresses of every Web site in the world and interfac395
es through which to view and use the database. Crawlers were sent out on
the Web to determine whether there was a Web site at a specific numerical
address. If a site existed, whether it was accessible to the public or not, the
address was stored in the database. The crawlers didn’t start on the first IP
address going to the last; instead they searched selected samples of all the
IP numbers, slowly zooming in on the numerical spectrum. Because of the
interlaced nature of the search, the database could in itself at any given point
be considered a snapshot or portrait of the Web, revealing not a slice but an
image of the Web, with increasing resolution.”
Lit.: Baumgärtel: [net.art 2.0] 2001, p.192-197; Munster: Media 2006, p.82ss.;
Paul: Art 2003, p.181s.
37 «Problématique»/»problematic»: Althusser: Marx 1969, p.32,34ss.; Art &
LanguageNY: Blurting 1973, p.68, Nr.282.
The data visualisation “Small Talk” (2009) by Use All Five, Inc. maps a social
network (“Twitter”) according to semantic critieria.
38 RTMark: Reamweaver 2002: “The Reamweaver software...allows users to
instantly `funhouse-mirror´ anyone’s website in real time, while changing any
words that they choose.”
39 From http://www.wto.org to http://www.gatt.org (8/5/2012) and to http://
www.wtoo.org/ (12/14/2003, not found any more in 8/5/2012. Screenshot of
the creation with “Reamweaver” in the NETescopio database: URL: http://
netescopio.meiac.es/proyecto/0220/reamweaver_samples/wtocompare.jpg
(3/9/2014)).
40 Heins: Progress 2003.
41 F.e. Dawson: Art 2003; Lotozo 2003; Nelson: Exhibition 2003.
42 Critical Art Ensemble: Disturbance 1994, Chapter 4.
43 Without author: United States Code undated (Title 17: Copyrights, Chapter 1, Section 107).
396
44 Autonome a.f.r.i.k.a. gruppe/Blissett, Luther/Brünzels, Sonja: Handbuch
1997/2001.
45 Negativland: Fair Use undated.
46 Without author: U.S. Copyright 1998.
397
VII. Games
VII.1 Computer and Video Games
VII.1.1 Early Computer Games
Since the beginning of the 16th century the game “Nim” is known in Europe.
Two players alternate in their efforts to remove matchsticks from a series of
matches. The players decide how many matches they remove. According to
the agreement about the goal of the game each player tries either to cause or to
prevent the situation to hold the last matchstick.
When in the thirties Patrick Michael Grundy and Roland Parcifal Sprague used
Nim as a model case to investigate conditions of impartial games then they
discovered independently from each other the Sprague-Grundy-theorem now
fundamental to the mathematical game theory. 1 This model status exposed
Nim beside chess: Both games offered points of departure for further far-reaching developments from which computer games emerged.
Since 1940 machine versions of Nim players were realised. They are variants
of early electronic games processing a classic games´ set of rules (see below).
The goal of the Nim machines was a reconstruction of the game logic. In the
meantime, in 1948, inventors started with the “Cathode Ray Tube Amusement
Device” (see below) 2 a development line constructing machines for the game
action of hitting.
In 1940 Edward U. Condon, Willard A. Derr and Gereld L. Tawney received
the U.S. Patent 2,215,544 for a Nim machine being able to play the two game
strategies following the rules of either the “normal case” or the “reversed case”
against a human competitor. In spring 1940 the machine called “Nimatron”
was realised by the firm Westinghouse for the New York World´s Fair. “Nimatron” had a weight of more than a ton “and [the circuit] ma[de] extensive use of
relays”. 3
398
Condon, Edward U./Derr, Willard A./Gereld L. Tawney: Nimatron, 1940.
Left: Realisation by the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, spring
1940, New York World´s Fair (source: The American Mathematical Monthly. Vol
49. January 1942, p.42ss.) .
Right: Illustration of U.S. Patent 2,215,544.
In 1948 Raymond Redheffer presented a Nim machine realised with “simple
electrical circuits” weighing “about five ponds”. The machine can not only be
used to play with four rows of matchsticks but also for an arbitrary amount of
them. According to Redheffer a precursor of this machine was just planned in
1941-42 for a realisation with relais. 4
399
Redheffer, Raymond: Nim, box realised in using blue plexiglass, signed with
“Raymond Redheffer MIT” (film by Mike Mozart, including some not quite
correct informations according to the current level of knowledge).
A box made with blue plexiglass was found at antique markets being signed
with “Raymond Redheffer MIT” (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge/Massachusetts). This box was named “Nim”. This box seems to be one of
the realisations of Redheffer´s concept.
When in 1951 the “Exhibition of Science” was a part of the “Festival of Britain”
in London, then one of the exhibits was a game computer constructed by John
Bennett and Raymond Stuart-Williams. The exhibition was installed in a new
wing of London´s Science Museum in South Kensington. The Ferranti Nimrod
was a digital computer consisting of 480 tubes to play Nim with a human competitor. A table contained buttons and lights to control computing processes.
A demonstrator sat at this table turning his back to the computer, meanwhile
a visitor sat at the other side of the table facing the front side of the Ferranti
Nimrod. This front included three slabs with control lights: A list with the steps
of the computing process (left), the score (center) and the computing processes
for the rows of game elements (right) were displayed. 5
400
Bennett, John/Stuart-Williams, Raymond: Ferranti Nimrod, 1951.
Left: Industrial Exhibition, fair grounds, Charlottenburg/Berlin, opening day 6th
October 1951, Federal Minister of Economic Affairs Ludwig Erhard (left bottom,
at the centre) plays against Nimrod and looses three times (Borchers: Jahre 2001.
Source of the images: Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum, Paderborn).
Right: Exhibition of Science, Science Museum, South Kensington/London, Part of
the Festival of Great Britain, London 1951.
Within the exhibition parcours leading from physics, chemistry and biology
to the outer space the computer was placed in the center of the fifth and last
room. Jacob Bronowski wrote for the booklet of the exhibition:
You are plunged headlong through these five rooms into the structure of
matter, and are now ready to see, in a more leisure way, how we come to
know about it. 6
The Ferranti Nimrod acts in the last exhibition space as an example for the
“electronic brain”. Beside the cosmic space, stars and lightbeams “which reach
us from outer space” the “electronic brain” is mentioned as one of “a range of
subjects from the electronic brain to the processes and structures on which life
is based”. 7
In a further booklet “NIMROD” the Ferranti Nimrod is compared with the
mainframe computer Ferranti Mark I (1951, see chap. III.1) by the Manchester
401
University. The booklet points to Ferranti Nimrod´s computing capacity to
solve “quite complex problems” despite its “small memory” in comparison to
the mainframe computer. The digital Nim game is presented to demonstrate
the computing capacities of the Ferranti Mark 1.
In the booklet on “NIMROD” the term “electronic brain” is explained as not
useful because it provokes false expectations concerning autonomous thinking
capacities of machines:
[Automatic computers] do `think´ after a fashion but only in the manner that their designer and the person controlling the machine allow. 8
The Nim game presented a model of the mathematical game theory (see above)
and it was used as a test case for the capacities of “automatic computers”. 9
In the last space of the “Exhibition of Science” the imagination of a scientific
cosmos was provoked by exhibits exemplifying games, mathematics, electronic
calculation and cosmic space. As its contribution to the “Festival of Britain”
the “Science Museum” offered to its visitors a parcours showing glimpses into
the scientific cosmos. On its exhibition fairground at London´s South Bank the
festival offered a collection of the best British achievements in industries, arts
and sciences. Beside this exhibition area further exhibitions in areas within and
outside London were installed.
The festival of achievements did not seek direct comparisons for example between Great Britain and the United States of America in cases like the machine-made Nim competitors Ferrant Nimrod and the little box developed at
the MIT (see above).
In 1950 Claude Elwood Shannon presented guidelines of a chess program for
computers. He explored ways to analyze chess and to use it as a precondition
to develop a program. Because the possible moves were too many for the contemporary computing capacities Shannon proposed to reduce them so far that
they still enable the program to unfold “a skillful game, perhaps comparable to
that of a good human player.” 10 Shannon explained the problems to be solved
in programming:
402
Our problem is to represent chess as numbers and operations on numbers, and to reduce the strategy decided upon to a sequence of computer
orders. 11
In 1951 Dietrich G. Prinz developed a chess program for the Manchester Mark
I (since 1949) analysing all possible moves. Because of the computer´s limited
memory capacity the program could not solve more than some of the problems
a player has to solve if a checkmate is possible in two moves. The computing
with the program needed more time to find a solution than a human player. 12
In 30th July 1951 a program for a checkers game, developed by Christopher
Strachey, was installed on the Pilot ACE of the National Physical Laboratory in
Teddington/Middlesex (1950-55, see chap. III.1.2). But the memory capacity of
this mainframe computer was too small. In consequence, Strachey rewrote his
program of a checkers game in October 1951 using the machinic game of the
Manchester Mark I, the precursor of the Ferranti Mark I. 13
The programs and machines presented above are a part of the video and computer games´ prehistories. The presented games take up characteristics of elder
games like the logics of rules structuring the progression of plays. Apparently
in the English context of the Manchester University and Ferranti Ltd. as well
as in the U.S.A. at the MIT (Redheffer´s employer) and at the Bell Telephone
Laboratories (Shannon´s employer) scientists treated problems of programs for
games as if they were solvable tasks.
Shannon wrote about the significance of chess programming:
Although perhaps of no practical importance, the question is of theoretical interest, and it is hoped that a satisfactory solution of this problem
will act as a wedge in attacking other problems of similar nature and of
greater significance.
Games offer developers test cases to be used in the creation of “modern general
purpose computer[s]”. So for Shannon chess was sufficiently complex and in its
structure with goal-oriented steps it was particularly suitable for the exploration of the “digital nature of modern computers”. 14
403
In 1948 Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr., Cedar Grove and Estle Ray Mann received
the U.S. Patent #2,455,992 for their invention of a “Cathode Ray Tube Amusement Device”. This never realised device was designed to change the course of
a point on a cathode ray tube via knobs. The moving point should constitute
a curved line and the knobs should serve to navigate the point to a target. The
target should be marked by an overlay on the tube: For a player the moving
point should be a bullet hitting or missing a plane. The “Amusement Device”
was already a concept for a shooting game. 15
Goldsmith Jr., Thomas T./Grove,Cedar/Mann, Estle Ray: Cathode Ray Tube
Amusement Device. U.S. Patent #2,455,992. 1948, Sheets 1 and 2, fig.1 - 4.
404
At the University of Cambridge (Cambridge/Cambridgeshire, England) Alexander S. Douglas wrote a doctoral thesis on the human-machine interaction. In
1952, as a demonstration of his thesis, he developed a program to play “Tic Tac
Toe” on the mainframe computer EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator, Mathematical Laboratory, University of Cambridge, since 6th Mai
1949). EDSAC´s three cathode ray tubes (with 35 x 16 pixels) presented the
game with its basic division in nine fields. With a telephone dial the fields
could be marked with “X” or “O” on a rotational basis by the player or the
computer. When a player or the computer succeeded to set his or its mark in
three fields beside each other – in a horizontal, vertical or diagonal order –
then the winner of the game was found. 16
Douglas, Alexander S.: Tic Tac Toe, 1949, game for the mainframe computer
EDSAC (illustration: Tic Tac Toe in the EDSAC Emulator).
Contrary to the patent by Goldsmith, Grove und Ray (see above) Douglas´
game is not an electronic game with new rules. Nevertheless the development
of computer games containing the monitor presentations as an important part
405
of the interface (as the access of the player to the game system) started in 1949
with Douglas´ version of “Tic Tac Tow”. After the rules and moves of classical
games have been programmed the next important step in the evolution of
computer games was to develop games for monitor presentations.
The nuclear physicist William Alfred Higinbotham was the director of the
Instrumentation Division at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE, Upton auf Long Island). For the visitors´ day at
18th October 1958 Higinbotham invented an exhibit provoking visitors to interactions. With his object he reacted to the lack of interest “in static exhibits”
as visitors demonstrated it in earlier public presentations. 17
Higinbotham, William: Tennis for Two, 1958, Systron Donner Analog Computer,
Germanium transistors, oscillograph (diameter: 5 inches), 2 boxes with turning
knobs and press keys. Exhibited at the visitor´s day of the Instrumentation Division at the Brookhaven National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Upton/
Long Island (“Tennis for Two” is presented enlarged in the wider circle. Image
source: Brookhaven National Laboratory).
When reading the instruction book of a Systron Donner Model 30 analog
computer (1954-60) Higinbotham found a description “how to generate vari406
ous curves on a cathode-ray tube of an oscilloscope, using resistors, capacitors
and relays. Among the examples...were the trajectories of a bullet, missile
and bouncing ball all of which were subject to gravity and wind resistance.”
Higinbotham reminded the instruction book´s game ball of a tennis game. In
constructing “Tennis for Two” he combined the little analog valve computer
with an oscillograph (with a diameter of 5 inches) and two portable boxes, each
of them with a turning knob and a press key.
Higinbotham, William: Tennis for Two, 1958, Systron Donner Analog Computer,
Germanium transistors, oscillograph (diameter: 5 inches), 2 boxes with turning
knobs and press keys. Exhibited at the visitor´s day of the Instrumentation Division at the Brookhaven National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Upton/
Long Island (Peter Takacs explains a version of “Tennis for Two”,
reconstructed in 1997).
The oscillograph showed the vertical plan of a tennis court: A long horizontal
floor line was interrupted in its middle by a short vertical line representing
the tennis net. The players could influence the curve of a point in using the
turning knobs on the boxes. The press key caused the racket to push the ball.
The racket was reduced to a movable short vertical line. The rackets appeared
on both sides of the tennis court´s vertical plan. Higinbotham and Robert V.
Dvorak, the executing “technical specialist”, accelerated the moving parts with
Germanium transistors. They were available only since recently:
407
At that display rate, the eye sees the ball, the net, and the court as one
image, rather than as three separate images. 18
For “Tennis for Two” non-sporty games were selected no longer as a base, as it
was the case in the development of former computer games´ programs (see the
examples above), rather the idea of a point moving on a cathode ray tube – as
it was anticipated in the patent by Goldsmith, Grove and Ray – was taken over
for a reduced representation of a game play borrowed from sport. “Tennis for
Two” was not yet able to record, store and indicate the score.
In 1961 J. Martin Graetz, Stephen R. Russell and Wayne Wytanen were employed in the Littauer Statistical Laboratory of the Harvard University (Cambridge/Massachusetts). According to Graetz´s report from the summer of 1961
he became acquainted with the transistor-equipped mainframe computer TX-0
(1955/56, developed at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory) at the MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge/Massachusetts) Electrical Engineering
Department. Graetz got to know demonstrations realised for the TX-0 and its
interface with a mouse, a console and a lighting pen. 19 These demonstrations
inspired the development of a computer game´s programme for the minicomputer DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) PDP-1 (since 1960) and its
vector screen. In a room the PDP-1 was placed next to the TX-0. Alan Kotok,
member of the TX-0 research group, as well as Dan Edwards and Peter Sampson, co-workers at the artificial intelligence research team, contributed to the
development of “Spacewar!”.
408
Edwards, Dan/Graetz, Martin J./Kotok, Alan/Russell, Stephen R./Sampson,
Peter/Wytanen, Wayne: Spacewar!, 1962, computer game for the minicomputer
PDP-1, screen with two spaceships.
In February 1962 the first version of “Spacewar!” was installed on the PDP-1.
It consisted of two spaceships. Their forms presented on screens of cathode ray
tubes are described by Graetz as “needle and wedge space ship outlines”. The
players used a knob on their “control boxes” to direct the rotation of the ships.
20 Beside the turning knob for the spaceship the box had a further turning
knob with a double function: In moving the knob back the rocket was accelerated, meanwhile in pulling the knob forward the hyperspace function was
started. Players could activate this function if they didn´t recognize another
way to escape in fields anywhere between adversaries and the gravitational
centre. The function could be used three times. After the escape the spaceship
returned to arbitrary places on the playing field – in the worst case to the later
developed gravitational centre (see below). The push button of the “control
box” made it possible to start a torpedo consisting of small square points of
light. This “torpedo” could be used to kill the adversary.
409
Edwards, Dan/Graetz, Martin J./Kotok, Alan/Russell, Stephen R./Sampson,
Peter/Wytanen, Wayne: Spacewar!, 1962, computer game
for the minicomputer PDP-1, console.
For a more interesting gameplay a gravity field was developed for the centre
of the monitor and located in the area surrounding a star with flashing beams:
Not moving spaceships were drawn into this centre of gravity.
The spaceships had to be moved to evade the projectiles of a competitor (who
behaves like an enemy in the case of “Spacewar!”) and not to be drawn into the
centre of gravity. To reduce the necessary computing capacity the projectiles
are not subjected to the forces of gravity. The authors tried to explain this
absence of gravity with the makeshift explanation to connote projectiles as
“photon bombs.” 21
The statistics of points made it possible to limit the duration of a game to the
time span necessary to reach a determined number of points.
At the end of April 1962 the second version of “Spacewar!” was installed.
In May 1962 it was presented to the public at the day of the “Science Open
House”.
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The Digital Equipment Corporation delivered the PDP-1 with “Spacewar!” as a
program to be used to test the performance of the processor and the screen. 22
With “Spacewar!” the development of the computer games converged with the
contemporary technology of minicomputers: The pioneer of minicomputers
was the DEC PDP-1 being delivered since 1960. “Spacewar!” is the first shooter
game for a monitor display, and its interface prefigures joysticks.
In the seventies the commercially successful successors of the shooter game
consisted of simplified game systems (see chap. VII.1.2). The distribution of
“Spacewar´s” game system as open source code points to another cultural
context as the one of the entertainment industry determining the development
of the video games (see chap. VII.1.2). 23
VII.1.2 Arcade Games and Consoles
In the fifties and sixties games for mainframes and minicomputers were only
able at public demonstrations to reach an audience larger than the circles
of academic experts trained in the use of computers (see chap. VII.1.1). In
the seventies the “arcade games” became electronic games in coin-operated
machines accessable for a wider public in amusement halls 24, meanwhile the
consoles for televisions transformed the living rooms – (since the sixties) the
usual site for television – into a place for gaming. 25
The first arcade game “Computer Space” was sold since 1971. Nolan Bushnell
developed it for Nutting Associates. Ralph Baer constructed “Odyssey” as a
console connected with television. Magnavox distributed “Odyssey” since
January 1972. “Spacewar!” (see chap. VII.1.1) was transformed in “Computer
Space” into a game machine with a TV monitor in a futuristic designed
fibreglass housing and an protruding keyboard, meanwhile the tennis game
of the “Odyssey” console changed Higinbotham´s “Tennis for Two” (see chap.
VII.1.1) into a `living room game´. 26
411
Bushnell, Nolan: Computer Space, Nutting Associates, 1971, arcade game.
Left: the case. Right: the screen.
Baer transformed Higinbotham´s sideview of a tennis game into a top view.
A small square represented the ball. It was moved between two big squares
symbolising the rackets. A transparent foil contained a vertical line representing the tennis net.
The “Odyssey Home Entertainment System” included a control unit and two
boxes with knobs used in the tennis game for moves with the rackets. The
black/white graphics could not present other elements than points and lines.
It was not yet possible to store and indicate stores.
412
Baer, Ralph: Tennis, one of the twelve games included in the Odyssey Home
Entertainment System, Magnavox, 1972. Players with the console being
connected to the TV.
Six movement patterns and twelve screen foils were the elements of twelve
games, among them the tennis game described above. The movement patterns
were installed in selecting one of six plugs interconnecting “conductors”. 27
413
Baer, Ralph: Odyssey Home Entertainment System, Magnavox, 1972,
console for twelve games, presentation in a TV Commercial, Carol Burnett Show,
10th February 1973.
The sales of “Computer Space” and “Odyssey” fell short of their producers´
expectations: The technology of the arcade games and consoles became successful with later developed products mainly consisting of simplifications.
Nishikado, Tomohiro: Space Invaders, Taito, 1979, arcade game.
414
The adaptation of “Spacewar´s” gravity in the arcade game “Computer Space”
and its thick user´s manual were reduced in “Space Invaders” (1978, Taito/
Midway) 28 and “Asteroids” (1979, Atari) 29 to simple shooter games with one
“source of risk”. 30
Rains, Lyle/Logg, Ed: Asteroids, Atari, 1979, arcade game.
After the “Odyssey Home Entertainment System” for several games a market
arose for game consoles with hard-wired components for only one game. Since
1976 multifunctional consoles were available. They were made with chip technology for games on “cartridges”: If a cartridge were inserted into the console
than another game could be started. 31
Among the arcade games “Pong” (1972, Atari) became the most widely played
tennis game. Like “Odyssey” it was a successor of “Tennis for Two”, but it
included a score. “Pong” belongs to the first successful games of Nolan Bushnell´s firm Atari.
415
Alcorn, Allan: Pong, Atari, 1972, arcade game.
Alcorn, Allan: Pong, Atari, 1972, arcade game. Photo by ProhibitOnions.
416
The Atari engineer Allan Alcorn divided the vertical lines representing tennis
rackets in eight sections. If the square used as a ball hit the midst of the racket
line then the square was bounced off at a right angle to the racket but diagonally (at a 45 degree angle) in all other sections. After longer playing times the ball
moved faster. 32
Three month after the first delivery of “Pong” Atari was faced with the first
imitators. 33 With “Home Pong”, made available on the toy market since Christmas 1975, Atari started its engagement as a producer of consoles. 34 Since 1977
Atari´s multi-game console VCS/2600 (VCS = Video-Computer System) was
sold successfully. 35
Alcorn, Allan/Brown, Bob/Lee, Harold: Home Pong, Atari, 1975, game console.
In Christmas 1977 the video game market suffered a crisis because too few
interesting games were offered for the deliverable consoles. Atari survived
417
the crisis without the financial problems of other game producers. With new
games Atari initiated between 1979 and 1982 the reinvigoration of the games
industries. In these times Japanese producers like Taibo, Namco and Nintendo
rushed to the market hitherto dominated by American firms. 36
After its original delivery in 1982 the personal computer Commodore 64
(1982-94) became famous as a game platform. In this function it overcame its
rivals produced by Apple and Atari. 37 Because of stronger computing capacities initially the consoles were more appropriate for games affording fast player
movements but this advantage vanishes with further developed technology of
personal computers. After the game industry´s second crisis from 1983 to 1985
personal computers and consoles were competing platforms for games. 38
VII.1.3 First Person Shooter & Third Person View
VII.1.3.1 Ego Shooter
In the eighties and nineties the shooting games were developed further offering
to the player a simulation of a weapon in the lower field of the screen. After
having recognised ennemies the player shoots with his weapon on his run
through three-dimensional animations simulating sequences of spaces (First
Person Shooter or Ego Shooter). In the game genre “Management Simulation”
not the affordance to shoot constitutes the primary goal of players but the selection of elements and properties constituting a game world with affordances
to make further decisions (Third Person overview of God Games, see chap.
VII.1.3.2).
In 1973 Steve Colley was confronted with the task to develop a program for
simple 3D animations, among them line displays of labyrinths, and to implement it on the minicomputer Imlac PDS-1 (since 1970, with a vector graphics
coprocessor) of the NASA/Ames Research Center (Computation Division,
Moffet Field/Kalifornien).
418
A result of the communications between Colley, Howard Palmer and Greg
Thompson was the plan, to program a labyrinth for humans moving in it.
Considering the limited computing capacity Palmer proposed a labyrinth allowing only movements in a 90 degree angle. For this kind of navigation Colley
programmed a labyrinth.
Colley, Steve/Palmer, Howard/Thompson, Greg: Maze War, 1973-74, game for
the minicomputer Imlac PDS-1.
Left: printout of a screenshot (from an implementation on the personal computer
Xerox Star 8010), 1985-86.
Right: child playing Maze War on an Imlac PDS-1,
30th Maze War Anniversary Event, DigiBarn Computer Museum,
Mountain View/California 6th-7th November 2004.
The moves of two players in the labyrinth were recorded in “using the serial
ports” (Colley) of two Imlac PDS-1 computers connected by a local area
network. In “Maze War” the players´ moves were presented on monitors. 39
They could see their position in a 3D animation presenting the edges of the
walls as lines and on a floor plan of the labyrinth. The floor plan showed only
419
the position of the player without the competitor, meanwhile the 3D animation
presented the game state. In this view the competitor was presented as a ball
with an eye. The position of the eyeball indicated which player hit the other
one.
Players navigated through the labyrinth in using five keys of the keyboard: four
keys for the navigation in four directions and one key for shooting. When a
player entered new rooms then he could look around for a short time before he
had to shoot.
This version was realised from 1973 to 1974 and in 1974 expanded by Greg
Thompson to include a system for many players: When Imlac computers were
connected via the ARPANET (see chap. VI.1) with a server (DEC PDP-10,
1964-83) then eight players could compete with each other in “Maze War”. 40
Although “Maze War” as well as “Spasim” (1974) are said to be the origins of
the game genre ego shooter, both 3D games did not yet include a simulation
of the player´s weapon. “Spasim” was a space game representing starships and
four planetary systems only as wireframe models meanwhile “Maze War”
already eliminated the hidden lines. From January to March 1974 James Allen
Bowery programmed “Spasim” for the PLATO (Programmed Logic for
Automated Teaching Operations) system. Since 1960 the PLATO system was
developed and evolved by the Control Data Corporation for e-learning.
420
Bowery, James Allan: Spasim, 1973-74, multiplayer online game for the PLATO
(Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations) system.
Up to 32 participants could play “Spasim”. In PLATO IV terminals with monochrome plasm screens were connected to the mainframe computer CDC Cyber
6400 of the Computer Based Education Research Laboratory (CERL, Urbana/
Illinois), like the earlier 2D game “Empire” being programmed by John Daleske
for 8 players in April/May 1973. Since July 1973 players of “Spasim” could
change their point of view in using the keys QWEADZXC for 8 directions.
Also players could use the “+” and “-” keys for acceleration and speed reduction. In the game world players are represented as starships. In each planetary
system eight team players could shoot with “phasers-and-photon-torpedos”. 41
Also the simulation in Attari´s arcade game “Battlezone” (November 1980)
consisted of wire frame models. A player had to fire on a tank. This task had
421
to be fulfilled successfully before the tank changes his tour between both sides
of the screen, turns his front in the player´s direction and fires on him. The
ennemy´s weapons included slow standard tanks as well as faster tanks and
anti-tank missiles.
Rotberg, Ed/Hoff, Morgan: Battlezone, Atari, 1980, arcade game. Screenshot of
Atari,s web version.
The player targeted with a linear representation of a gun sight indicating the
periscope of a tank. Players could only fire straight ahead. Because no other
function than shooting was offered for the game play “Battlezone´s” action
functions are reduced compared to “Spasim”.
The vector graphics presenting wireframes (based on polygon elements) become brighter from back to front. The animation is supported by green and
black overlay transparencies. The representation of a periscope´s cross-hair
was supplied by a transparency on the black-white monitor. The transparency
simplified the cognition if and when ennemy objects appeared in the target
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area. With the representation of the cross-hair as a part of the player´s weapon
“Battlezone” got an important element of future ego shooters that was not yet
included in the 3D animations of “Maze War” and “Spasim”.
Players navigated with two joysticks comparable to a tank driver´s control
sticks. A radar screen shown at the center of the top presents targets as points.
Already “Maze War” combined a perspective view with a top view of the game
space (see above). This combination will be repeated in “Doom” (1993, id
Software, see below). 42
In the ego shooters for home computers “The Eidolon” (1985, Lucasfilm) and
“MIDI Maze” (1987, Hybrid Arts) the wireframe models were substituted: in
the first named game by fractals and in the second game by coloured flat areas.
Kellner, Charlie/Seleme, Lance: The Eidolon, Lucasfilm Games/Epyx, 1985,
computer game.
In “Eidolon” the player navigates in caves suggested by dotted lines and shoots
on helicopters, fireballs, dragons and other monsters, meanwhile an instrument
panel at the bottom of the screen indicates the score.
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In “MIDI Maze” (1987) the players´ computers (Atari ST, 1985-93) are connected with each other via a MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
network. In a labyrinth the players navigate in four directions and they target
at competitors represented as smileys (yellow icons presented as faces). The
weapon is presented only as a red target rectangle. The players try to direct this
red rectangle onto the smileys. 43
Xanth Software F/X: Midi Maze, Hybrid Arts, 1987, computer game.
In “Wolfenstein 3D” (1992, id Software, computer game) the maze-like sequences of rooms limited by vertical planes representing walls were taken up
from “Maze War” and “MIDI Maze” and constitute the game space for a
player´s run through a sequence of rooms in fighting against ennemies. The
player acts in the role of the fictive American soldier William “B.J.” Blazkowicz
being imprisoned in the NS-Ordensburg Wolfenstein. His fighting path out
of the Ordensburg is limited by vertical planes simulating stone masonry and
decorated with Nazi emblems as well as Hitler portraits. In these rooms he is
confronted with German soldiers, SS men and shepherd dogs. They are the
ennemies to fight against in actions of shooting (In 1994 the game was confiscated in Germany because of infringements against the penal code´s § 86a
Section 1 Nr. 4 prohibiting the use of forbidden organisations´ signs).
424
id Software (Romero, John/Carmack, John/Hall, Tom): Wolfenstein 3D,
Apogee Games, 1992, computer game.
In Wolfenstein 3D, as before in “MIDI Maze”, the rooms are simulated without
ceilings: Both games contain animations of maze-like sequences of spaces
limited at the sides and in the depths by walls of the same height. In “Wolfenstein 3D” the weapon protrudes in these rooms. Because of the lamps with
green shades the monochrome dark grey horizontal upper areas become readable as ceilings. The floor appears monochrome grey, too. But the floor is more
light-coloured than the ceiling.
The 3D animation in “Wolfenstein 3D” is based on polygons. This animation
was realised in using “Raycasting”. “Raycasting” algorithms are developed
to remove the surfaces of simulated objects being hidden from the player´s
perspective. With this “rendering technique” a “pseudo-3D” imagery is calculated with data from two-dimensional maps. The walls of the ground plan are
scanned with light rays from one point of view in one image line. These rays
became the basics for the calculation of occlusion. Because of the specified geometric rules the ground and the walls have always the same height. No other
walls than the ones with right angles are represented. In using these rules John
Carmack realised in “Wolfenstein 3D” an early example for “Raycasting”. 44 The
walls got their textures with “sprites” being set by a graphic processor in the
425
programmed image position. 45 In 1992 the increased capacities of computers
with processors being cheaper than ever before paved the way for the programming of “Wolfenstein 3D´s” graphic engine.
id Software (Romero, John/Carmack, John/Hall, Tom): Doom, Cdv Software
Entertainment, Pearl Agency, 1993, computer game.
In 1993 the design team of id Software (John Romero, John Carmack, Tom
Hall) presented “Doom” (computer game), and with its graphic engine they
set a new standard for 3D graphics. Like its predecessor “Wolfenstein 3D” the
engine of “Doom” was based on “Raycasting”: In “Doom” floors are not more
than horizontal planes and the walls are only vertical. Now the walls of “Doom”
have different heights and touch each other at whatever angle. The planes and
ceilings of the combat rooms are created with textures. Ennemies, weapons
and other objects were integrated as two-dimensional sprites into the virtual
environments. 46 Meanwhile in “Wolfenstein 3D” the possible moves were restricted to two axes, they where enlarged in “Doom” to three axes. Sometimes a
well visible hand lifts the weapon high into the image field.
The representations of labyrinths from “MIDI Maze” to “Wolfenstein 3D” is
superseded in “Doom” by corridors widened to rooms with forking corridors.
Several times the game architecture includes prospects on landscapes.
426
The player can find weapons during his passage through the sequence of
rooms, and he can take them up in passing the find sites. These weapons can
be hidden in parts of the game architecture making it difficult to find them. In
searching such sites the player can switch into the map view: The indicated past
paths of the player can serve him to find out unresearched places. 47 To proceed
his path in running and fighting the player has to solve riddles, too.
“Doom” included four episodes, each of them contained nine levels. Each level
offered to players rooms with ennemies and obstacles for running and fighting.
“Doom” is an early example for the classical structure of ego shooters consisting of an environment´s exploration, fighting and task solving. 48
The narrative framework to these paths for running fighters came from a science fiction stored in the “Doom Bible” by Tom Hall until Cormack decided to
give it up. Cormack explains the status this story can have for players:
Doom didn´t need a back story. It was a game about fight or flight. 49
The speed necessary to react in “Doom” to shooting ennemies causes players to
run on each level as fast as possible. In “Speed Runnings” veterans of “Doom”
reduced the time necessary for all levels to the record of five minutes. The
courses of matches could be stored on a demo file. Players could distribute
these files on the internet and communicate about their skills. 50
If the perspective of a game´s figure is identical with the view of a player on the
screen then it is comparable to the “subjective shot” (also “point of view shot”
or “POV shot”) in films, as Britta Neitzel and Alex Galloway have shown in
their game research. 51
427
Montgomery, Robert: Lady in the Lake, 1947, movie.
In 1947 Robert Montgomery made the movie “Lady in the Lake” based on an
adaptation of Raymond Chandler´s novel of the same name. In this film viewers follow the action in detective Philip Marlowe´s perspective: If persons turn
their bodies in speech acts to Marlowe then they speak to the camera. Film
presentations in cinemas provoke the impression of actors turning their bodies
to the projection space and speaking to the movie goers. The observer gets
involved in the story by the scenic constellation (immersion) and is pointed
to the border between the filmed space and the projection space, because he
can´t control the filmed actions nevertheless he locates himself like Marlowe
in the filmed space. Marlowe remains another mostly invisible body who sees
and calls implicitly the viewers to follow his perception: The camera and the
viewers share Marlowe´s point of view, and the camera immerses the viewers
of its images into Marlowe´s scenic context. The viewers are confronted with
performative elements of Marlowe´s role play (his speech) as well as with absent elements (his performance in situations when the camera does not present
him as a part of a mirror´s reflections).
In the first person shooters the game affordances at the technical interface (interface 2, here consisting of keyboard, mouse, joystick and monitor) result in
the observer´s self-localisation as an actor within the 3D game space: The actor
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in a real space (the cognitive access to the world including the coordination
of the body, world-interface/interface 1, cf. chap. V.2, VII.2.2, VIII.2) locates
himself at the technical interface under game conditions. 52 The imagination
of observers doesn´t transform the real space into an expansion of the game
space but players act on technical interfaces in real spaces and in their navigation they transpose themselves into the game space with its simulations of
corridors and rooms narrowing down the possibilities to fight against moving
programmed ennemies. The “incorporeal vision” 53 in Montgomery´s movie is
changed into observation processes integrating the `pre-reflective body coordination´ (see chap. V.2, VII.2.2, VIII.2) of the hands on the technical interface
into an immersive game play. The player´s immersion is not only a blending
out of his surroundings and a plunging into the game world, as if he acts in it,
but also a mediation between the technical interface and the cognitive interface
(game-interface/interface 3; cf. chap. V.2, VII.2.2, VIII.2): This mediation – like
a switch from the real space into the game world – enables players to fulfill
game affordances with successful moves.
The cognitive interface (interface 1/world-interface as the access to the world,
coordinating mind and body) can be adjusted to game affordances in processes of refinements of former refinements of the reactions trained at the
technical interface. With their trials to coordinate the cognitive and technical
interfaces players start a training developing strategies for game affordances.
The world-interface for the self-positioning in an environment (interface 1)
using prereflexive schemata for the body coordination is turned by players
to the technical interface (interface 2) of a game to develop a game-interface
(interface 3) for the plunging into the game world (immersion). In the case
of ego shooters the game-interface (interface 3) is a self-organized learning
process combining the acting self-orientation constituting the world-interface
(interface 1) with the technical interface (interface 2). This combination is
experienced in the game play as direct although it is the result of mediations.
429
VII.1.3.2 God Games
The solving of tasks is the central demand of strategy and simulation games in
the “third person overview”. 54 The difference to battle games involving players
in the “first person perspective” (see chap. VII.1.3.1) is explained in the following at examples of god games with players deciding like an imperator, leader or
planning organiser about the constitution of fictive social systems. 55
From 1962 to 1964 the Center for Educational Services and Research of the
Board of Educational Services (BOCES, Northern Westchester/New York) cooperated with IBM at the realisation of two computer games for learning purposes. Three terminals (IBM 1050, since 1963) were connected via Dataphone
to an IBM 7090 mainframe computer (since 1959). William McKay (IBM)
programmed both games in FORTRAN (Fortran Assembly Program/FAP) for
a timesharing system (see chap. VI.1.1 with ann.3).
430
Center for Educational Services and Research of the Board of Educational
Services (BOCES)/William McKay (IBM): The Sumerian Game 1962-64,
computer game for a timesharing system (Wing: Economics 1966, p.33).
431
In the text based “Sumerian Game” players try to act in the role of a priest
ruler in the city-state of Lagash (Mesopotamia, 3500 b.c.). The player receives a
status report by the court advisor. The Royal Steward asks the player how many
bushels of grain should be stored in the inventory and how many of them
should be “planted for the next crop”. The player has to make further decisions
in using the consequences of his earlier decisions as they are determined by the
game system. The player can come to grips with the evolution of the city-state
in three steps from a trading dominated by agricultural products to the evolution of crafts up to the development of the barter trade. In 1965/66 25 students
tested the game (Mohansic School, Yorktown Heights/New York). 56
In 1968 the text based “The Sumer Game” was programmed in FOCAL and
sometimes Doug Dyment, sometimes Richard Merrill are named as authors.
When in 1968 the last one developed FOCAL (Formula Calculator), then he
enabled PDP-8 minicomputers (since 1965) by DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) with the interpreter FOCAL 68 to read his program and to process
data.
The player is put into the position of the steward of Hammurapi, the sixth king
of the First Babylonian dynasty in the 2nd millenium before Christ (1792-1750
b.c). In an introductory presentation the economic situation of the Babylonian
population is explained. Criteria concerning the land, grain, population and
adverse circumstances should be taken into consideration by players before
they answer the questions in entering numbers. Who sells too large shares of
the harvest will starve out the population. If players take bad decisions of this
kind as stewards then they will be chosen to leave their offices: That will be the
end of the game. The players explore the program in experiencing its reactions
to their entries. Conclusions provoked by experiences with bad decisions can
be brought in by players in repetitions of the game. 57
David H. Ahl developed a version in BASIC for a ten years lasting administration. Players have to develop strategies for the benefit of the population and the
land for an administration avoiding self-caused catastrophes within the next
ten years and reacting to preprogrammed emergency situations. For every task
four variables are offered to the players to be substituted by self selected dates. 58
432
Ahl, David H.: Hammurabi (Ahl: BASIC 1978, p.78).
433
In the seventies variants of “The Sumer Game” were developed. They augment
the strategy game and transfer it to other countries and epochs. 59
In the game “Utopia” (1981, Mattel Electronics 60) for the console Mattel Intellivision (since 1980) the multi-button keypad of the controller facilitated the
choice of alternatives to take the best decisions for an island and its population.
In the areas of agriculture, industry, fish farming and army a player could act
alone or against a ruler of another island. Two-dimensional graphics were used
to illustrate the consequences of decisions. The player´s time for his efforts to
win levels was limited.
Daglow, Don: Utopia, Mattel Electronics, 1981, game for the console Mattel
Intellivision (since 1980).
Conflicts like the natural catastrophes and the piracy did not allow to understand the name “Utopia” as a designation for a game world showing an ideal
state. Rather the conflicts point to deficits like missing answers to catastrophes
and thieves. 61
434
Crane, David/Gold, Rich: Little Computer People, Activision, 1985,
computer game.
In the eighties the strategy games are modified into games for the organisation
of private lives at first in “Little Computer People” (David Crane and Rich Gold
for Contemporary, Activision 1985, computer game 62) and “Alter Ego” (Peter J.
Favaro for Contemporary, Activision 1986, computer game 63). In “Little Computer People” the living on several floors of a house is represented in vertical
plans, like cuts through the `inner life of a house´. In contrast to the “Little
Computer People” “Alter Ego” is a text-based game: It describes the actions of
a house´s inhabitants. The player makes selections from the offered scope for
actions and receives a description of its effects.
435
Favaro, Peter J.: Alter Ego, Activision, 1986, computer game.
In contrary to this organisation of private lives the real-time strategy game
“Populous” (Peter Molyneux for Bullfrog Productions, Electronic Arts, 1989,
computer game) offers a player the role of a deity directing the fortune of a
population against another god in 500 worlds. The player can observe the consequences of his decisions in isometric views. The game world and its events
can be influenced in pressing the buttons integrated into the floor panels being
a part of the 3D simulation. 64
436
Bullfrog Productions: Populous, Electronic Arts. 1989, computer game.
When Will Wright developed “Sim City” (Maxis, Electronic Arts 1989,
computer game) he was inspired by colleagues having constructed “Little Computer People”. 65 However Wright takes up again the auctorial role of a player as
a ruler of wider social entities: As before in “The Sumer Game”, the city is the
basic unity of the oversight made possible by top views in different windows.
Later versions of “Sim City” offer isometric views. 66
437
Wright, Will/Maxis: Sim City, Electronic Arts, 1989, computer game.
438
The manual describes the player´s role as a “combination Mayor and City
Planner”. Players take decisions for all issues of their city, this includes the fire
brigade, the police and the traffic. When players determine the infrastructure
then they follow constraints and consequences resulting from their earlier
decisions. For zoning and the determination of an infrastructure the gaming
system subtracts more than the expenses they cause for a municipal administration to install them. So the game´s affordances can cause players to prefer
the perspectives of a land owner or a property investor more than the perspective of a mayor. 67
In 1991 Sid Meier and Bruce Shelley developed “Civilization” as a redesign
of an identically named board game designed by Frances Treshan (Hartland
Trefoil, 1980). “Sim City´s” urban perspective was expanded in “Civilization”
to a perspective on a civilisation: In a constructed history of a civilisation (from
4000 B.C. to 2020 A.C.) with elements taken from the course of the real history
players act from the perspective of a leader.
Players choose the degree of difficulty. They can shift from a top view of the
selected land to boards with icons. With these icons and text windows players
can select further elements determining the course of a game. Informations,
inquiries from foreign rulers, war news and elements to be constructed are
presented in windows.
439
Meier, Sid/Shelley, Bruce: Civilization, Micro Prose, 1991, computer game.
After an abandoned walkthrough players can resume the game on various
levels and plan their next paths. 68
In “Bombs, Bavarians, and Backstories” David Myers shows the differences
between the inevitable ideological implications of the background story and
the strategies of players not wanting to follow an Eurocentric perspective 69
affirming the technical progress. How ever much “Civilization” implicates an
440
Eurocentric perspective, nevertheless the game is complex enough to give
skilled players chances to find for example strategies for moves from an Indian
perspective more promising than the American perspective determined by the
European civilisation and favored in the manuals and the promotion 70:
...among dedicated game players, the more barbarian-like `Indians´
(e.g. Iroquois) are usually considered more advantageously played than
the (assumedly) less barbarian-like Americans.
In “Civilization” players can benefit from Indian concepts of nature in developing their views of environmental pollution. The negative connotation of
non-European cultures as “Barbarian” is questionable if players use so-called
Barbarian elements successful in specific phases of their efforts to build cultures:
Rather than treating (and valuing) the barbarians as an oppositional force,
dedicated game players are much more likely to attempt to develop their early
civilizations with the barbarians´ aid. 71
The players of “Civilization” have to find their own ways between the technical
possibilities of the game system and the social semantic fields of its signs.
Myers finds “the aesthetics of play” in the technical and semantic possibilities
being offered to players by more complex games to deviate from guidelines
restricting semantic fields and to resist Eurocentrism. 72
Players of “god games” like “Sim City” and “Civilization” move in
• a distanced “third person perspective” not as directly involved as in
ego shooters (see chap. VII.1.3.1),
• a “dispersed” perspective when acting on several levels and
triggering actions,
• an “intradiegetic” perspective assigning the player an authorial role
on the level of the operational activity. 73
441
Contrary to the players of “ego shooters” (see chap. VII.1.3.1) navigating under
time pressure in the battle zones of game worlds the players act in strategy and
simulation games simultaneously from points of view `above´ the action field
and within it. This offers skilled players chances to develop their own strategies
in the interplay between technical functions and semantic specifications. The
preprogramming of a game can contain tensions between the possible technical functions of the game system and ideological perspectives restricting the
semantic fields. 74
For a walkthrough players of strategy games choose between programmed
possibilities. With this choice in an authorial position for the determination
of elements depending from each other players are set by strategy games in
positions affording to explore the possibilities of the game system in taking
decisions over the activation of processes. With their explorations of the game
system´s possibilities the players actualise functions of the programmed internal model player.
The intention of a game developers´ project is made manifest in the coding of
a computer game´s system: “God 1” is the team of the programming developers and “god 2” is the player set in an authorial position and enabled to dispose
over components in selecting them as parts of an evolving game world. The
player adopts an “external” position in reconstructing the program and the
intentions of “god 1”, meanwhile he occupies as “god 2” an “internal” position
within the programmed game world, but this is a privileged position. 75
The players of “god games” move on the interface between the “external” and
the “internal” position, between efforts to reconstruct the game system produced by “god 1” and playing as “god 2” selecting a constellation of the game
world: On the one hand he can fail in an “internal” position (and he can loose
his position in “The Sumer Game”), on the other hand he can select one of
the possible constellations of the game world in an external reconstructing
perspective, and in this position he can choose interdepencies with regards to
enable himself in the internal position to win the game.
“Immersed” 76 in game conditions players of “ego shooters” act under time
pressure and activate practiced action patterns at the technical interfaces. How442
ever players of “god games” train to concentrate themselves at the interface
connecting “internal” and “external” points of view, between the programmed
possibilities installed by “god 1” and further moves as decisions taken from the
perspective of “god 2”. The continuation of this concentration on the fulfillment
of tasks is facilitated by augmented experiences with the game´s system.
With a more detailed realism of simulations players follow easier at the technical interface the ego shooters´ elements trying to immerse them into the “navigable space” 77 (see chap. VII.1.3.1), whereas the strategy and simulation games
“involve” 78 the player with his distanced actions at the interface between external and internal points of view, between decisions for the actualisation of
programmed parts and the screen´s simulation of the game world.
Players of “god games” ameliorate their game-interface (cognitive access to the
game world, interface 3, see chap. V.2, VII.2, VIII.2) in correcting permanently
at the technical interface (technical access to the game world, interface 2, see
chap. V.2, VII.2, VIII.2) their mediations between their own social experiences
(world observation, interface 1, see chap. V.2VII.2, VIII.2) and the acquired
knowledge of the game system´s reactions to entries.
Annotations
1 Grundy: Mathematics 1939; Sprague: Kampfspiele 1935.
2 Cohen: Cathode Ray Tube undated.
3 Borchers: Jahre 2001; Goodeve: Nimatron undated; Redheffer: Machine
1948, p.343 (quotations). Patent: Condon/Derr/Tawney: Machine 1940.
4 Redheffer: Machine 1948, p.343.
5 Donovan: Replay 2010, p.5; Goodeve: Nimrod undated; Smith: Priesthood
2014.
443
6 Bronowski: Story 1951.
7 Bronowski: Story 1951.
8 Without Author: NIMROD, Part 1: Electronic Brains 1951.
In 1954, as the Ferranti Nimrod was presented at the “Berliner Industrieausstellung” (exhibition of industrial products in Berlin) with the inscription
“Elektronengehirn” (“electronic brain”). The clarification in the booklet on
NIMROD did not prevent a bold use of the term “electronic brain” in exhibitions (Borchers: Jahre 2001; Donovan: Replay 2010, p.6).
9 Cf. Donovan: Replay 2010, p.5s.
Also Grey Walter´s light searching robots (see chap. II.2.3) were shown in the
last room of the exhibition, as a part of the department “How We Know”
(Bronowski: Exhibition 1951 with the catalogue number ES106 “Machina
Speculatrix”).
10 Shannon: Programming 1950, chap.2 (pdf p.4).
11 Shannon: Programming 1950, chap. 5 (pdf p.8).
12 Bell: Games 1972, chap.5; Copeland: Intelligence 2000, chap. Early AI
programs.
13 Copeland: Intelligence 2000, chap. Early AI programs. However, the programming was not finished before July 1952 (Link: Enter 2012, p.23; Smith:
Priesthood 2014).
In 1952 Arthur Lee Samuel started to develop a program to play draughts
against the mainframe computer IBM 701 (1953). The program was improved
in the course of the fifties. These upgrades caused versed players of draughts
to estimate their chances to win against the technical opponent as not
high but also not impossible. The methods of the program to learn from
the opponent´s moves became important elements of artificial intelligence
(Donovan: Replay 2010, p.6s.; Schaeffer: Jump 2009, p.87-97; Sutton/Barto:
Reinforcement 1998, chap. 11.2, p.267ss.).
444
14 Shannon: Programming 1950, chap.1 (pdf p.1).
15 Patent: Goldsmith/Grove/Ray: States 1948. Lit.: Cohen: Cathode Ray Tube
undated; Dixon: Computer 2006, chap. History of Computer Games: The
Beginning; Günzel: Zeit 2010, p.91s.
16 Koubek: OXO 2009, chap. OXO – Strategie auf dem EDSAC (pdf p.1-3);
Winter: Noughts undated.
17 Quotation: William Higinbotham. In: without author: Video Games 1981.
18 Gettler: Video Game undated. Lit.: Donovan: Replay 2010, p.8s.; Kushner:
Masters 2003, p.8; Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.40,58; Malliet/Meyer: History
2005, p.23; Pias: Computer 2010, p.13s.; Pias: Pflichten 2005, p.321ss.; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.456.
19 Graetz: Origin 1981, chap. I. Before Spacewar: “You Mean That‘s All It
Does?”
20 Quotations: Graetz: Origin 1981, chap. II Spacewar! Begun: The Hackers
meet Spacewar!, chap. III Spacewar! Complete: The Control Boxes.
The levers of the control units came from the collection of the MIT´s Tech
Model Railroad Club (TMRC. Botz: Kunst 2011, p.37,40; Graetz: Origin 1981,
chap. III Spacewar! Complete: The Control Boxes).
21 Graetz: Origin 1981, chap. III Spacewar! Complete: The Heavy Star.
22 Brand: Spacewar 1972, chap. Spacewar; Donovan: Replay 2010, p.9ss.;
Graetz: Origin 1981; Herz: Joystick 1997, chap. One; Kent: History 2001,
p.17-21; Koubek: OXO 2009, chap. Spacewar! – Action auf der PDP-1;
Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.41s.,58; Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.24;
Manovich: Language 2001, p.253; Manovich: Space 1998, chap. Computer
Space; Myers: Nature 2003, p.9s.; Pias: Computer 2010, p.84ss.; Wirsig:
Lexikon 2003, p.427s.
23 Brand: Spacewar 1972.
445
On the term `video game´: The term´s narrower semantic field encompasses
game automats and consoles (see chap. VII.1.2) with a technical equipment
constructed to play specific games (Neitzel: Geschichten 2000, p.163s.).
24 Huhtamo: Slots 2005, p.14s.; Liebe: Dispositive 2008, p.83ss.; Neitzel:
Geschichten 2000, p.163 with ann.3, p.203s.
25 Liebe: Dispositive 2008, p.85s. Cf. Warnke: Situation 1979, p.685s. (television and couch corner).
26 Donovan: Replay 2010, p.19ss.,22s.; Forster: Spielkonsolen 2009, p.14s.
(“Odyssey” is “constituted by capacitors, resistors, transistors and diodes”);
Herz: Joystick 1997, p.62s.; Kent: History 2001, p.31-34; Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.25,26; Manovich: Space 1998, chap. Computer Space; Yagoda:
Nutting undated.
27 Forster: Spielkonsolen 2009, p.14s.; Herz: Joystick 1997, p.33s.; Neitzel:
Geschichten 2000, p.168s.; Pias: Computer 2010, p.109s.; Wirsig: Lexikon
2003, p.338.
28 Kent: History 2001, p.116ss.; Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.62-66; Malliet/
Meyer: History 2005, p.8s.; Neitzel: Geschichten 2000, p.172-175; Wirsig:
Lexikon 2003, p.424s.
29 Kent: History 2001, p.131s.; Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.30; Neitzel:
Geschichten 2000, p.171s.,174s.
30 Neitzel: Geschichten 2000, p.166 with ann.8.
31 Forster: Spielkonsolen 2009, p.16,24-32,40 et al.; Kent: History 2001,
p.98ss.; Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.26s.; Neitzel: Geschichten 2000,
p.171; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.82s.
32 Günzel: Egoshooter 2012, p.34; Herz: Joystick 1997, p.63; Kent: History
2001, p.40-48,51-54; Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.41,58ss. (with a reference
to the “transistor-transistor logic, TTL”),66,72; Neitzel: Geschichten 2000,
446
p.169ss.; Pias: Computer 2010, p.112ss.; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.366s.
33 Kent: History 2001, p.58,60-64. Atari had to come in turn to a licence
contract with Magnavox: Magnavox advocated Ralph Baer´s licence rights,
including a patent for a console containing “Ping-Pong”. Atari missed the
money necessary for a legal dispute with Magnavox and got the licence at
favorable conditions (Kent: History 2001, p.46ss.).
34 Kent: History 2001, p.80-83; Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.26s.; Pias:
Computer 2010, p.112ss.
35 Forster: Spielkonsolen 2009, p.24-27; Neitzel: Geschichten 2000, p.171.
36 Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.27s.
37 Forster: Spielkonsolen 2009, p.18-22,34-38,62-66.
On the Commodore C64´s importance in the eighties´ cracktro- and demoscene: see chap. IV.2.1.4.3.
38 Dixon: Computer 2006, chap. 1980s; Forster: Spielkonsolen 2009, p.48s.;
Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.33-37.
39 Colley: Story 2004. Cf. Palmer: History 2004: “...we had been experimenting with adhoc LANS for the Imlacs as part of our more serious work.”
40 Colley: Story 2004; Günzel: Egoshooter 2012, p.46s.; Palmer: History
2004.
“Maze War” versions for other platforms: Colley: Story 2004; Wadlow: Xerox
1981, chapt. The Network.
41 Bowery: Spasim 1974; Shahrani: Feature 2006, chap. The Beginning –
1974 to 1991.
42 Günzel: Raum 2008, p.124s. Lit.: Donovan: Replay 2010, p.84,131,250;
Günzel: Egoshooter 2012, p.138,207; Kent: History 2001, p.149; Shahrani:
Feature 2006, chap. The Beginning – 1974 to 1991; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.53.
447
43 “The Eidolon”: Brigadoon: Eidolon undated.
“MIDI Maze”: Lederer: Jahre 2007.
44 For “ray casting” a designer develops geometric rules (like the walls of
“Wolfenstein 3D” always at a right angle to the floor) for groups of rays
meanwhile in “ray tracing” each beam is calculated for itself (see chap. IV.2.
with ann.37. Lit.: Permadi: Ray-Casting 1996, esp. chap. Ray-Casting and
Ray-Tracing).
45 Sprites: little graphical elements to be drawn over the screen without
necessity to be deleted in their last location and to be stored on their new
location. The videochip “administers” the sprites “separately” (Botz: Kunst
2011, p.49).
Lit. about “Wolfenstein 3D”: Donovan: Replay 2010, p.258ss.; Günzel:
Egoshooter 2012, p.135,139,146,235s.; Hitchens: Family 2009, chap. 1-2;
Kent: History 2001, p.400,458s.; Kushner: Masters 2003, S.92-101,106-122;
Lederer: Jahre 2007; Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.40s.; Myers: Nature
2003, p.102s.; Shahrani: Feature 2006, chap. Evolution of the Engines; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.499s.
Lit. about “Wolfenstein 3D”: Castle Wolfenstein (1982, Muse Software,
arcade game. Lit.: Myers: Nature 2003, p.100s.; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.83);
Catacomb 3D (1991, id Software, Computerspiel. Lit.: Kent: History 2001,
p.458, Kushner: Masters 2003, p.89).
46 Wikipedia: Doom Engine 2012.
47 Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.105; Neitzel: Geschichten 2000, p.194; Nohr:
Raumfetischismus 2007, p.71s.
48 Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.105; Wikipedia: Doom 2012, chap. Handlung.
49 Kushner: Doom 2003, p.132.
The narrative frame being disabandoned because of a lack of connections
with moves programmed in the game´s system: A portal to hell was opened
by experiments with teleportation on two moons of the planet Mars. After
the research institutes on the Marsmoon Phobos were liberated from demons
448
the player teleports himself to the Marsmoon Deimos. This moon was carried
out of its Mars orbit to the “hell dimension”. From there the fighting ways
lead to the hell to fight against the centre of the demonic invasion (Hall:
Doom 1992).
50 Players were enabled to design levels by “Doom´s” level editor (Neitzel:
Geschichten 2000, p.142, ann.28, p.196, ann.35; Shahrani: Feature 2006,
chap. Evolution of the Engines; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.135).
In 1997 the source code for the operating system Linux was published and
released for noncommercial uses. In October 1999 the source code was
published again in using the copyright regulations of the GNU General Public
Licence (Doom wiki: Doom 2011; Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.112).
Lit. about “Doom”: Aarseth: Allegories 2004, p.161; Donovan: Replay 2010,
p.259-262; Günzel: Raum 2008, p.124; Kent: History 2001, p.459s.; Kushner:
Doom 2003, p.126-138,141-153; Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.101-106,
108-112; Manovich: Language 2001, p.244s.; Manovich: Space 1998, chap.
Doom and Myst; Myers: Nature 2003, p.104-111; Neitzel: Geschichten 2000,
p.194ss.; Neitzel: Point 2007, p.12,21p.; Shahrani: Feature 2006, chap. Evolution of the Engines; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.134s.
51 Galloway: Gaming 2006, p.43-46; Günzel: Egoshooter 2012, p.182s.;
Neitzel: Geschichten 2000, p.196-200.
52 Neitzel describes the player while immersed in the game world as expecting to be attacked from behind (Neitzel: Point 2007, p.22). The player does
not forget his reduction of the body coordination in his concentration on the
screen when acting at the technical interface with manual, mouse and joystick: Under game conditions the player mentally cuts out the environment
in his concentration on the coordination of his moves while looking on the
screen. The surrounding around the body is excluded by the player´s reduction of his actions on the self-conditioned reflexes at the technical interface
(joystick, manual).
53 “Incorporeal vision” (“körperloses Sehen”) : Neitzel: Geschichten 2000,
p.126; Neitzel: Point 2007, p.22.
449
54 “Third Person Total Overview”: Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.42.
Strategy and simulation games: Kücklich: Computerspielphilologie 2002,
p.35ss.; Wolf: Medium 2002, chap. 6: Genre and the Video Game on the
“management simulation”.
55 Kücklich: Computerspielphilologie 2002, p.36s.; Malliet/Meyer: History
2005, p.37,42; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.192s.
56 Wing: Economics 1966. The second game was the “Sierra Leone Development Project”. It was developed for students.
57 Lange: Hamurabi 2008; Rosenberg: Code 2007, chap. 0, p.1s.; Wikipedia:
Hamurabi 2012.
58 Ahl: BASIC 1978, p.78s.; Myers: Nature 2003, p.43ss. The net version
offers tips to players to find ways to get into the game easier.
59 Merrill, Richard/Ahl, David/Schneider, Lee/Voros, Todd et al.: Dukedom,
1976, computer game (Ahl: Dukedom 1984); Storer, James A.: King, Creative
Computing, Morristown/New Jersey 1978, computer game (Ahl: BASIC
1978, p.96ss.); Fong, Weyman: Dynasty, Apple Core, 1978, computer game
for personal computer (Apple II); Blank, George: Santa Paravia en Fiumaccio,
Softside 1978, computer game for personal computer (Apple II); Schneider,
Lee/Voros, Todd: Kingdom, Atari 1980, computer game for personal computer (Atari 800).
60 Console Mattel Intellivision, since 1980. Lit.: Forster: Spielkonsolen 2009,
p.40ss.
61 Cassidy: Utopia 2004; Donovan: Replay 2010, p.190s.
62 Grannell: Computer 2001; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.276s.
63 Gnome: Ego 2007; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.21s.
64 Donovan: Replay 2010, p.323s.; Herz: Joystick 1997, p.31,217; Wirsig:
450
Lexikon 2003, p.367s.
65 Wright: Chat 2000.
66 Günzel: Raum 2008, p.125; Malliet/Meyer: History 2005, p.37;
Wardrip-Fruin: Effects 2006, chap. The Sim City Effect; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003,
p.412s.
67 Friedman: Sense 1995, chap. Simulation and Subjectivity. Further lit.: Donovan: Replay 2010, p.191,193ss.; Günzel: Egoshooter 2012, p.257s.; Herz:
Joystick 1997, p.218-223; Lobo: Life 2007, S.207ss.; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003,
p.412s.
68 Myers: Bombs 2005, chap. Play and Replay.
69 Galloway: Gaming 2006, p.106; Poblocki: Becoming-State 2002, p.175.
70 Poblocki: Becoming-State 2002, p.166,168,171s.
71 Myers: Bombs 2005, chap. Barbarous Treatments.
72 Myers: Bombs 2005, chap. A Theoretical Interlude, In the Back of the
Backstories.
Further literature on the first version of “Civilization”: Carr: Trouble 2007;
Donovan: Replay 2010, p.196; Galloway: Gaming 2006, p.95s.,99,101s.; Günzel: Egoshooter 2012, p.257s.; Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.95-101; Myers:
Nature 2003, p.131ss.,135s.,140s.; Reichert: Government-Games 2008; Tyler:
Test 2009; Wirsig: Lexikon 2003, p.90.
73 Neitzel: Geschichten 2000, p.217s.; Neitzel: Point 2007, p.23-26.
74 Myers: Bombs 2005, chap. Saving, Reloading and Replay.
75 Neitzel: Narrativity 2005, p.237; Ryan: Myth 2001, chap. VR narrative, and
the myth of the Holodeck.
About the distinction between internal (resp. model) player and implicit
451
player: Dreher: Weibel 1997, p.39,49s. with ann.49 (with an adaptation of
Umberto Eco´s distinction between the implicit, the internal and the external
reader. In: Eco: Lector 1990, chap. 3.6, p.76-82). The terminology proposed
here differs from Aarseth: Cybertext 1997, p.120,124,127 and Neitzel: Narrativity 2005, p.240s.
76 Cf. the discourse on “immersion”: Mäyrä: Introduction 2008, p.108ss.;
Ermi/Mäyrä: Components 2005; Neitzel: Medienrezeption 2008, p.100ss.;
Neitzel/Nohr: Spiel 2006, p.16s.; Schmidt: Illusion 2007.
77 Manovich: Space 1998.
78 Neitzel: Medienrezeption 2008, p.102s.
452
VII. Games
VII.2 Pervasive Games
VII.2.1 Spatialization
With the ego shooters “immersion” (see chap. VII.1.3.2, ann.76) became one of
the important factors determining the history of computer games, as is shown
in chapter VII.1.3: The players “involve” themselves actively (“involvement”, see
chap. VII.1.3.2, ann.76) into the game world with their actions and orientations
between the input elements of a technical interface and the monitor presenting
an immersing simulation. Players train their cognition of the relations between
the monitor´s presentation of the game world and the possibilities offered by
consoles, joysticks, mouses and/or keyboards to fulfill game affordances and to
exploit the chances to win.
The exclusion of body parts not used for the input on technical interfaces and
for the control of the screen´s output (technical interface) repeats the reduction
of working processes to uses of eyes and hands. 1 After the Second World War
the mechanically organised reduction of working processes to few involved
body parts was developed further, and the reduction was continued by the digitalisation of organisational processes. Nevertheless the reactive installations of
the first half of the nineties, as they were presented in chapter V, offer interfaces
for a coordination of more parts of the body: The moving body is integrated
into the installation no longer only with the coordinated movements of hands
and eyes.
In Christian Möller´s “Space (im)Balance” (1992) 2 the observers move on a
bridge-like platform. They change the bridge´s gradient in transferring their
body weight. With their modifications of the bridge´s gradient observers
activate the interface to two projections of a 3D animation. The projections on
two adjacent long sides of the bridge present spheres moving in a simulated
corridor. These movements depend on the bridge´s gradient. If observers
453
want to maintain their upright posture then they have to react to changing
gradients with balancing movements. Observers try to coordinate their balance
adjustment with their efforts to influence the sphere´s movements between
both projections. If observers change their position on the bridge to follow the
sphere´s moves between the two projections then they modify the gradient of
the bridge, too: With the indivisible relation between movements on the bridge
and the image simulation the visitors´ possibilities to observe the sphere´s
moves are restricted. If visitors modify the bridge´s gradient by motions to be
able to follow the sphere´s movements from another point of view, then they
change the sphere´s motion: In acting on the bridge visitors cause the following
changes of the sphere because they initiate modifications of the projection with
each correction of their body position made with the intention to ameliorate
their angle of view.
Möller, Christian: Space (im)Balance, 1992, pavilion with reactive installation
in the interior space, Donaulände, Linz.
Top: vertical plan (Möller: Space 1992, p.158).
Bottom: The pavilion´s interior with one of the two projections and an observer
standing on the platform with a modifiable gradient.
454
Möller´s bridge is transformed in “Sonic Pong” by Time´s Up (1999) into an
interface constituted by two little panels whose gradients can be modified with
the feet. The 2D tennis game presentation of Atari´s classic “Pong” (1972, see
chap. VII.1.2) is changed into a light projection of three signs – two beams for
the two racquets and a circle for the ball – accompanied by sounds. The switching elements for the tonal control by hands are mounted on a board. The sound
is emitted by a row of loudspeakers being placed between the two interfaces
for inputs by hands and feet. Between the loudspeakers the sound follows the
projection of the ball.
Time´s Up: Sonic Pong, 1999, reactive installation.
Meanwhile players control the Pong projection they react to gravitational
forces in their efforts to maintain their upright posture. Above the panels the
boards are mounted on vertical bars and can be used by players as opportunities to hold themselves with their hands, to balance and to keep their upper
bodies upright.
When players ask themselves if the tonal control was the goal of the developers,
then they recognise the necessity to proceed with the game play for a continuation of the sound production using sampled sounds of old computer games.
The sound production can be controlled by two rocker levers and a pressure
switch. The produced sounds are of an interesting kind and can provoke an
understanding of the modified Pong elements as an interface to the sound production. 3
455
The development of internet games is followed by a further phase of the spatialization of games. Many participants play against each other in Massively
Multiplayer Online Games (MMOG) 4 on several servers storing variants in
different languages. The online role game “Neverwinter Nights” (Massively
Multiplayer Online Role Game 5, 1991-1997) offered in 1991 still to 200 participants, then in 1997 up to 500 participants a platform to play against each
other alone or in teams with a game master. The 3D simulation represented the
fantasy game world in the “third person overview”. In June 2001 “World War
II online” was presented as a “first person shooter” (see chap. VII.1.3.1) with
characteristics of role playing games, as they were featured earlier in online
games like “Ultima Online” (since 1997) from a “third person overview”. 6
Battleground Europe: World War II online, 2001, MMOG.
Already in April 2001 – and thus two months before “World War II online” –
It´s Alive releases the pervasive game “BotFighters” for mobile telephones presenting the locations of opponents on a 2D display. With its offer to combatants
456
to choose their role in one of the camps (rebels against “Global nations”)
“BotFighters” anticipates the combination of shooters and the elements of
role playing in “World War II online”, but it reduces the 3D simulation on the
mobile phone´s display to a diagrammatic 2D view of game fields with icons
representing the avatars of players. In the science fiction game “BotFighters”
the ego shooters´ perspective of players is substituted by the players moving in
the real space.
It´s Alive: Botfighters 1, since April 2001, the screen of the mobile telephone.
The diagrammatic screen presentation is an element of the technical interface
delivering informations that the players can coordinate with their orientation
and actions in the world (world observation): The technical interface of the
mobile phone (interface 2) and the world observation (interface 1) are mediated with each other by the players in the coordination of their `game moves´
(interface 3, see chap. VII.2.2). The coordination of movements in the real
space and the virtual game world presupposes the player´s parallel self-orientation in the real world and the virtual combat zone: Thereby the mobile phone
is simultaneously a scoreboard and the virtual part of the battlefield. For the
game system only specific aspects of the orientation and motion in the real
457
space are relevant, but nevertheless the player has to mobilise all capabilities
for orientations and body coordinations to organize his movements in the real
space.
It´s Alive: Botfighters 1, since April 2001, pervasive game, illustrations from the
web site and the screen of the mobile telephone.
The localisation of players in cells uses mobile telephony´s cell-ID positioning
technology. If opponents are located in the same mobile cell, then the game
system informs them via SMS. At each day or night time a player can start a
fight by ringing the combatant´s mobile phone. In the fights between rebels
and “Global Nations” a player can try to enhance his account on the side
chosen.
The account and the score-dependent hierarchy of the players are shown on
the “BotFighter´s” website. 7 Players can also ameliorate the equipment of their
avatars on the site of the commercial game. 8
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The mobile screen with a 2D data visualisation presents to players the informations necessary for their coordinations of actions in the real space. More
informations or even a virtual world worked out as a 3D animation 9 may be
disturbing for the players´ efforts to coordinate their game moves in the urban
traffic: Meanwhile moves at the consoles of computer games are coordinated by
players “immersed” in virtual spaces and thus “involved” in 3D game worlds,
the players of pervasive games use informations delivered by the screens of
mobile gadgets to orientate themselves in the real space in a game-oriented
functional way for the coordination of their strategies and moves. But the
transfer of the navigation in simulated spaces back to the real spaces doesn´t
cause a return of the self-orientation to strategies in street games. 10
In the course of the development of pervasive games after “BotFighters” the
adaptation of computer games´ characteristics was at first deepened 11, until
the developers overcame such dependencies.
At the pilot test of “Frequency 1550” (2/7-9/2005) eleven and twelve-year-old
pupils of the course IVKO (Individueel Voorgezet Kunstzinnig Onderwijs)
by Amsterdam´s Montessori Scholengemeenschap (association of Montessori
schools) form six teams, each with four participants. Two players of a team stay
in the head quarter at De Waag (the former city gate Sint Antoniespoort, 1488).
The two other team members take over the role of pilgrims wandering in 1550
as penitents to the Hostie van het Mirakel in Amsterdam.
Waag Society: Frequency 1550, February 2005, pervasive game, pilot test.
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In 15th November 1345 a sick man received a host before he dies. This host
was found in the residues of his estate after it burnt to cinders. The place of
this miracle became a destination of pilgrimages and led to the edification of
a chapel as well as to a procession repeated annually. After the conversion of
Amsterdam to the protestantism in 1578 the procession was continued. Since
1871 catholics organised the procession as a quiet walk, and the participants
don´t carry any religious attributes.
In their role as penitents the participants pursue the goal to refind the (in the
game) vanished host and to build a cloister. Only as citizens of Amsterdam
they can receive a building permission. With the points received in accomplishing the tasks the players approach their goal to be recognised as citizens of
Amsterdam.
A city map of the 16th century (from the collection of the Gemeentearchief
Amsterdam) is divided in game sectors. The teams are assigned to specific
sectors. Each team is equipped with two mobile phones: A mobile phone Nokia
6600 GPRS presents the city map of Amsterdam on its screen. The videostreams containing informations on the tasks of the game – a user manual and
questions – are sent via UMTS and presented to each team on a second mobile,
a Sony Ericsson Z 1010. In the urban space the teams get the instruction via
GPRS on the first mobile phone to receive their next tasks via UMTS on their
second mobile phone.
The street players carry GPS receivers. They are connected wireless by bluetooth to the GPRS mobile telephones being used to send the data to the game
server. After the data are processed by the game server then they are sent to the
GPRS mobile phones of the street players. On their screens the GPS localisation is presented on the city map of Amsterdam made in the 16th century.
In the head quarter a laptop presents the locations of all participants. The
participants stationed at the head quarter can follow the paths of the teams
on an actualised city map(in Flash) and they can switch to the map of the
Gemeentearchief. While the participants of a team act in Amsterdam´s streets
they compare the old city map on the screen of their GPRS mobile phone with
the actual states of the urban environment. Especially the filled channels as
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well as the demolished and new bridges pose problems to the players´ efforts to
orientate themselves in the actual city with a map of the 16th century.
The players located in the head quarter can help the other members of their
team when questions concerning the current course of a street arise, and they
can try to help to solve tasks as fast as possible (via input to search systems on
the web). From the outdoor spaces the players send photos and films of solved
tasks as e-mails with attachments via UMTS to the head quarter.
For the duration of 10 minutes competitors can deactivate with “GPS-boobytraps” the localisation being integrated into the game system via the GPRS
mobile telephones. In these cases the view of the map remains intact. If the
deactivated localisation can´t prohibit the participants of a team to arrive at a
specific location before the end of the blocking period, than this period ends
earlier.
The game´s pilot test had a duration of two days. In De Waag a third day was
used to examine if the players memorised the informations they received on
the history of Amsterdam in the first two days. It is told that the result of the
test exceeded the expectations. 12
The test offered players to learn how the history of religions influenced the city
as a growing field of forces integrating different structures (religions, urban
planning, traffic, and others).
In the pervasive games described below changes in the states of the players´
moving bodies deliver the input to the carried mobile equipment. This equipment records dates and then processes or transports them in networks to servers. The screens of the mobile gadgets indicate to players if their movements
remain within the programmed limits or if they transgress them.
Players coordinate the technically implemented part of the game´s rules with
the non-implemented parts. To follow their game strategy and to fulfill the
tasks the players try to accomodate their body movements to the informations
indicated on the screens of the mobile equipment. In urban spaces the players
have to care for their self coordination in traffic situations affording attentions
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not seldom simultaneously in times when the screens of the mobile equipments require this attention, too. The impossible simultaneous direction of
the attention to the screens and the urban traffic has to be transformed into a
sequentially structured observation, often under time pressure.
In “´Ere by Dragons” (2005) 13 the player´s attention is directed to his pulse
because the mobile equipment reacts to it and switches itself off after two minutes lasting heart rates being either too high or too low.
Participants are equipped with PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants by Hewlett
Packard : HPiPAQ), GPS receivers and a heart rate monitor (measures heart
rates per minute). Two electrocardiograms (ECG contacts) of an ECG monitor
are attached to a belt. They are strapped around the waist. A light weight sensor
bus (Science Scope Sensor Slave) coordinates the connection of the two input
systems GPS and ECG with the PDA. The ECG monitor (by Science Scope) is
connected wirelessly with the sensor bus.
Active Ingredient/Lansdown Centre for Electronic Arts und London Institute for
Sport and Exercise, Middlesex University, London/Mixed Reality Laboratory,
Nottingham Trent University: ´Ere be Dragons, project, Nottingham, Februar
und Dezember 2005/Singapore, November 2005/Berlin, October 2006.
462
A flash program reacts to the heart rate measured by the ECG in constructing
isometric views of vegetative worlds. They are presented on the screen of the
PDA to the players. The views coordinate specific motifs of landscapes with
specific locations: If a player repasses the same location then the screen presents the same landscape motif.
The heart rate being adequate for each player and his age has to be ascertained
before the game starts. The technical equipment is tuned to each player´s
optimal heart rate. As long as a player sustains his optimal heart rate the screen
of the PDA shows a landscape with grasses, trees and flowers. At a low rate the
screen shows a desert, meanwhile a high rate is indicated by the presentation
of an impermeable forest. When the player leaves the optimal heart rate, then
a warning and, after two minutes, the deactivation follows. If players have to
care about the traffic and are disabled to observe the screen, then audio signals
facilitate the control of the pulse. A “client-server system” delivers the informations needed on the locations of other players.
The game intended for the activation of the body and as a means against obesity follows the concept of the “open play”: “...it is up to the player to decide how
they want to play.” 14
The equipment of Jonas Hansen´s (former: Jonas Hielscher) game “Wanderer”
(2005) 15 reacts to the player´s speed. The players have to react to instructions
like “too fast, go slower” or “too slow, go faster”.
A player walks with laptop, GPS receiver and headphone. GPS localisations deliver the basic input for the indication of a player´s speed. A beat of bleeps
makes it easier to players to accomodate their speed (walking pace: 3-4 km/h).
Obstacles have to be circumvented fast. Players increase their point account by
following the instructions for direction changes (f.e. “Turn left now”), as they
are generated by the game system´s chance operations, and by circumventions
of obstacles lasting only a few seconds. Skilled reactions to game affordances
and movements circumventing obstacles in the real space are rewarded in
“´Ere by Dragons” and “Wanderer”.
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Hansen, Jonas: Wanderer, September 2005, pervasive game.
The development from games in exhibition spaces to games in urban spaces
evolved from “Sonic Pong´s” spatialization of “Pong” to “BotFighters´” transfer of a MMORPG into the real space. Meanwhile in “BotFighters” and in
“Frequency 1550” the game play is determined by two levels (the urban space
and the game system) with affordances to the players to coordinate these levels
with each other, in “´Ere by Dragons” and “Wanderer” the players integrate the
states and actions of their bodies into their game strategies mediating between
the urban space and the technical equipment.
A player´s reactions to situations in the urban traffic by a too much reduced
or accelerated walking tempo and by increased heart rates are registered by
the technical equipment. The registrations of his reactions cause in turn the
player to correct his further movements: If a player integrates his body into the
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control of game moves in using the criteria indicated by the technical interface,
then he integrates changes of his body in the same manner as he does it with
other changing conditions of the environment. The player acts in this way as a
controller of the organization of game moves (game-oriented world-interface,
interface 3), but nevertheless in his organisation of further game moves he
has another impact on conditions of his body as he has it on his adaptation to
traffic conditions and other obstacles (internal environment/external environment). The part of the mobile equipment sustaining recursions of body states
and actions to the game-oriented interface (interface 3) can be integrated
into the body coordination like an artificial limb. The mediation between the
body coordination for movements and orientations in the real space (world
interface, interface 1) on the one hand, and the body coordination for the input
to the mobile equipment (technical interface, interface 2) on the other hand,
is realised by the coordination of the adaptable action schemes and plans (the
cognitive body coordination) with measurable body effects (the biologic state).
Players fulfill a two-fold reorientation concerning changing conditions of the
environmental conditions and the changing informations about their own
body: The game-oriented world observation (interface 3) is forced to mediate
permanently in processes of reorientations between the self localisation by
orientations within an environment (interface 1) on the one hand, and, on the
other hand, the game´s rules and the affordances of the technical equipment
(interface 2).
VII.2.2 Game-oriented World-Interface
When players develop strategies for pervasive games then they take into consideration their body coordination in the real space as well as their handling
of the technology and their use of the rules to play: The `interface 1´ is constituted by the interface of the observer to the world, and the `interface 2´ by
the relation between the technical equipment and the rules to play (as they are
not always technically implemented). The `interface 3´ consists of the players´
efforts to develop strategies coordinating their orientation in an environment
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including the traffic conditions (world-interface, interface 1) with the game´s
affordances (interface 2).
The `world-interface´ or `interface 1´ is the interface between the inner and
outside world, between cognition, proprioception and sensomotor functions
on the one hand and, on the other hand, fields of action in changing environmental conditions.
Observers coordinate their movements in an environment and constitute their
conceptions of the environmental conditions in collecting experiences by walking around: The observer acts within the world he is observing (world-internal
observer). 16 The observer operations of body movements within the world are
fed back to the observing operations coordinating the actions. 17 The observing
operations are cognitive in the sense of knowledge, interest and attention as
well as neurobiologic in the sense of a pre-reflective body coordination as it is
presupposed, for example, by walking: Not each single step has to be coordinated, but only the direction and the speed. If wider brain areas are damaged
then the trial to substitute the cancelled pre-reflective body coordination
by intact brain areas causes a conscious and exclusively visually organized
coordination. This requires a high concentration to be able to organise simple
movements and excludes a body coordination after dark. 18 In activating the
nerves being sensitive to audible, tactile and visual stimuli the body supplies
input from the external environment and transfers these informations via the
nerves to the brain areas being able to process these data in specific ways. In
the brain environmental dates are integrated into the world observation in constructing “stimulation patterns”, “schemes” and “turning markers”. 19 Changings
in these constructions cause modifications in the ways to control the body
coordination for further movements in the world. The recursions of a body´s
movements being made to collect new informations on the environment/world
to the formation of world conceptions constitute the `interface 1´ respectively
the interface of an observer to the world.
The `interface 2´ or `game-interface´ is constituted by the game rules that can
be partially or fully implemented as parts of the technical game system. In
games with technical systems implementing all rules players acting without
knowledges of the game´s rules can use reactions of the game system to
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recognise if they follow or act contrary to these rules. Also in games integrating environmental factors only selectively, players make recourses to their
`world-interface´ in its full extent for being able to supply the game system
with the required dates obtainable by actions in the environment: For players it
is impossible to act in real spaces if they did not develop their world observation, and, with it, their capabilities for self orientations and for the navigation
of actions (interface 1). Strategies for the game play are results of plans for
reactions to events in urban spaces under the conditions of the game. In game
moves the strategies are executed under the conditions found in the environment (f.e. the traffic). 20
A walking player can keep his attention focused on a screen only for a short
time, because he needs for walking straight ahead repeated visual checks of
his own body and its relation to the environment 21: The design of pervasive
games should take into account the body coordination and the ways it relates
proprioception and outer perception.
The `interface 3´ or the `game-oriented world-interface´ consists of strategies
developed by players for expected environmental conditions to realise chances
to win via adequate moves. In ways to (sign-) act (“Spiel(zeichen)handeln”
22) between the signs of the game and the urban space the players develop a
game-oriented world observation in intermediating `interface 1´ and `interface
2´. With Charles Sanders Peirce these mediations can be understood as mediations of “a first and second” in a “third”:
Third is the conception of mediation, whereby a first and a second are
brought into relation. 23
Pervasive games provoke players to relate `interface 1´ and `interface 2´ with
each other in `interface 3´ by “embeddings, functionalizations, reductions,
hierarchisations, recursions and determinations”. 24
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Annotations
1 On the “body-hand-builder model” (“Kopf-Hand-Baumeistermodell”) of
modern times: Neusüß: Kopfgeburten 1985, p.63-73, 105s.,119,131ss.,155.
(review by Mies: Köpfe 1985; Schönbucher/Seitz: Neusüss 1985).
2 Ars Electronica 92, Linz, Donaulände, 1992. In: Möller: Architektur 1994,
p.31ss.; Möller: Space 1992.
3 Time´s Up: Sonic 2006.
4 Kücklich: Worlds 2009.
5 Massively Multiplayer Online Role Game (MMORPG): Oliver: Eye 2002.
Neverwinter Nights: Medar: Neverwinter undated.
6 Wikipedia: Ultima 2012.
7 Respectively they were shown on the now-unavailable site of the game.
8 Dreher: Games 2008, chap. Examples 1: Games with Virtual Spaces; Dreher: Sammeltipp 2, Teil 1 2005-2008 .
9 Cf. Neitzel: Point 2007.
10 Cf. the “New Games Movement” of the seventies and its aim to
use games “as the vehicle for change” and to direct the players´ attention
away from the competition to the cooperative play actions. Lit.: Flanagan:
Play 2009, p.183s.; Fluegelman: Games 1976; Pearce/Fullerton/Fron/Morie:
Play 2007, chap. 2; Salen/Zimmerman: Rules 2004, p.528s.; Turner: Games
2006.
11 See the adaptations of PacMan using new technologies: Mixed Reality
Lab: Human Pacman, Singapur, 2003-2004 (Dreher: Sammeltipp 2, Teil 1 2005-2008); New York University´s Interactive Telecommunications Programme: Pac Manhattan, New York, April 2004 (Dreher: Sammeltipp
468
2, Teil 2 2005-2008); InfoLab21, Department of Communication Systems,
Lancaster University: Pac-Lan, Bailrigg/Lancaster, Dezember 2005-Februar
2006 (Dreher: Sammeltipp 2, Teil 3 2005-2008).
12 A server connected via internet was used as the center of all dates. This
server was programmed with KeyWorx, a software platform developed by
the Waag Society in Amsterdam. The software was open to use it free of
charges in non-commercial projects if the developing group was named
(Triple license Mozilla Public License/ GNU GPL/ Creative Commons 1.0
Niederlande). Lit.: Dreher: Sammeltipp 2, Teil 2 2005-2008.
13 By Active Ingredient/Lansdown Centre for Electronic Arts and London
Institute for Sport and Exercise, Middlesex University, London/Mixed Reality
Laboratory, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham. Lit.: Dreher: Sammeltipp 2, Teil 2 2005-2008.
14 Cooke/Davis/Jacobs/Moar/Riddoch/Watkins: Ere 2006, p.159s.
15 Dreher: Sammeltipp 2, Teil 3 2005-2008.
16 The “world-internal observer” being able to gain knowledge about the
world only relative to his observer position: Dreher: Games 2008, chap. Endophysics: The World as an Interface and chap. World-Interface (Interface 1).
17 “Observing/observer operations”/ “Beobachtungs-/Beobachteroperationen”: Dreher: Performance 2001, p.20ss.
18 Dreher: Games 2008, chap. Game-oriented World-Interface (Interface 3)
with ann.42,43; Gallagher: Body 2005, esp. p.43ss.,74.
19 Dreher: Games 2008, ann.34-36.
20 Dreher: Games 2008, chap. From the Game to the Gamer´s Move.
21 Gallagher: Body 2005, p.76: “...there is cortical integration of information
concerning self-motion, spatial orientation, and visuomotor functions.”
469
22 “Sign-acting in games”/”Sprach(zeichen)handeln”: Dreher: Games 2008,
chap. World-Interface (Interface 1) with ann.40.
23 Peirce: Architecture 1891, p.175.
24 Dreher: Games 2008, chap. Types of Mediation of (Levels of) Interfaces
(with examples and analyses).
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VIII. Summary
VIII.1 Three Modes
In what follows three modes are presented as characteristics of procedures used
in computer art: Relations between the humans at interfaces, programming
and computing processes are shaped by generative, hypertextual and modular
procedures.
In Evolutionary Art (see chap IV.3.1, IV.3.2) the selections in the course of a
basically infinite computing process are executed either as parts of the programmed selections between possibilities, or, alternatively, by the observers
when they take over the selection in the manner provided by the program. 1
Draves, Scott: Electric Sheep, computer network, internet, screensaver, 1999.
Screenshots of phases following one after another (November 2012).
471
The programs consist of systems determining the generative procedures. In
Evolutionary Art the results of preceding processes are transformed in the
course of the computing and alternatives are offered to the following generating phases. The output media present these processes in the time dimension
(time-based media) and offer observers interfaces to select alternatives. Despite
these chances for selections by observers the programmed computing process
remains the leading “agent”: The observer is enabled only to select one of the
alternatives preconditioned by the programmed generative procedure. In cases
when observers don´t intervene the system selects one of these alternatives. If
an observer takes the role of an “agent” then he does not interrupt the computing process but becomes an initiator co-determining the following generations.
Observers monitor the largest portion of the generating process as “patients”
(as passive observers of the computing process). 2
Evolutionary Art is a variant of Generative Art. The term `generative´ designates transformative procedures without determined end: The process of the
transformations of the transformed is the path and the goal.
In the structures of databases for hypertexts observer operations (see chap.
V.1 with ann.1) are integrated as the actions of cooperating participants (see
chap. VI.2.3) deciding on the selection of texts. Their division of texts in
sections are saved on cards or “nodes”. These parts are designated by “labels”
or “topics” and connected by links. 3 These processes are stored on servers. On
terminals the stored parts can be recalled and participants can add new parts.
The participants are “agents”, and the database is the collective memory of the
participants. The machine memory of a hypertext database is “patient” until
the database-external “agents” activate it to open stored data and to store new
inputs. A machine memory with digital writing systems initiates, modificates
and augments the participants´ cognitive capabilities: “Augmenting Human
Intellect”. 4
472
Bauer, René/Maier, Joachim: nic-las, Stalker, since 1999, web project.
In the hypertextual procedure the roles of “agent” and “patient” are distributed
contrary to the generative procedures: The main actor of hypertextual procedures is the observer connecting himself with other participants. Compared
to elder writing systems and established uses of language the participants of
hypertext systems use their language competence and the database in a modified communication system. For the participants their coordinations of signs
with meanings continue to be a fundamental factor during all their actions on
terminals. In contrary to the hypertextual systems, in generative projects the
computing processes intitialised by codes cause the output media to confront
observers with a machine independently producing changing formations.
Toward this generating “agent” and its output observers behave “patient”: They
try to reconstruct the scale of the output possibilities meanwhile they follow
several phases of the generation process.
Meanwhile in hypertextual systems codes are used to connect stored text characters with regard to semantic fields established by the everyday language use,
generative procedures are constituted by a computing process being controlled
by a program: The programming code contains either no signs being precoded
in computer-external contexts, or it uses code elements either to integrate
473
precoded signs into the generation process as moving signs or to transform the
signs´ outlines with desemantising effects.
In hypertextual systems the “algorithmic signs” 5 are used in links, anchors, etc.
and integrated in texts as a means of the coordination of semantic fields, meanwhile the “algorithmic signs” are fundamental in programs initialising generative computing processes controlling output media. Observers can investigate
the time-based output of generative projects concerning the relations between
the program and its realisations: The recursion to the technical configurations
is a plausible observing operation (see chap. V.1 with ann.1) to be able to
follow the ouput of generative procedures, meanwhile hypertextually organised
databases sustain the semantics and the participant´s memory function. The
results of computing processes initialised by generative programs are not
made to fulfill always the observers´ expectations. The output either provokes
indifferent and wait-and-see observing operations, or it causes disturbing and
investigating familiar perception patterns challenging the observers´ cognitive
capabilities, meanwhile the hypertexts simplify and augment the uses of “semantic webs” 6 integrating precoded semantic fields as they were established in
elder communication media.
Today three-dimensional simulations can be developed on personal computers
with animation programs. The programs include elements as modules like the
ones presented in the chapters IV.2.1.2 and IV.2.1.3. Designers construct 3D
objects in using these program modules. Then for these objects points of views
are selected for inclusions in film sequences. 7 In the development of a film animation designers choose and test different states of an object meanwhile they
follow artistic criteria and the storyboard´s notations: Its hand-made sketches
(see chap. IV.3.1) present the specifications for the planned image sequences.
In realising the sequences of a storyboard designers mediate the modular possibilities of an animation program with the patterns used in human perception
to recognise objects and movements.
In the eighties an animation designer chose the perspective and sizes of a
three-dimensional object processed with programs for frame models, polygon
surfaces and with methods to smooth the polygons as well as for surface
qualities like texture, colour, light reflections and shading. Since the midst of
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the nineties animation programs for personal computers integrate these procedures together with further image editing procedures in one system. Since
then the designers of film animations use frequently two-dimensional image
templates as basic elements. Designers can variate the selection possibilities of
an animation program´ s modules in their efforts to follow cinematographic
and aesthetic criteria in the process to find the best variants as realisations of
storyboards. When a designer jumps back and forth between the visual perception of provisional results and an adjusting control of the program´s modules
then also the roles of “agents” and “patients” change between the designer and
the computer. This change is typical for working processes with “modular” procedures on which Lev Manovich focused his investigation of “Info-Aesthetics”.
8
For the animations of computer games designers include processed 3D elements in the game engine´s databases and program possible courses of gameplays by following the criteria of immersion (see chap. VII.1.3 with ann.76).
Meanwhile the spectators of films with computer animations view the results
of a modular organized production in the position of “patients” only, players of
computer games explore the 3D worlds and `meet´ the simulated bodies and
objects from several sides and points of view (see chap. VI.1.3.1): The modular
procedure is a precondition for the playing “agent” enabling him to view
objects in different angles and to experience some of these objects as ennemies
(f.e. EverQuest, Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game by Verant
Interactive, 1999).
In modular procedures the software supports possibilities to develop virtual
worlds step by step and from decision to decision by following artistic criteria,
meanwhile in Generative Art artistic criteria can only be a part of decisionmaking processes in programming, and – beside some possibilities for selections by observers – are excluded when the programmed algorithms are unfolded by computing processes. However in hypertextual procedures the links
are placed by interventions in texts: For links and anchors the codes controlling
connections and concatenations are inserted by participants between (parts of)
texts adhering to semantic criteria. In hypertexts the effects of functional elements are decisive on a semantic level, meanwhile in Generative Art the focus
475
Verant Interactive: EverQuest, 1999, MMORPG.
of the observer´s attention is directed to the relations between the code and the
presentations of output media being generated in computing processes. Hypertextual procedures are activated by human interventions into text structures:
Hypertexts don´t surprise observers by an unfolding of computing processes
without human interventions, in contrary to Generative Art and its predecessor, the permutational computer literature (see chap III.1.2, III.1.3, VI.2).
Agent-patient-relations for the three modes to use computing processes
in Computer Art.
476
Annotations
1 Cf. Sims, Karl: Generative Images, 1993, reactive installation, in: see chap.
IV.3.2 with ann.22-25; Draves, Scott: Electric Sheep, 1999, computer network,
internet, screensaver, in: see chap. IV.3.3.
2 Seifert: Co-Evolution 2008, p.12: “Agent and patient are defined as relata
of the action relation. In an action relation `x acts upon y´ the relatum x is
called `the agent´ and y `the patient´, if x acts upon y...As exemplified by Mario Bunge´s definition of terms such as `action´ and `interaction´, the meanings
of `action´ and `interaction´ encompass human and non-human actions.” (Cf.
Bunge: Science 1998, p.41,310,463s.)
3 Labels (“Etiketten”)/topics: Kuhlen: Hypertext 1991, p.87,89s.; Bolter:
Space 2001, p.29.
Node: “A node is something through which other things pass, and which is
created by their passage.” (Slatin: Hypertext 1991, p.162).
4 Engelbart: Intellect 1962, see chap. VI.2.1.
5 Dreher: Art 2005/2007, chap. V.2; Nake: Zeichen 2001.
6 Trunk: Netze 2005, esp. p.19ss.
7 Cf. Lev Manovich on “After Effects” (since 1993): Manovich: After Effects
Part I & II 2006; Manovich: Software 2008, Part 2, Chapter 3, p.110-193.
8 Manovich: Software 2008, Part 2, Chapter 4, p.212: “...the animator sets
the initial parameters, runs the model, adjusts the parameters, and repeats
this production loop until she is satisfied with the result...the animator maintains significant control.”
Info-Aesthetics: Manovich: Info-Aesthetics 2001.
Modularity: Manovich: Language 2001, p.30s.,136-141,289; Manovich: Software 2008, Part 3, Chapter 5, p.246-261.
477
VIII.2 Interface-Model
An interface-model for pervasive games was introduced in chapter VII.2.
This model features players developing strategies of gameplay by mediations
between their world-interface (interface 1) and the “game interface” (“interface
2”) to constitute the “game-oriented world-interface (interface 3)”. Below a
modification of this model is sketched out to be applied to the interfaces of
personal computers and reactive installations.
The cognitive access to the world 1 and the pre-reflective body coordination
for actions in the world 2 constitute the `interface 1´ as a world-interface. The
`interface 2´ contains the technical interface used by humans to control the
output of a system via input in using for example the interface components of
a computer (Human-Computer-Interface, HCI). `Interface 3´ is constituted by
humans mediating their cognition and their body coordination (interface 1)
with a technical interface (interface 2). `Interface 3´ is constituted by the human abilities to develop ways to use technical interfaces as well as a technically
oriented world-interface – for the use of technologies as specific ways to explore the world, or to deal with the world-interface in specific ways depending
on the technologies available for a use quite similar to protheses.
Sholes, Christopher Latham: Typewriter Keyboard Patent Drawing. U.S. Patent
No. 207,559. 27th August 1878, fig.3.
478
For typewriters the key arrangement called “QWERTY” became a standard
in English-speaking countries and in some other languages. On each of these
typewriters the first six keys in the second row have the order “QWERTY”. For
computer keyboards the “QWERTY typewriter keyboard” was taken over and
became a standard, too. The ten finger typing skills learnt in typewriting courses could be used again for the input to the `interfaces 2´ of computers. 3
Augmentation Research Center: First computer mouse, ca. 1964.
In the sixties the mouse and alternative interfaces were developed at the Augmentation Research Center (ARC, a department of the Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park/California) under the direction of Douglas Carl Engelbart.
This variety provoked investigations which kind of a gadget can be used beside
keyboards as a further part of the technical interface to computers for a tactile
control allowing a simultaneous concentration of the visual perception on
monitors. 4 For the evaluation of the mouse´s acceptance only sporadic tests
with contradictory results were integrated into the development of prototypes
(see chap. VI.2.1 with ann.6). With these tests researchers at the ARC tried to
explore the human capabilities to use the body coordination for a tactile con479
trol of gadgets without seeing them and permitting in this way an independent
view on the monitor. Compared with a device controlled by a knee and other
alternatives the mouse seemed to be a construction of equal value. 5
Augmentation Research Center: Left: A knee-operating pointing device as an
alternative to a mouse, 1967 or earlier. Right: Grafacon, movable gyro-style
pointing device as an alternative to a mouse, c. 1965.
As a possible use of the technical interface combining monitor, mouse, keyboard and keyset (it became not an accepted part of the standard interface) the
researchers at the ARC developed hypertextual procedures augmenting the
uses of texts in writing systems. In using these technical interfaces (interface 2)
and concatenation techniques a project´s participant gets access to hypertextual procedures. These procedures can provoke changes in an observer´s way
to activate his language competence (interface 1) for his efforts to understand
texts (see chap. VI.2.1 with ann. 8-19). With this modified understanding of
texts participants of hypertext projects constitute an `interface 3´ containing
concepts of the planning and implementing of “semantic webs” (see chap.
VIII.1 with ann.6).
480
Augmentation Research Center: Prototype of an interface for computers with
monitor, manual, keyset (left) and mouse (right), 1967.
On the one side the (self-)trained ways to surf the web in using hands and
eyes on a keyboard, a manual, a mouse (or a touch screen) and a browser can
be described on the level of the `interface 3´. On the other side on this level
observers are enabled to explore and communicate the provocations produced
by some projects of browser art (see chap. VI.3.3). Such an investigation using
the provocations of browser art on the level of the `interface 3´ explores the
informations being hidden by standard browsers, and the accesses to data
being prohibited by these web interfaces (interface 2): Standard browsers
convert a data stream to webpages with a design not unlike printed pages. 6 The
data stream is fed from files being stored on several servers located at different
places. These files consist of film, photo, audio and text formats. The files are
put together in a browser presentation of a web page. After users installed
Maciej Wisniewski´ s browser “Netomat” (see chap. VI.3.3) on a personal
computer with one of the operating systems being used in 1999 and typed in a
keyword then they could retrieve simultaneously text elements as well as audio
and film files. The files stored on different servers were presented in “Netomat”
without the functions controlled by the source code to execute the web page
presentation of the usual web browsers putting together the files to the defined
web page lay-out. To the observers´ advantage a simultaneity of different informations on a keyword was presented on the screen. The direction of the data
stream on the monitor was influenceable by cursor movements.
481
An observer of browser art can´t rely on the reacting movements being trained
by himself in using the established webbrowsers: The usual retrieving of web
pages and links is called into question. For observers the relations between the
input on a keyboard, monitor presentations and the functions controlled by
mouse moves appear in a new light.
Wisniewski, Maciej: Netomat, 1999, browser (photo of the monitor presentation,
October 2000).
The ego shooters (see chap. VII.1.3.1) force players to execute trained coordinations between the perception of the simulated game world and hand movements as fast as possible on the technical interface (interface 2 with joystick,
mouse, keyboard and monitor): On this interface (interface 2) the perception
and body coordination (interface 1) is trained by the player to enable himself
to react to the game world simulations with tactical moves (interface 3) eliminating obstacles with a minimum of delay. The immersive effect is caused by
joystick navigations into the simulated spatial depth of the game world, the
simultaneous concentration on ennemies coming out of this depth and the
executions of the gameplay-trained modes to react. For the evolution of an
`interface 3´ consisting of modes to operate against ennemies players enable
themselves to the execution of fast moves by coordinating their perceptions
of the game world with their hand operations at the joystick. After several
successful actions realising strategies of the gameplay (`interface 3´) these fast
482
moves provoke the impression of a speedily continuable movement in and
through the game world.
id Software (Romero, John/Carmack, John/Hall, Tom): Doom, Cdv Software
Entertainment, Pearl Agency, 1993, computer game.
The reduction of the body coordination on the games´ technical interfaces
to hands (for the uses of keyboards, mouses and joysticks) and eyes (for the
perception of monitors) is a consequence of the development of the standards
for technical interfaces (interface 2, see chap. VII.2.1 with ann.1). In opposition
to this reduction of the body to hands and eyes the affordances to the body
coordination (interface 1) for the control of unusual technical interfaces are
augmented: Reactive installations (see chap. V, VII.2.1) and pervasive games
(see chap. VII.2) mobilise several parts, if not the whole body, of a moving observer as a human acting to move technical interfaces. Artists dissolve the reduction of human actions to a few body parts by an integration of wider parts
of the `interface 1´ to control unusual `interfaces 2´. With these works artists
enable observers to explore the possibilities to develop an `interface 3´ in mediating the unusual `interfaces 2´ with unusual activations of the `interface 1´.
So artists transgress the established technical interfaces. The experimentation
with interface alternatives leads observers to possibilities transferring common
recursions between output and input in new concatenations of computing,
thought and action processes.
483
Time´s Up: Sonic Pong, 1999, reactive installation.
After 2000 the increasing “interconnectedness” of various transmission and
communication systems (GPS, mobile telephony, fixed-line network) with
stationary and mobile devices 7 provokes the participants of projects to reconceptualise their reactions to requirements sometimes simultaneously posed by
technical interfaces and the environment. The `interface 3´, constituted for this
purpose by the participants´ observing operations, includes partially not easy
to fulfill demands to coordinate self localisations and orientations in environments (interface 1) with the reception of informations indicated by the screens
of mobile terminals (interface 2): In strategies for the gameplay simultaneous
requirements by devices on the one side and environments on the other side
lead to a partition of operations in phases with switches of the attention (interface 3) between both sides: At times the player directs his attention from the
urban traffic to the screen and vice versa (see chap. VII.2.2).
484
Annotations
1 With “conceptual schemes” and “action plans”: Dreher: Performance 2001,
p.22s.,404s.; Dreher: Games 2008, ann.35. Cf. chap. VII.2.2.
2 See chap. VII.2.2 with ann.18.
3 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.67-80; Rehr: QWERTY undated.
4 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.79-102,107-114.
5 Bardini: Bootstrapping 2000, p.103-107, 112ss.
6 Kahnwald: Netzkunst 2006, p.61-64,75-78.
7 Dreher: Games 2008, chap. “Interconnectedness” and Mobile Devices with
ann.1.
485
IX. Bibliography
All abbreviations for texts used in the annotations present first the last name of the
author or editor, then – after a colon – the first noun of the title. If the first noun of a
title is a part of a designation containing more than one word (like Contextual Art),
then the abbreviation includes the designation with all words. If titles present a first
name as the first noun then the abbreviation contains first and last name. If titles contain no noun then the first word will be used in the abbreviation. The third part of the
abbreviation constitutes the year of the publication.
Another abbreviation: t.o.f.p. = title of the first print in the author´s language
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X. Image Sources
The list includes the web sources of images, all other sources are noted in the
captions.
Page 16: Left: https://www.wlan.org.uk/weiner2.htm;
Right: https://www.flickr.com/photos/arselectronica/5056388921/
Page 17: http://telematic.walkerart.org/timeline/timeline_ascott.html
Page 26: http://www.rossashby.info/gallery/images/WRA%20+%20Homeostat.jpg
Page 35: http://cyberneticzoo.com/cyberneticanimals/
elmer-cyberneticanimals/m-speculatrix-a-new-species-of-animal-elmer/
Page 36: http://cyberneticzoo.com/cyberneticanimals/w-grey-walter-tortoisespicture-gallery-2/
Page 39: Above: http://www.cyberneticians.com/slideshow/eucrates.html;
Page 43: Left: http://www.olats.org/schoffer/img/cyspica2.jpg;
Right: http://www.thecentreofattention.org/exhibitions/feCYSP1sm.jpg
Page 46: Above: http://medienkunstnetz.de/ausstellungen/serendipidy/bilder/3/
Page 47: http://www.dse.nl/~evoluon/senster-e.html
Page 48: http://www.senster.com/ihnatowicz/senster/sensterphotos/senster10-lrg.jpg
Page 49: www.senster.com/ihnatowicz/articles/ihnatowicz%20brochure.pdf
Page 50: http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/works/colloquy-of-mobiles/images/8/
Page 51: http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/works/colloquy-of-mobiles/images/1/
Page 53: http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/works/colloquy-of-mobiles/images/4/
Page 60: http://www.darkofritz.net/text/bonacic.html
Page 63: http://www.girlwonder.com/2010/09/misfits-and-architecture-machines.html
Page 65: http://cyberneticians.com/slideshow/seek2.html
Page 76: http://dada.compart-bremen.de/public/
docUploads/Link_MustBeAnAngel_2006C.pdf
554
Page 78: https://auer.netzliteratur.net/0_lutz/lutz.jpg
Page 82: https://issuu.com/p-dpa/docs/almanacco-letterario-bompiani_1962
Page 87: http://translab.burundi.sk/code/vzx/index.htm#1
Page 88: Above left: http://www.zi.biologie.uni-muenchen.de/~franke/IMG0055.gif;
Above right: http://www.zi.biologie.uni-muenchen.de/~franke/IMG0056.gif
Page 90: Left: http://dada.compart-bremen.de/item/artwork/1107;
Right: http://dada.compart-bremen.de/item/artwork/1108
Page 91: http://dada.compart-bremen.de/item/artwork/157
Page 94: http://museum-abteiberg.de/images/stories/ausstellungen/e402/etzold_405-k.
jpg
Page 95: http://www.artnet.de/magazine/das-informel-als-geburtshelfer-der-medienkunst/images/4/
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Page 98: https://www.ko-götz.de/film/density.mp4
Page 99: http://dada.compart-bremen.de/item/artwork/507
Page 100: http://alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol39-1960/articles/bstj39-5-1125.pdf
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Page 104: http://dada.compart-bremen.de/item/artwork/569
Page 106: http://dada.compart-bremen.de/item/artwork/428
Page 120: http://www.smecc.org/sony_cv_series_video.htm
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Right: http://www.smecc.org/video/wpe3C.gif
Page 123: http://www.eai.org/titles/14357
Page 124: Left: http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/ntw-mla000209-nam-june-paik-selectronic-opera-1
Right: http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/works/video-commune/
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www.radicalsoftware.org/e/volume1nr2.html
Page 127: https://www.academia.edu/4259816/Analog_Circuit_Palettes_Cathode_
Ray_Canvases_Digitals_Analog_Experimental_Past
Page 128: http://www.centerforvisualmusic.org/abstronic2%20em%20arts.jpg
Page 129: https://www.filmothek.bundesarchiv.de/video/584360
Page 130: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/cd/ff/dd/cdffddc08e492b15d474a1d1fd
be8083.jpg
Page 132: http://telemetries.free.fr/spip/spip.php?article12
555
Page 132: www.vasulka.org/Kitchen/PDF_Eigenwelt/pdf/092-095.pdf
Page 133: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0Yrrfb5qVw
Page 134: https://vimeo.com/44653389
Page 135: https://www.24-25.fr/work.php?work-id=gama:heure-exquise:
main:Work:2169
Page 137: http://scanimate.zfx.com/Pics/dolphin3.jpg
Page 138: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4PXs5szhnOw
Page 140: Left: http://www.eai.org/kinetic/ch2/siegel/filmvideo.html; Right: http://
www.vasulka.org/archive/eigenwelt/pdf/116-121.pdf
Page 141: Left: www.vasulka.org/archive/eigenwelt/pdf/122-125.pdf
Page 142: http://www.ubu.com/film/beck_illuminated.html
Page 143: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qh6jRzjmcY
Page 144: http://www.vdb.org/titles/triangle-front-square-front-circle-front-triangle
Page 145: https://vimeo.com/22128748
Page 149: https://www.youtube.com/embed/T1cTqFGUf10
Page 151: Above: https://www.youtube.com/embed/TRgXqOhBQEU; Below: www.
vasulka.org/archive/eigenwelt/pdf/136-139.pdf
Page 152: http://www.fondation-langlois.org/html/e/docnum.php?NumEnregDoc=
d00016290&page=3
Page 153: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EZQiHuTbnes
Page 154: http://vasulka.org/Videomasters/pages_stills/index_19.html
Page 155: http://vasulka.org/Videomasters/pages_stills/index_14.html
Page 156: Left: www.vasulka.org/archive/4-30c/AfterImageOct75(5024).pdf
Page 157: http://vasulka.org/Videomasters/pages_stills/index_42.html
Page 171: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m8Rbl7JG4Ng
Page 172: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6orsmFndx_o
Page 174: https://excelsior.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~carlson/history/lesson3.html
Page 176: http://dada.compart-bremen.de/node/2717
Page 177: http://dada.compart-bremen.de/item/artwork/385#/media-tab
Page 178: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V4agEv3Nkcs
Page 179: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=awvQp1TdBqc
Page 181: http://computer-arts-society.com/static/cas/cache/CAS0012.HTM;
http://dada.compart-bremen.de/item/artwork/54
Page 182: http://rapidshare.com/files/333700834/la.faim.peter.foldes.1974.part1.rar
Page 183: https://excelsior.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~carlson/history/PDFs/tenhidden-surface.pdf
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Page 187: Left: https://research.microsoft.com/pubs/73935/p542-blinn.pdf; Right:
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Page 189: https://vimeo.com/16292363
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Page 191: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ybVoFwmb70s
Page 192: https://www.oh-tech.org/content/history_osc_and_oarnet_1963_1986
Page 193: Above left: https://www.filmsite.org/visualeffects10.html; Above right:
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Page 194: https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x5xubv
Page 195: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UJTi7KJPx_E&feature=emb_title
Page 197: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hwDvna0q3rA
Page 198: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-3ODe9mqoDE
Page 200: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114709/mediaviewer/rm4130113792
Page 202: Below: https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x27zt1
Page 203: http://www.rebeccaallen.com/v2/work/work.php?isArt=1&wNR=27&w
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Page 204: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fH850qp85Zk&feature=emb_title
Page 205: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5BLHeOdvYI&feature=emb_title
Page 206: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1LWC39Ehm4&feature=emb_title
Page 207: http://alvyray.com/Art/Sunstone.htm; https://www.youtube.com/
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Page 208: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ur-WbHSBgs&feature=emb_title
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Page 211: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKcTGDBJUt8&feature=emb_title
Page 212: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OJWJE0x7T4Q
Page 213: https://vimeo.com/28802324
Page 215: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ovn8qRezPA
Page 217: https://intros.c64.org/main.php?module=showintro&iid=523
Page 218: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FrJPoICvmpI&feature=emb_title
Page 219: http://userwww.sfsu.edu/jkveeder/art/detail/montana.htm
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Page 240: http://terebess.com/keletkult/The_Blind_Watchmaker.pdf
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Page 242: http://philipgalanter.com/generative_art/wiki/index.php5?title=
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Page 243: http://doc.gold.ac.uk/~mas01whl/imgs/themes_l/w_Page_053.jpg
Page 245: http://www.karlsims.com/panspermia.html
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Pages 249-251: https://electronicsheep.org
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Page 262: https://www.oelinger.de/maria/interact/videoplace2.htm
Page 263: https://youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=dmmxVA5xhuo
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Page 293: http://www.wholeearth.com/issue-electronic-edition.php?iss=1010
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Page 377: http://potatoland.org/shredder/shredder.html
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Page 387: http://netescopio.meiac.es/proyecto/0220/reamweaver_samples/wtocompare.
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Page 388: http://meltzerdesign.net/portfolio/PDFs/brochures/IllegalArtGuide.pdf
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Page 399: Left: http://www.goodeveca.net/nimrod/nimatron.html; Right: http://
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Page 400: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2NWnmvMOqS0
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Page 478: http://home.earthlink.net/~dcrehr/whyqwert.html
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