Using Italian

Nataliia Sukhodolska

Since the 1980s, many authors have pointed out a series of phenomena involving linguistic traits that represent a somewhat new trend in the development of contemporary Italian. Most of these phenomena, which usually imply a larger amount of variation, are interpretable as a change in the sociolinguistic value of the trait itself. Forms and structures already existing in substandard Italian lost their markedness as elements of low, spoken social and situational varieties, becoming common in the usage of educated people and to a certain extent in written language, particularly in newspapers, nowadays an important vehicle of standardization. A few further phenomena represent cases of true innovation, mainly influenced by contact with English. On the whole, a partially renewed norm of Italian, a neo-standard Italian, has emerged. This chapter aims at discussing some aspects of this restandardization on the background of the present sociolinguistic situation of Italy, and giving an overall picture of their main morpho-syntactic phenomena. A commented list of features involved in that dynamics will be provided, serving as a frame of reference for other chapters of the volume. The list includes amongst other things: left and right dislocation; restructuration in pronominal system; various dynamics in the use of verb forms; overextension of the complementizer che ['that']; formation of new syntactic patterns (as an interrogative wh-clause with a double focus or an ordinal relative superlative); diffusion of prefixation with formatives such as super-, iper-, mega-, euro- ,-poli. Some phenomena pertaining to the " linguistic custom " will also be considered, e.g. the grammaticalization of tipo ['like'] as an adverb.

This page intentionally left blank Using Italian This is a guide to Italian usage for students who have already acquired the basics of the language and wish to extend their knowledge. Unlike conventional grammars, it gives special attention to those areas of vocabulary and grammar which cause most difﬁculty to English speakers. Careful consideration is given throughout to questions of style, register, and politeness which are essential to achieving an appropriate level of formality or informality in writing and speech. The book surveys the contemporary linguistic scene and gives ample space to the new varieties of Italian that are emerging in modern Italy. The inﬂuence of the dialects in shaping the development of Italian is also acknowledged. Clear, readable and easy to consult via its two indexes, this is an essential reference for learners seeking access to the ﬁner nuances of the Italian language. j. j. k i nde r is Associate Professor of Italian at the Department of European Languages and Studies, University of Western Australia. He has published widely on the Italian language spoken by migrants and their children. v. m . sav i n i is tutor in Italian at the Department of European Languages and Studies, University of Western Australia. He works as both a tutor and a translator. Companion titles to Using Italian Using French (third edition) A guide to contemporary usage r. e. batc h e lor and m. h. of f ord (ISBN 0 521 64177 2 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 64593 X paperback) Using Spanish A guide to contemporary usage r. e. batc h e lor and c. j. p ounta i n (ISBN 0 521 42123 3 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 26987 3 paperback) Using German (Second edition) A guide to contemporary usage mart i n durre l l Using Italian Synonyms h oward mo s s and vanna mot ta (ISBN 0 521 47506 6 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 47573 2 paperback) Using French Vocabulary j ean h. duf f y (ISBN 0 521 57040 9 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 57851 5 paperback) Using Spanish Vocabulary r. e. batc h e lor and m i g ue l a . san jo s è (ISBN 0 521 81042 6 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 00862 X paperback) (ISBN 0 521 82307 2 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 53000 8 paperback) Using Italian Vocabulary marc e l dane s i Using Russian A guide to contemporary usage de re k of f ord (ISBN 0 521 81882 6 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 52425 3 paperback) (ISBN 0 521 45130 2 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 45760 2 paperback) Using Japanese A guide to contemporary usage w i l l i am m C c lure (ISBN 0 521 64155 1 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 64614 6 paperback) Using French Synonyms r. e. batc h e lor and m. h. of f ord (ISBN 0 521 37277 1 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 37878 8 paperback) Using Russian Synonyms te re nc e wade and n i jole wh i te (ISBN 0 521 79084 0 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 79405 6 paperback) Using Spanish Synonyms r. e. batc h e lor (ISBN 0 521 44160 9 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 44694 5 paperback) Using German Synonyms mart i n durre l l (ISBN 0 521 46552 4 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 46954 6 paperback) Further titles in preparation Using Italian A guide to contemporary usage J. J. K I N D E R and V. M . S AV I N I    Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521485562 © J. J. Kinder and V. M. Savini 2004 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2004 - - ---- eBook (EBL) --- eBook (EBL) - - ---- paperback --- paperback - --- Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Contents Preface and acknowledgments Abbreviations xviii 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 Varieties of language page xvii 1 The Italian language today 1 The dialects 2 Dialect and language in contemporary Italy 2 Dialect and Italian in contact 4 Registers of language 5 Examples of regional variation: pronunciation 5 Examples of regional variation: grammar 7 Examples of register variation: grammar 8 Examples of regional variation: vocabulary 10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian 12 Example of R1 (Sicilian and Northern varieties) 12 Example of R1 (Roman variety) 15 Example of R1 (Tuscan variety) 16 Example of written R1–2: SMS messages 17 Example of spoken R2: Un’agenzia di viaggi 19 Example of spoken R2: TV game show 20 Example of R2–3: magazine editorial 22 Example of R3: written communication from bank to its customers 24 Example of R3: police report 25 Example of R3: formal letter 27 WORDS AND THEIR MEANINGS 2 2.1 Misleading similarities 30 Similar form – different meaning: False friends 30 2.1.1 ‘Falsi amici’ i 30 2.1.2 ‘Falsi amici’ i i : English (or English looking) words with different meanings in Italian 39 v Contents 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” 4 Complex verbal expressions 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7 7.1 7.2 vi Similar form – partly similar meaning: Partial 41 deceptive cognates Paronyms with similar meanings 51 2.3.1 Paronyms with similar meanings: a general list 52 2.3.2 Paronyms with similar meanings: misleading “alterati” Paronyms with different meanings 67 Verbs with similar stems 70 Gender paronyms 75 2.6.1 Gender paronyms with similar meanings 75 2.6.2 Gender paronyms with different meanings 79 Deceptive minimal pairs 83 Other types of misleading similarities 87 89 158 Single English verbs corresponding to complex Italian 158 expressions Single Italian verbs corresponding to complex English expressions 160 Complex Italian expressions corresponding to complex English expressions 161 Italian “impersonal” verbs 162 Verbal expressions with la, ne, ci 164 4.5.1 Idiomatic verbal expressions with la 164 4.5.2 Idiomatic verbal expressions with ne 166 4.5.3 Idiomatic verbal expressions with ci 166 Affective sufﬁxes 168 Diminutive sufﬁxes 169 Augmentative sufﬁxes 172 Sufﬁxes for verbs 173 Idioms, similes, and proverbs 174 Idioms 174 Similes based on adjectives 184 Similes based on verbs 185 Other proverbial comparisons 185 Proverbs 186 Personal names 188 The ancient world: Greece and Rome The Bible 189 7.2.1 Old Testament 189 7.2.2 New Testament 190 189 66 Contents 7.3 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 9 190 The Middle Ages to the twentieth century 7.3.1 Non-Italian names 190 7.3.2 Italian names with a Latinized or Anglicized form in English 191 Geographical and astronomical names Italy: administrative regions 193 Italy: cities 193 Continents 196 Europe: countries and regions 196 The Americas: countries and regions 199 Asia: countries and regions 199 Africa: countries and regions 200 Oceania: countries and regions 201 Historical or mythical places 202 Cities of the world 203 Rivers of the world 205 Mountains and volcanoes of the world 205 Planets, stars, and constellations 206 Abbreviations and acronyms 207 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Titles and other frequently used abbreviations International organizations 212 Italian non-political organizations 213 Italian ofﬁcial political organizations, unions etc. 214 10 Latin expressions and sayings 10.1 10.2 11 11.1 11.2 11.3 12 12.1 12.2 192 Latin expressions 217 Latin proverbs and mottoes Grammatical terms 208 217 220 221 Grammatical terms 221 Punctuation marks 224 Other common terms and expressions 225 Numerals and telephone conventions Numerals and mathematical conventions 12.1.1 Decimals 226 12.1.2 Mathematical operations 226 12.1.3 Ordinal numbers 226 Telephone conventions 227 12.2.1 Telephone numbers 227 12.2.2 Telephone alphabet 227 226 226 vii Contents 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 229 Measurement Length 230 Weight 231 Area 232 Volume 233 Capacity (liquid) 233 Currency 234 Temperature 234 Time 235 THE CLAUSE – combining words 14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 16 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 viii Gender 239 Gender and sex 239 14.1.1 Persons 239 14.1.2 Animals 240 Formation of masculine/feminine pairs 240 14.2.1 Unrelated m-f nouns 241 14.2.2 Related m-f nouns: anomalous m-f 242 correspondence 14.2.3 Related nouns: patterns of m-f correspondence Gender associated with types of noun 243 Gender associated with noun ending 245 Gender of compound nouns 248 14.5.1 Verb + noun 248 14.5.2 Noun + noun 249 14.5.3 Noun + adjective/adjective + noun 250 14.5.4 Other compounds 250 Homonyms distinguished by gender 252 Nouns with both masculine and feminine plurals 253 Number 256 Formation of plurals 256 Plural of compound nouns 258 Italian plurals which correspond to English singulars Italian singulars which correspond to English plurals Number concord 261 Pronouns 262 First- and second-person pronouns Third-person pronouns 263 Order of object pronouns 265 Pronouns and verb 266 Pronouns of address 268 262 259 260 242 Contents 17 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 18 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 19 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Comparison 270 Comparison of inequality 270 17.1.1 Nouns and pronouns 270 17.1.2 Other parts of speech 271 17.1.3 Alternatives to di/che 272 Comparison of equality 272 Comparison involving a clause 273 Superlatives 273 Irregular comparatives and superlatives Word order 276 Subject and verb 276 Subject, verb, and object 277 Verbs, objects, and adverbs 279 Noun and adjective 280 Numerals and altro 283 Negation 284 No 284 Non 285 Negative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs Apparent negatives 288 Negation of single words 288 Other negative expressions 289 Periphrases Stare + gerund 290 Stare a + inﬁnitive, essere dietro a + inﬁnitive Andare + gerund 291 Venire + gerund 292 Verbs of movement 22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses 23 23.1 23.2 286 290 21 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 274 291 293 295 Verbs that always take avere 295 Verbs that always take essere 296 Verbs that take either, according to grammatical construction Verbs that take either, according to meaning 302 Modal verbs 306 Pronouns and auxiliaries 307 The passive 298 308 Passive with venire Passive with andare 308 309 ix Contents 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 24 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.7 24.8 24.9 24.10 Passive with rimanere and restare Expression of the agent 309 Indirect objects 310 Other ways of expressing the passive Reﬂexives and impersonals 309 310 311 Direct reﬂexives 311 Indirect reﬂexives 311 Reciprocal reﬂexives 312 Inherent reﬂexives 312 The reﬂexive as marker of the intransitive 313 The passive reﬂexive 314 The impersonal reﬂexive with transitive verbs 314 The impersonal reﬂexive with intransitive verbs 315 Other impersonal subjects 316 Impersonal objects 316 THE SENTENCE – combining clauses 25 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 x Italian prepositions 321 a 321 25.1.1 Basic meanings 321 25.1.2 Expressing time 322 25.1.3 Expressing rate 322 25.1.4 Expressing manner 322 25.1.5 Expressing place 323 25.1.6 Expressing kind 324 25.1.7 Expressing instrument 324 25.1.8 Adverbial idioms with a 324 25.1.9 “Personal” a 325 25.1.10 Complex prepositional expressions with a attraverso 326 25.2.1 Movement 326 25.2.2 Used as an adverb 326 con 326 25.3.1 Basic meanings 326 25.3.2 In adverbial phrases 327 25.3.3 Idiomatic expressions with con 327 contro 327 25.4.1 Before nouns and pronouns 327 25.4.2 Used as adverb 328 da 328 25.5.1 Basic meanings 328 25.5.2 Expressing time 329 25.5.3 Expressing purpose 329 25.5.4 Expressing characteristics or description 325 329 Contents 25.6 25.7 25.8 25.9 25.10 25.11 25.12 25.13 25.14 330 25.5.5 da used with parte 25.5.6 With a verb in the inﬁnitive 330 25.5.7 Adverbial expressions with da 331 davanti a, prima di, avanti, di fronte a 331 25.6.1 Basic meanings 331 25.6.2 Used as adverbs 332 di 332 25.7.1 Basic meanings 332 25.7.2 In expressions of description or origin 333 25.7.3 Expressing time 333 25.7.4 Expressing price and measurement 333 25.7.5 Idiomatic expressions 334 25.7.6 “Grammatical” uses of di 334 dietro, dopo 335 25.8.1 dietro 335 25.8.2 dopo 335 25.8.3 dopo, dietro, and indietro used as adverbs 335 ﬁno a, sino a, verso 336 fuori 336 25.10.1 Used as preposition 336 25.10.2 Used as adverb 337 in 337 25.11.1 Basic meanings 337 25.11.2 Expressing location or movement 337 25.11.3 Expressing change 338 25.11.4 Expressing time 338 25.11.5 Expressing manner, means, or material 338 25.11.6 Common idioms and expressions involving in 339 25.11.7 In complex prepositional expressions 339 per 340 25.12.1 Basic meanings 340 25.12.2 Expressing movement 340 25.12.3 Expressing time 340 25.12.4 Expressing purpose 341 25.12.5 Expressing reason or cause 341 25.12.6 In expressions of quantity 341 25.12.7 Common idioms and expressions involving per 341 sotto 342 25.13.1 Basic meanings 342 25.13.2 Idiomatic expressions with parts of the body 342 25.13.3 Used as an adverb 342 su, sopra 343 25.14.1 Basic meanings 343 25.14.2 Expressing location or direction 343 25.14.3 Expressing time or number 343 25.14.4 su expressing subject-matter 344 25.14.5 su in idiomatic expressions 344 25.14.6 su and sopra used as adverbs 345 xi Contents 25.15 26 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 26.8 26.9 26.10 26.11 26.12 26.13 26.14 26.15 26.16 26.17 26.18 xii 345 tra, fra 25.15.1 Basic meanings 345 25.15.2 Expressing time or distance 346 25.15.3 Common idioms and expressions involving tra, fra 346 English prepositions 347 about 347 26.1.1 In the sense of “concerning” 347 26.1.2 In the sense of “approximately” 347 above 348 according to 348 across 348 along 348 among 348 as 349 at 349 26.8.1 Expressing place 349 26.8.2 Expressing time 349 26.8.3 In other expressions 350 because of 350 before 350 26.10.1 Expressing place 350 26.10.2 Expressing time 350 26.10.3 Expressing order of importance etc. 351 below 351 beneath 351 beyond 351 by 351 26.14.1 Expressing place 351 26.14.2 Expressing time 352 26.14.3 Expressing measure 352 26.14.4 Expressing means 352 26.14.5 Expressing cause or agent 353 26.14.6 In other expressions 353 down 353 during 353 except (for) 354 for 354 26.18.1 Expressing beneﬁt 354 26.18.2 Expressing purpose 354 26.18.3 Expressing cause 354 26.18.4 Expressing time 354 26.18.5 Expressing place 355 26.18.6 In other expressions 355 Contents 26.19 26.20 26.21 26.22 26.23 26.24 26.25 26.26 26.27 26.28 26.29 26.30 26.31 26.32 26.33 26.34 26.35 26.36 26.37 26.38 27 27.1 27.2 355 from 26.19.1 Expressing place 355 26.19.2 Expressing time 356 26.19.3 In other expressions 356 in 356 26.20.1 Expressing place 356 26.20.2 Expressing time 357 26.20.3 In other expressions 358 inside 358 instead of 358 into 359 of 359 off 359 on 359 26.26.1 Expressing place 359 26.26.2 Expressing time 360 26.26.3 In other expressions 360 out of 361 outside 361 over 362 past 362 round 362 through 362 to 363 26.33.1 Expressing direction 363 26.33.2 In other expressions 363 towards 363 under 364 until, till 364 up 364 with 364 Prepositional constructions with verbs 365 and adjectives Verbs with no preposition before an inﬁnitive 365 27.1.1 Inﬁnitive as subject of the verb 365 27.1.2 Inﬁnitive as object of the verb 367 27.1.3 Verbs of perception 367 27.1.4 Causative construction 368 di before an inﬁnitive 368 27.2.1 The subject of certain “impersonal” verbs 368 27.2.2 Verbs of saying, promising, agreeing 369 27.2.3 Verbs of mental states 370 27.2.4 Verbs of feeling, opinion, or will 370 27.2.5 Other verbs 371 27.2.6 Verb + direct object + di + inﬁnitive 371 xiii Contents 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 28 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7 28.8 28.9 28.10 xiv 372 27.2.7 Verb + indirect object + di + inﬁnitive 27.2.8 Adjectives + di + inﬁnitive 373 a before an inﬁnitive 374 27.3.1 Verbs that refer to the beginning, continuing, or ending of an action 374 27.3.2 Verbs that express movement (literal or ﬁgurative) 374 27.3.3 Verbs that express a mental attitude or disposition 375 (e.g. state, tendency, or will) 27.3.4 Verbs that express being or staying 375 27.3.5 Verb + direct object + a + inﬁnitive 376 27.3.6 Verb + indirect object + a + inﬁnitive 376 27.3.7 Adjectives + a + inﬁnitive 376 27.3.8 a + inﬁnitive in place of a che clause 377 da before an inﬁnitive 378 27.4.1 After verbs 378 27.4.2 After adjectives or adverbs 379 27.4.3 After nouns 379 per before an inﬁnitive 379 27.5.1 After verbs 379 27.5.2 After adjectives or adverbs 380 27.5.3 After nouns 380 con, da, in + article before an inﬁnitive 380 27.6.1 con 380 27.6.2 da 381 27.6.3 in 381 Prepositional constructions 382 27.7.1 No preposition in Italian: preposition in English 27.7.2 Preposition in Italian: no preposition in English 27.7.3 Some prepositions which do not correspond in Italian and English 388 Use of tenses 387 388 389 Present tense (faccio, vado) 389 Future tense (farò, andrò) 391 Future Perfect tense (avrò fatto, sarò andato) 392 Present Conditional tense (farei, andrei) 392 Conditional Perfect tense (avrei fatto, sarei andato) 393 Perfect tenses – Passato Prossimo and Passato Remoto 393 Imperfect and Perfect 394 28.7.1 Imperfect tense: other uses 396 Pluperfect tense (Trapassato Prossimo – avevo fatto, 396 ero andato) Past Anterior tense (Trapassato Remoto – ebbi fatto, 397 fui andato) Modals 397 Contents 29 29.1 29.2 30 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 399 Sequence of tenses Sequence of tenses in the indicative 399 Sequence of tenses in the subjunctive 400 29.2.1 Main verb in the Present or Future 29.2.2 Main verb in the Past or Conditional The Subjunctive 400 401 402 The Subjunctive in main clauses 403 30.1.1 Wishes 403 30.1.2 Third person imperative 403 30.1.3 Third person exhortations 403 30.1.4 Questions 404 The Subjunctive in noun clauses 404 30.2.1 With main clauses expressing emotion 404 30.2.2 With main clauses expressing opinion, doubt, 405 uncertainty, or certainty 30.2.3 With main clauses expressing knowing and understanding 405 30.2.4 Saying 406 30.2.5 Illusion, dream, and pretense 406 30.2.6 With main clauses expressing 406 wanting 30.2.7 Permission and prohibition 407 30.2.8 With impersonal verbs 407 30.2.9 The verb aspettare 409 30.2.10 The position of the noun clause 409 30.2.11 il fatto che 409 30.2.12 come meaning che 409 30.2.13 Modal attraction 410 Indirect questions 410 Subordinating conjunctions 410 30.4.1 although, however 410 30.4.2 before 411 30.4.3 in order that, such that 411 30.4.4 unless, except 412 30.4.5 until 412 30.4.6 without 412 30.4.7 provided that 412 30.4.8 in case, in case that 413 30.4.9 when 413 30.4.10 as if 413 Relative clauses 413 30.5.1 After an indeﬁnite antecedent 413 30.5.2 After a negative or non-existent antecedent 414 30.5.3 After unique and superlative antecedents 414 30.5.4 Expressing a hypothesis 414 xv Contents 30.6 30.7 31 31.1 31.2 32 32.1 32.2 414 30.5.5 “Modal attraction” Comparatives 414 Conditional sentences 415 Conditional sentences 416 Hypothetical conditionals 416 31.1.1 Verb mood and tense 416 31.1.2 Other ways of saying “if” 418 Factual conditionals 419 Subordinate clauses 421 Explicit subordinate clauses 421 32.1.1 Relative clauses 422 Implicit subordinate clauses 424 32.2.1 Inﬁnitive 424 32.2.2 Gerund 425 32.2.3 Participles 427 32.2.4 Nominalization 428 32.2.5 Ways of translating words in “-ing” 428 TEXTS AND THEIR STRUCTURE 33 Interjections 34 Fillers 35 Connector words and expressions 433 439 Bibliography 443 Italian word index 445 Grammar index 467 xvi 441 Preface and acknowledgments This book aims to offer a description of contemporary Italian, suitable for advanced students as well as teachers and linguists who are interested in the actual usage of the contemporary language. The authors hope they have usefully ﬁlled a gap in the available descriptions of the Italian language by providing an account which at every point combines linguistic description with an indication of the sociolinguistic weight that various ways of “saying the same thing” actually have in contemporary Italian society. The book assumes a reasonable knowledge of the basics of Italian vocabulary and grammar and focusses on a selection of areas which cause difﬁculty to English-speaking students and/or which are difﬁcult in themselves to explain adequately. This selection covers a wide range from matters of vocabulary to different levels of grammar. Thus the book begins in chapter 1 with an overview of the uniquely complex linguistic situation in contemporary Italy and gives a selection of examples of the types of Italian one may encounter in Italy. This is followed by a number of chapters, 2 to 13, on “Words and their meanings.” These cover areas which pose problems for English speakers and include lists and descriptions of types of words not always covered by traditional dictionaries and grammars. The next chapters, 14 to 24, deal with “The clause – combining words” and describe matters of morphology such as gender and number and some matters often not adequately dealt with in many grammars, such as word order and the choice of auxiliary verbs. The next group of chapters, 25 to 32, is devoted to the next level of grammar, that of “The sentence – combining clauses,” and addresses some difﬁculties in the use of verbs and sentence construction. The ﬁnal three chapters, 33 to 35, move to the level of “Texts and their structure” and look at various ways of combining sentences and paragraphs into coherent and effective written or spoken texts. We have attempted to follow closely the companion volumes in this series, Using French and Using Spanish, even to the point of using the same examples where possible. In this way, we hope that those interested in studying more than one of the principal Romance languages will ﬁnd these volumes useful for comparison and contrast. We are grateful to our colleagues and students in the Department of Italian at the University of Western Australia for answering our frequent questions, reading sections of the manuscript, and making several useful suggestions. JJK VS xvii Abbreviations Common abbreviations adj adv Aus aux do esp f ﬁg gen indic inf intr inv io lit m n O pl qc qu S s sb sth subj tr UK US usu V xviii adjective adverb Australian English auxiliary direct object especially feminine ﬁgurative(ly) general(ly) indicative inﬁnitive intransitive invariable indirect object literally masculine noun object plural qualcosa qualcuno subject singular somebody something subjunctive transitive United Kingdom (English) United States (English) usually verb Abbreviations Other abbreviations abstr. art. ch. chem. comm. comp. conj. econ. gram. idiom. interj. Lat. leg. math. mech. med. milit. mus. p.p. pres. pres. p. reﬂ. abstract article chapter chemical term commercial term computer related term conjunction economic term grammatical term idiomatic interjection Latin legal term mathematical term mechanical term medical term military term musical term past participle present present participle reﬂexive xix 1 Varieties of language 1.1 The Italian language today Italian is the ofﬁcial language of the Republic of Italy. It is spoken by the 58 million inhabitants of Italy and in the Canton Ticino area of Switzerland, as well as by many millions of Italian migrants and their descendants in many parts of the world, especially Europe, North and South America, and Australia. The Italian language has a fascinating and in many ways unique history, which reﬂects the political and cultural history of Italy. The Italian language was based, during the Renaissance, on an idealized version of fourteenth-century Florentine. Because of the political fragmentation which beset Italy up to the Risorgimento, however, this “language” was predominantly used in writing, while for everyday speech the usual form of communication remained the local dialects. This was true, with exceptions of course, for all parts of Italy and for all social classes. Since political uniﬁcation in 1861, the language has become universally adopted, and in the process has adapted rapidly to the demands of a modern, diversiﬁed society. The Italian standard is therefore a modiﬁed version of fourteenth-century Florentine dialect. This standard is found in good dictionaries and is taught to classical actors and to newsreaders on national television. However, the Italian spoken and, to a lesser extent, written in most everyday situations differs from this standard in various ways. Furthermore, all Italians show their regional origin by their accent. A regional accent is not, in itself, indicative of register or of the social characteristics of the speaker, though local accents are usually stronger in informal speech than in formal uses of language. Furthermore, Italian, like all languages, is spoken and also written in different ways, not only according to where the speaker comes from, but also according to his/her educational, professional and cultural background, what the speaker is doing, what s/he is talking about, and so on. 1 1 Varieties of language 1.2 The dialects An essential, ever-present feature of the Italian linguistic landscape is dialect. The word “dialect” in English describes a regional variety of the standard language, the way English is spoken in a particular place, e.g. the “Midlands dialect” (UK), the “mid-West dialect” (USA). In Italian the word has a quite different meaning. The Italian dialects (or “dialects of Italy”) are actually separate languages, geographically distributed throughout the country, which may differ from one another so much that they can be mutually unintelligible if they are from non-adjacent areas. Italian is a Romance language, like Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. The Romance languages are so called because they are all derived from Latin, the language of ancient Rome and the Roman Empire. Over time, Latin developed into new forms in many different parts of the former Empire: these were referred to as the “vernacular” and correspond to what we now call “dialects.” At some stage, in each Romance area, one vernacular eventually emerged as the ofﬁcial “language” of the nation: in Italy, this vernacular was Florentine. The selection of one vernacular as “language” meant that the other vernaculars then assumed the label and status of “dialects.” Thus the dialects are derived from Latin, as Italian is, and are more or less closely related to Italian; but they are distinct languages, not varieties of Italian. The dialects of Italy fall into three main geographical areas, divided by two “lines”: the La Spezia–Rimini line divides North from Center, and the Rome–Ancona line divides Center from South (see map on p. 3). In the North, the Gallo-Italic group covers all regions except the Veneto and Friuli–Venezia Giulia. In the South, Sicily and the southern tips of Calabria and Puglia (Apulia) form a separate sub-group. Friulian and Sardinian are often referred to as “minor (or minority) languages,” in recognition of their very signiﬁcant differences from Italian, and their historical status as languages of their respective regions. 1.3 Dialect and language in contemporary Italy At the time of Uniﬁcation in 1861, almost all inhabitants of Italy spoke a dialect as their native language, while Italian was restricted to a small section of the population. Estimates of how many Italians knew Italian in 1860 vary from 2.5% to 12% of the population, so that approximately nine out of ten Italians were monolingual in their dialect. Progress in the spread of Italian was slow until the second half of the twentieth century. Recent surveys show that around 7 per cent of the population claim to be still dialect-only speakers and around 30 per cent claim to speak only Italian. At least 60% of the Italian population uses both Italian and a dialect on a regular basis. Dialects are used more within the home than outside, more in informal situations than in formal ones, and more in the Northeast, the South, and 2 1.3 Dialect and language in contemporary Italy Friulian Venetian Gallo-Italic Central Central-Southern Sardinian La Spezia−Rimini line Extreme Southern Rome−Ancona line Italian dialects 3 1 Varieties of language the Islands than in the Northwest and the Center. Older people use them more than younger people, and men more than women. Furthermore, dialects are used more among the lower classes, by people with lower levels of education but also, interestingly, by graduates more than by people with high school diplomas. They are used more in rural areas and in smaller towns than in large towns. Besides everyday communication, they are used in other areas, e.g. literature and music. 1.4 Dialect and Italian in contact The large numbers of people who regularly use both their dialect and Italian mean that we should classify Italy as a multilingual nation. This also means that the distinguishing line between the dialects and Italian is in many cases becoming increasingly blurred, and this in two ways. First, in everyday conversation, linguistic forms from dialect and Italian are often mixed, for different reasons and to achieve different effects. Secondly, both Italian and the dialects are being affected by their constant use by bilingual speakers. The dialects are absorbing massive inﬂuence from Italian, in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. But Italian, too, shows the results of this mixed use, as sounds, grammatical features, words, and expressions from the local dialect become accepted in the Italian of that locality. If it is true that the dialects in their traditional form are slowly dying, it is equally true that they are leaving their trace in the strongly marked regional varieties of Italian which draw so much from the dialect tradition. The following passage, while it is invented, shows how dynamic and expressive can be the mixture of Italian (in formal and informal registers), dialects, and intermediate forms. The ﬁrst speaker is a Calabrian husband, the other is his Venetian wife. “Le libertà non vengono date. Si prendono. k rop ot k i n !” “Ah, che disgrassia! Tase, te digo! Tu vuoi precipitar questa casa nel baratro dell’ignominia e del disonor! Tu vuoi strascinar questa famiglia nel fango!” “Ma quale fango, Nuruzza mia? Lu fangu sta sulle mani bianche del proprietario e del banchiere! Lu fangu è la putrida società! Anarchia non è fango!! Anarchia è onore de lu mundu, nome santo, vero suli della nuova storia, rivoluzione immensa, implacabbile!!” (Elsa Morante, La Storia, Turin: Einaudi, 1974) disgrassia: disgrazia, pronounced with a Venetian accent. The Venetian dialect word is desgrassia, and this similarity acts as a trigger for the subsequent switch to dialect. Tase, te digo: Taci, ti dico, Venetian dialect. Tu vuoi precipitar questa casa nel baratro dell’ignominia e del disonor: This is Italian. The dropping of the -e off precipitare and disonore adds a lofty, almost poetic, tone. The metaphorical use of baratro is decidedly recherché. 4 1.6 Regional variation: pronunciation Nuruzza: An affectionate form of Nora, with a typically Calabrian sufﬁx. The Italian equivalent would be Noruccia. Lu fangu: il fango, Calabrian dialect. lu mundu: il mondo, Calabrian dialect. suli: sole, Calabrian dialect. implacabbile: implacabile, a high register word, pronounced with the double b typical of Southern accents in Italian. 1.5 R1 R2 R3 1.6 Registers of language Italian linguists have distinguished several different registers of language, but for the purposes of this book it is more important to identify the major registers of Italian as they occur in Italy today. The most casual register of everyday speech. It shows the greatest evidence of regional origin, including features from the local dialect (sounds, words, and grammatical features). It includes many features considered ungrammatical in contexts which require R3. Many of the features of italiano popolare occur in R1. R1∗ words and expressions are those generally considered vulgar or “taboo.” Non-native speakers should exercise caution in using them. We make no apology for including these terms – they are among the most frequent in colloquial Italian, and must be understood! This register will show regional origin in pronunciation but less so in grammar and vocabulary. It is a truly intermediate register, which in a sense is best understood negatively: it lacks the dialect inﬂuences and very casual style of R1, but also lacks the formality of R3. On the other hand, R2 is more ﬂexible and is acceptable in a very wide range of contexts, in both speech and writing. This corresponds to what has been called “l’italiano dell’uso medio” or “l’italiano neostandard.” The written standard language, as it is taught in schools and used in good-quality newspapers. R3 includes bureaucratic, literary, archaic, and highly ritualized formal uses of language. Many sub-registers have been identiﬁed, corresponding to various domains of professional and social activity, e.g. journalism, business, science, law, academia, etc. Examples of regional variation: pronunciation As far as possible, spoken regional or R1 forms are given below in an adapted version of standard Italian spelling, rather than in phonetic transcription. This is merely for the sake of convenience; such spellings will not normally be encountered. Some of these spellings are used by authors to give a local feel to direct speech. (See the extract from Morante, La Storia, above.) The following pronunciations are found almost universally in the areas indicated, irrespective of register: 5 1 Varieties of language Area NORTH Regional capelo Standard cappello a casa [a kaza], da me [da mε] non è vero [noŋ ε vero] lasia tsao casa, caso [kaza kazo] a casa [a kkasa], da me [da mme] non è vero [non ε vvero] lascia ciao casa, caso [kasa kazo] zio [dzio] zio [tsio] bene, questo, perché [bene kwεsto perkε] bene, questo, perché [bεne kwesto perke] la pesca, parlato, la casa [la θ εska parlao la hasa] ragione [raȢone] la pesca, parlato, la casa [la pεska parlato la kasa] ragione [radȢone] a casa [a kkasa], da me [da me or da mme] a casa [a kkasa], da me [da mme] soft c pronounced as sci scinquescento cinquecento ls pronounced as lts ns pronounced as nts rs pronounced as rts il tsole intsomma scartso il sole insomma scarso syntactic doubling in particular cases -p-, -t-, -kpronounced as -b-, -d-, -g-mp-, -nc-, ntpronounced as -mb-, -ng-, -nd- a casa [a kkasa], da me [da me] gabidano a casa [a kkasa], da me [da mme] capitano cambo, angora, condendo campo, ancora, contento double consonants are not fully pronounced no syntactic doubling -n pronounced as -ng after vowel -sci- pronounced as -sisoft c pronounced as ts s pronounced as z between vowels z- pronounced as dzat beginning of words different pronunciation of open and closed e CENTER CENTER and SOUTH SOUTH 6 p, t, k pronounced with breath, between vowels soft g pronounced [Ȣ ] between vowels syntactic doubling in particular cases 1.7 Regional variation: grammar Area vowels at end of words pronounced as [ə ] -b- pronounced double between vowels soft -g- pronounced double between vowels s pronounced as -sbetween vowels syntactic doubling in particular cases tr pron as ci, str pronounced as sci only one pronunciation of e and o different pronunciation of i, u SICILY r r 1.7 Regional stazione [stattsionə ] Standard stazione [stattsione] impossibbile impossibile raggione ragione casa, caso [kasa kaso] casa, caso [kasa kazo] a casa [a kkasa], una riga [una rriga] quacciu, sci-rada [kwattʃ u ʃ tʃ ada] vene, bene, dove, nove [vεne bεne dɔ ve nɔ ve] Sicilia, è venuto [s-itʃ -ilja ε vven∧to] a casa [a kkasa], una riga [una riga] quattro, strada vene, bene, dove, nove [vene bεne dove nɔ ve] Sicilia, è venuto [sitʃ ilja ε vvenuto] note : Syntactic doubling refers to the process of doubling the ﬁrst consonant at the beginning of a word, when that word follows certain other words. Syntactic doubling does not occur in the North. Words which produce syntactic doubling are: words ending in an accented vowel (note that the vowel loses its stress in the process), e.g. perché no [perke nnɔ ], Gesù Maria [djesu mmaria] certain words, usually monosyllables (exactly which words varies from region to region), e.g. a casa [a kkasa], come lui [kome llui], che fai? [ke ffai] This is a feature of speech and is not shown in writing, though writers may do so in order to convey local color. In certain cases, however, certain pairs of words have become so established in the language that they are written as one word, including the syntactic doubling, e.g. soprattutto or sopra tutto; and the monosyllabic imperatives: dillo, fallo, datti da fare, stammi bene, etc. Examples of regional variation: grammar These differences are all common in R1. Some also occur frequently in R2. 7 1 Varieties of language Area NORTH no deﬁnite article with certain possessives deﬁnite article with names, esp. feminine verbal periphrasis position of pronouns che with conjunctions cosa in questions use of su and giù mica in negatives demonstratives plus adverbs for emphasis Regional mia mamma, mio papà Standard la mia mamma, il mio papà la Maria, il Paolo Maria, Paolo sono dietro a fare devi telefonarmi sto facendo mi devi telefonare, devi telefonarmi quando, mentre quando che, mentre che cosa vuoi? togliere su, prendere su (non) è mica vero questa ragazza qui, quel ragazzo lı̀ che vuoi? togliere, prendere non è (affatto) vero questa ragazza, quel ragazzo CENTER te used for tu si used for noi irregular verbs vieni anche te? noi si va via dassi, stassi vieni anche tu? noi andiamo via dessi, stassi SOUTH a used with human direct object position of pronouns ho visto a Giuseppe ho visto Giuseppe mi devi telefonare verbal periphrasis sto a fare mi devi telefonare, devi telefonarmi sto facendo verb at end of clause (Sicily and Sardinia) siciliano sono sono siciliano 1.8 Examples of register variation: grammar Many of the following features are avoided where possible in R2, while some are now commonly used in R2 though they would probably be avoided in R3 and certainly in writing. 8 1.8 Register variation: grammar R1 Avoided in R2 suo used for loro i ragazzi e i suoi amici comparatives il più migliore gli used for le (= a lei) gli ho risposto subito ci used for gli, le, loro non ci ho detto niente che used for in cui il paese che ti ho (dove) visto che used for indirect l’uomo che gli ho relative pronoun telefonato ieri Used in R2 repetition of object pronoun a used with direct object pronoun for emphasis gli used for loro a me non mi piace a noi chi ci paga? R3 i ragazzi e i loro amici il migliore le ho risposto subito non gli / le ho detto niente il paese dove ti ho visto l’uomo al quale (a cui, cui) ho telefonato ieri a me non piace (or non mi piace) chi paga noi? or noi, chi ci paga? gli ho risposto ieri ho risposto loro ieri or ho loro risposto ieri (R3 only) ci used with avere c’ho tanto lavoro ho tanto lavoro c’è with plural subject c’è molte case qui ci sono molte case qui che used to link aspetta che vengo aspetta: vengo or “main” clauses aspetta perché vengo che used for in cui il giorno che ti ho il giorno in cui (quando) visto (quando) ti ho visto che used for quale che vestito mi metto? quale vestito mi che libri leggi? metto? quali libri leggi? niente used as niente frutta oggi non c’è frutta oggi adjective cosa for che cosa cosa c’è? che cosa c’è? 9 1 Varieties of language 1.9 Examples of regional variation: vocabulary The variety of vocabulary items among the Italian dialects is legendary. As the dialect-speaking population acquired Italian as a second language, many dialect words entered the regional vocabularies of Italian, usually undergoing some “Italianization” in the process. A survey carried out by Rüegg in 1951 asked 124 persons from 54 provinces what name they used for 242 different concepts: only one, “strong black coffee served in a bar,” was given the same name by all informants: espresso. Such rich geographical variation is still a major feature of spoken Italian. This ﬁrst list contains words and constructions that are widely recognised as “typical” of Italian as spoken in the North, Center, and South of Italy. In the cinema, elements such as these, together with a strong accent, would be enough to characterize a speaker as coming from one of the three areas of the country. NORTH cosa? essere (cosa c’è?) avere (ho fame) anche (viene anche lei) adesso (adesso vengo!) cosa sei dietro a fare? questo / quello neanche, nemmeno, neppure prima molto il giorno dopo l’anno prossimo Lunedı̀ dell’Angelo CENTER che? essere (che c’è?) avere (ho fame) anche (viene anche lei) ora (ora vengo!) che stai facendo? questo / codesto / quello neanche, nemmeno, neppure dianzi molto il giorno dopo quest’altr’anno Pasquetta SOUTH che? stare (che ci sta?) tenere (tengo fame) pure (viene pure lei) mo’ (mo’ vengo!) che stai a fare? questo / quello manco, nemmanco prima assai il giorno appresso l’anno prossimo Pasquetta Different terms for the same object or activity Simple everyday objects and activities often have several different names in different parts of Italy. (In Italian they are called geosinonimi.) For example a coat-hanger is called ometto, stampella, attaccapanni, croce, and appendiabiti in the North, gruccia and cruccia in the Center, and stanfella, stampella, crocetta, gruccia, crociera, appendino, croce, and angioletto in the South. The following list gives a sample of such words in current usage, with only the most common synonyms given for each area. 10 1.9 Regional variation: vocabulary NORTH CENTER SOUTH bad luck sﬁga (R1–1∗ ) scalogna, scarogna jella wind-up blind on outside of window tapparella serranda tapparella, persiana broad beans (Vicia faba) fave baccelli fave chair sedia seggiola sedia cheese formaggio cacio cacio cloth for use in housework straccio cencio pezza daddy papà babbo papà doorkeeper portinaio portiere portiere to “dunk,” dip food in liquid pucciare zuppare, inzuppare azzuppare, inzuppare godparents at Baptism or Conﬁrmation padrino e madrina padrino e madrina compare e comare melon (Cucumis melo) melone popone mellone nice carino bellino caruccio nun suora suora monaca to play hookey bigiare (la scuola) fare sega, seghino, ﬁlone fare Sicilia shoelaces lacci stringhe lacci slap sberla schiaffo, ceffone sganassone, schiaffo small object protruding from another object pirulino pispolino pomello tramp, vagrant, hobo barbone mendicante pezzente watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) anguria cocomero melone wedding ring vera fede fede, anello to work lavorare lavorare faticare 11 1 Varieties of language Different meanings for the same word A few words have rather different meanings in different regions. Most of these are limited to R1. babbo gnocco passata stampella comare scostumato attaccapanni Meaning father stupid stupid easy type of pasta hair band tomato sauce crutch (for walking) coathanger gossip godmother shameless bad-mannered coat-hanger coat-hook Region Tuscany Sicily Lazio Emilia Tuscany and now all Italy Tuscany North and South Tuscany North and South Center, Puglia, Abruzzo South Center South North Center 1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian Example of R1 (Sicilian and Northern varieties of Italian), from Mimı̀ metallurgico ferito nell’onore (1972), directed by Lina Wertmuller The 1970s ﬁlms of director Lina Wertmuller used local and informal registers of Italian, and dialect, to great effect. One has the impression of listening to dialect but in fact the speech is cleverly constructed, with only well-known dialect words and phrases, easily recognizable throughout Italy, inserted into Italian spoken with a strong regional accent. The ﬁlms also exaggerate cultural stereotypes of various parts of Italy, for satirical effect. In this extract, Sicilian Mimı̀ has moved to Turin to escape the Maﬁa and seek work, and Fiore is a Northerner, a left-wing street trader. f i ore 12 Oeuh ma che bello che è qua. Sembra Hyde Park. Guarda, sembra proprio un posto di delitti, questo qua. Una roba di quelli lı̀, aspetta, com’è che si dice? una roba di di maniaci sessuali. Oh, uèh, te, ma che cosa c’hai, da guardarmi cosı̀? Mi fai perﬁno paüra. Uèh te, c’hai na faccia che sembri uno che c’ha mal di pancia: c’hai mal di pancia davvero? Sarà colpa della birra gelata. 1.10 m i mı̀ f i ore m i mı̀ f i ore f i ore m i mı̀ f i ore m i mı̀ f i ore m i mı̀ f i ore m i mı̀ f i ore Extracts illustrating registers of Italian No, còppa tua iè. Mia? di me? e perché? Scusami. Scusami ancora, per piacere, per cortesia, compagna, ti dispiace se ti bacio? Mah, se lo chiedi per cortesia . . . (During the kiss Mimı̀ becomes aggressive.) Mah? Aia! Ma no! Vigliacco d’un . . . Mascalzone! Bestia d’un porco! Che ﬁnezza signorile per un ordinario . . . – i terun vegnon giò con la piena a fà viuléns: mi tocca anche subire la violenza del terrone, ma metti! Non ti permettere mica perché ti spacco la testa, ma te la spacco. Prima mi domandi per piacere per cortesia un bacio, e dopo pratichi la violenza carnale. Ma va’ all’inferno! Ma non fu violenza. Passione fu. Scusami Fiore, ma io fui travolto, io non potetti assolutissimamente resistere alla tentazione dei sensi. Ma quale violenza, ma per carità! Ma quando mai! Modestamente, con le femmine, risultai sempre gradito, io. Ma cu tia, cu tia bedda Fiore, è diverso, è diverso, perché tu mi piaci come non mi piacque mai nessuno. E ora, ora non mi puoi riﬁutare Fiore, guarda che non mi puoi più dire di no. E io ti dico proprio di no. Ma per chi m’hai preso, oh? Mi riﬁuti? Eh! E perché? Qualcheduno ti ha raccontato qualche cosa nei miei confronti? A me? Ma chi ti credi di essere? Ma chi è che ti conosce? [. . .] Tanto, la ragione è un’altra. Io all’amore ci credo. Per me, l’è na roba seria. E io ti sembro allegro? Serissimo sono. Io dall’inizio non capiva. Credo che caddi innamorato di te appena ti vidi. Te? Io no! Oh bella! Northern characteristics of Fiore’s speech Pronunciation Distinctive vowel sound: paüra closed e pronounced open, e.g. me, te, perché pronounced mè, tè, perchè All double consonants are pronounced single Grammar te for tu Vocabulary oeuh: interjection expressing admiration uèh: interjection expressing surprise terrone, derogatory term for “southerner” (the corresponding, but less loaded, term for “northerner” is polentone) mica, e.g. non ti permettere mica Dialect i terun vegnon giò con la piena a fà viuléns = i terroni vengono giù con la piena a fare violenza l’è na roba seria = è una cosa seria 13 1 Varieties of language Sicilian characteristics of Mimı̀’s speech Pronunciation Closed o pronounced open, e.g. Fiore, passione, sono pronounced Fiòre, passiòne, sòno Closed e pronounced open, e.g. femmine, allegro pronounced f èmmene, allègro Unstressed i pronounced in indistinct fashion [ə ], e.g. ti, carità, mi pronounced [tə carəta mə ] -sci- for -ci-, e.g. bacio, piacere pronounced bascio, piascere Retroﬂex pronunciation of -tr-, e.g. travolto pronounced ciavolto Syntactic doubling throughout, e.g. per piacere pronounced pe ppiacere, mi riﬁuti pronounced me rreﬁuti Grammar Use of passato remoto Verb at end of sentence for emphasis, e.g. passione fu, serissimo sono Vocabulary femmine for donne Dialect còppa tua iè = è colpa tua cu ttia bedda Fiore = con te bella Fiore capiva = capivo General characteristics of informal spoken Italian Pronunciation ’na for una, ’sti for questi Grammar c’hai, c’ha for hai, ha, pronounced [tʃ ai tʃ a] Demonstratives plus adverbs for emphasis, e.g. questo qua, quelli lı̀ Normal word order changed to place important idea at the end of the sentence, e.g. io all’amore ci credo Use of subject pronoun at the end of the clause for emphasis, e.g. risultai sempre gradito, io Loose linking of clauses, e.g. c’hai na faccia che sembri uno . . . (R2 = tale che) So-called ‘cleft sentence’, e.g. chi è che ti conosce? (= chi ti conosce?) Emphatic use of reﬂexive, e.g. chi ti credi di essere? Mixture of registers, e.g. Fiore switches to dialect at the height of her anger i terun vegnon giò a fà viuléns, then back to R2 Italian, then uses a higher register (legal) expression of condemnation pratichi la violenza carnale. Mimı̀ resorts to an exaggerated superlative adverb, typical of R1: assolutissimamente Interjections, Mah? expresses surprise and disbelief ﬁllers, and Aia! expresses pain connectors ma metti! Come off it! Ma at beginning of sentences Guarda! 14 1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian Example of R1 (Roman variety of Italian) (from A. Sordi, Ammazza che fusto!, Milan: Rizzoli, 1995) The actor Alberto Sordi specialized in portraying certain down-and-out Roman characters, including a fake noble “conte Claro.” This text comes from a radio show of 1950. While the woman attempts to impress the “count” with her formal Italian, Sordi’s language slides between standard Italian (often formulaic and literary, with many sentences in rhyming couplets), a strongly local Italian variety, and dialect. s ord i donna s ord i donna s ord i donna s ord i salum i e re donna s ord i salum i e re s ord i donna s ord i donna s ord i Che fai oggi de bono, per il tuo pranzo? Oh! Come il solito . . . Ecco: un po’ di formaggio qui, dal salumiere. Bono! Formaggio co’ le pere? Questo è tutto . . . Perché ormai conte Claro non si può neppur dire che io mangi . . . Io pilucco. A chi lo dici signó? So’ er conte Claro e nun resto de stucco. Te lo confesso, lo voi sapé? Anch’io pilucco. Ma qualche volta, come se fa? Quanno ce vo’, ce vo’ un piatto de sostanza! Comprendi l’importanza? Eh magari conte Claro . . . Ormai ho quasi perso il ricordo di tutto. Davero? Pure tu? Nun se famo vedé insieme dalla gente, che sembra brutto . . . Entramo va . . . Annamose a istruı̀. Rinfrescare i vecchi ricordi è sempre un dovere. Entriamo signora, entriamo dal salumiere. Buongiorno pizzicarolo . . . Pizzica, pizzica, che sei solo. Buongiorno, desidera? Oh, il solito: due acciughine e un po’ di mozzarella fresca. Agguanta pizzicarò, mettece pure ’sta mezza ventresca. Un po’ de prosciutto, un po’ de pecorino. Pizzicarò, aggiungece pure quel salamino . . . Tanto le cose mo me vanno bene col Presidente Pella . . . Aho, sai che te dico? Mettece pure ’sta mortadella. Altro signore? E non lo so! Voi altro signó? Io? Conte Claro, ma che cosa dice? Chi le ha detto che io voglio questa roba? Io non voglio niente! Sta’ zitta signora. Er pizzicarolo ha già incartato tutto; mica pò disf à . . . So’ stato io che ho ordinato, che me voi fa sﬁgurà? Andiamo signora paga tutto e io agguanto er pacco . . . Buongiorno pizzicarolo, te saluto e batto er tacco. Ma conte Claro io non capisco . . . Perché ha voluto che comprassi tutta questa roba? Come perché, signora mia? M’hai domandato un consiglio e io te lo sto a dà . . . Questo è il metodo e più non domandà. Roman characteristics Most of these features are present in Roman dialect (romanesco) and are also present in strong versions of the Roman variety of Italian. 15 1 Varieties of language Pronunciation de, te, se, me for di, ti, si, mi ce for ci (third person pronoun for inanimate objects and places), e.g. mettece Open o not diphthongized, e.g. bòno, vòi, vo’, pò for buono, vuoi, vuole, può nun for non quanno for quando davero for davvero Consonant elision: co’, so’ for con, sono Syllable elision: signo’ for signora, pizzicarò for pizzicarolo Syntactic doubling throughout, e.g. ma che cosa dice pronounced ma cche ccosa dice, che fai oggi de bono pronounced che ffai oggi de bbono Grammar se [= si] for ci (1 pl pronoun), e.g. se famo = ci facciamo Abbreviated inﬁnitives: sﬁgurà, sapé, vedé for sﬁgurare, sapere, vedere er for il entramo, annamo for entriamo, andiamo te lo sto a dà for te lo sto dando (= te lo sto a dare) Note that Sordi addresses the woman as signora but uses the tu form of address. Vocabulary Typical Roman exclamation: aho! mo for adesso pizzicarolo for salumiere (cf. Tuscan pizzicagnolo) pure for anche Learned reference, comically out of place: e più non domandà Example of R1 (Tuscan variety of Italian) (from L. Bianciardi, La vita agra, Milan: Rizzoli, 1962) This passage includes a constructed but realistic depiction of the variety of Italian, strongly imbued with dialect, spoken in Central Italy (the example is from Pisa), where the boundary between Italian and dialect is often far from clear. The spelling has been invented by the author to give the ﬂavour of the pronunciation. Persino a qualche pisano io ho aperto l’uscio di casa – che è per proverbio azzardo pericoloso; a qualche pisano di quelli che dicono gaodé rpeoro ditupà, e ogni tanto vengono su col sorrisino furbo a cercare lavoro. “Nciavresti mia nposticino da guadagnà bbene senza lavorà tanto? Sai omè, sule cencinquanta rmese? Giù, madonnarbuio, un si batte iodo. Un si trova nalira peffaccantà nceo.” E se tu gli domandi cosa vuol fare, cosa sa fare – qui è un posto da specializzati, devi presentarti con le idee chiare e precise, so fare una cosa, quella cosa, e basta – se tu glielo domandi lui rimane a bocca aperta, spalanca gli occhi, ti punta l’indice contro: “Maffai la burletta davvero? Gaodé, 16 1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian un lo sai osa soffà io? Un mi onosci? Lo poi domandà a coso, ome siama, a coso no? Ir ﬁgliolo di Amedeo, quello che morı̀ anno.” r r r The passages in italics are, in Italian: Gaodé al pecoro di tuo padre Non c’avresti mica un posticino da guadagnare bene senza lavorare tanto? Sai com’è, sulle centocinquanta al mese? Giù, Madonna al buio!, non si batte chiodo. Non si trova una lira per far cantare un cieco. Ma fai la burletta davvero? Gaodé, non lo sai cosa so fare io? Non mi conosci? Lo puoi domandare a coso, come si chiama, a coso no? Il ﬁglio di Amedeo, quello che morı̀ l’anno scorso. Pronunciation Hard c dropped altogether between two vowels, e.g. ome siama for come si chiama; but not with syntactic doubling, e.g. a coso pron accòso. non pronounced un or n n for un, e.g. nposticino; na for una, e.g. nalira Syntactic doubling throughout, e.g. guadagnà bbene, peffaccantà, maffai, soff à Abbreviated inﬁnitive: guadagnà, lavorà, domandà Grammar ir for il, e.g. ir ﬁgliolo; r for al, e.g. rmese, Madonnarbuio = Madonna al buio tu for tuo Repetition of pronoun referring to object of verb: in this example the object of the verb is an entire clause, e.g. un lo sai osa soff à io Use of passato remoto Vocabulary Gaodé is a distinctive exclamation of Italian as spoken in Pisa coso, meaning whatsisname anno for l’anno scorso Example of written R1–2: SMS messages Text or SMS (pronounced essemmesse) messages, which can be sent from mobile phones or some computers, frequently use a kind of informal Italian which is very like spoken language. They tend to be short, to save time and to stay within the limit of 160 characters (on most phones), and so, like SMS messages in other languages, use abbreviations of various kinds. This type of Italian is frequently also used in informal email communication. The following text has been constructed from documented forms. A: B: A: B: A: B: Ciao Gigi!! dv 6? Ciao amore sono in segreteria di Facoltà, devo fare liscrizione x il 2o sem. Te ke fai? Sono in biblio a studiare l’ingl ma ke 2 balls:-( Li come va?? Czo sono qui dalle 7 e 30 e ce ancora una ﬁla di 100 persone a i utooooooo !!!! 80 fame uffa ieri sera dv 6 ﬁnita??? 17 1 Varieties of language A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: A: B: sono rimasta con Franco ke mi ha r8 le balle con la storia dei genitori ke nn gli danno la casa al mare per il wknd ankio lo visto e lo mandato a fnculo oh ma qd t c metti 6 proprio 3mendo lo sai lo s oooo !!! :-) c ved dopo pranzo? nn posso devo andare a casa xke c sono i miei e m dicono se m fanno part sab o dom OK!!!! voglio sapere subito!?!?!? dimmeloggi pome ti kiamo 4 5 vabbe c sent + tardi ciao xxx ciao amore ricorda ke TVTB This may be deciphered as follows: Ciao Gigi!! Dove sei? Ciao amore, sono in segreteria di Facoltà, devo fare l’iscrizione per il secondo semestre. E tu che fai? Sono in biblioteca a studiare l’inglese ma che palle:-( Lı̀ come va? Cazzo! sono qui dalle 7 e 30 e c’è ancora una ﬁla di 100 persone. Aiuto! Ho tanta fame, uffa! Ieri sera dove sei ﬁnita? Sono rimasta con Franco che mi ha rotto le balle con la storia dei genitori che non gli danno la casa al mare per il weekend. Anch’io l’ho visto e l’ho mandato affanculo. Oh ma quando ti ci metti sei proprio tremendo, lo sai? Lo so:-) Ci vediamo dopo pranzo? Non posso. Devo andare a casa perché ci sono i miei e mi dicono se mi fanno partire sabato o domenica. OK. Voglio sapere subito. Dimmelo oggi pomeriggio. Ti chiamo alle 4 o alle 5. Vabbe’ ci sentiamo più tardi ciao [baci]. Ciao amore, ricorda che ti voglio tanto bene. Abbreviations Set phrases (as acronyms): TVTB = ti voglio tanto bene Common words, esp. by deleting vowels: qd = quando, nn = non, c ved = ci vediamo, c = ci, m = mi In principle any word can be abbreviated or contracted, if the sender believes the recipient will understand it, e.g. wknd; sab, dom, biblio, pome Words run together: dimmeloggi = dimmelo oggi Symbols Mathematical symbols with the same sound as words: + = più, x = per, 6 = sei Symbols combined with letters: 2o = secondo, 3mendo = tremendo, r8 = rotto, 80 = ho tanta Punctuation Used more for emphasis and expressing emotion than for conventional textual uses 18 1.10 Spelling Interjections Extracts illustrating registers of Italian k replaces ch and sometimes any hard c: kiamo = chiamo, xke = perché, kasa = casa Apostrophes not used: ankio, ce = c’è, liscrizione Phonetic spellings if shorter: lo = l’ho Numbers used in place of words ke 2 balls note English word Cazzo uffa expresses frustration Example of spoken R2: Un’agenzia di viaggi This conversation is more formal, between strangers in a professional setting. Many of the features already seen in conversation occur here, but the formal nature of the exchange requires more careful grammar, more complete sentences and use of circumlocutions and formulae. c l i e nte ag e nte c l i e nte ag e nte c l i e nte ag e nte c l i e nte ag e nte c l i e nte ag e nte c l i e nte ag e nte c l i e nte ag e nte c l i e nte ag e nte c l i e nte Buon giorno. Giorno. Un attimo solo, e sono subito da Lei. ... Ecco, mi dica. Guardi, volevo delle informazioni sui viaggi organizzati in Australia. Sı̀, certo. Ne abbiamo un’ampia varietà. Mi sa dire in che stagione e per quante persone? Per me e mio marito. Bene. E in che stagione dell’anno? Mah, molti ci hanno consigliato dicembre–gennaio ma c’hanno detto che laggiù fa molto caldo e quindi . . . Eh sı̀, effettivamente Natale ricorre nel periodo più caldo dell’anno, è piena estate. Comunque, potrebbe essere una esperienza simpatica, un Natale sotto il sole australiano. Ma, vede, abbiamo i genitori anziani qui a Pescara e, sa, un po’ ci dispiace, cosı̀, lasciarli soli proprio a Natale. Piuttosto, mi dica Lei, a parte Natale, quali sarebbero i periodi più indicati per un viaggio non troppo lungo? Beh, prima di tutto, bisogna dire che fare un viaggio cosı̀ lungo per un breve soggiorno, non so se sia conveniente. Se ne avete la possibilità, vi consiglierei di fermarvi almeno tre settimane. Ah sı̀? Beh, sa, il viaggio è lungo e c’è una certa spesa. Beh, sı̀, forse ha ragione. Insomma, ha delle occasioni, dei viaggi organizzati? Guardi, Le do questo dépliant. Qui ci sono diverse soluzioni, a seconda dei vostri gusti, quanto volete fermarvi e quanto, insomma, volete spendere. Le dispiace se lo porto a casa per farlo vedere a mio marito? No, assolutamente. Grazie, molto gentile. 19 1 Varieties of language ag e nte c l i e nte ag e nte c l i e nte ag e nte Ma si immagini. Se lo legga con comodo, e poi mi faccia sapere se trova qualcosa che La può interessare. Comunque, se avesse bisogno di ulteriori informazioni, non si faccia problemi, mi chiami quando vuole: sono a Sua disposizione. Mille grazie. Grazie a Lei. Buona giornata. Altrettanto a Lei. Arrivederci. Buon giorno. Grammar Giorno (or ’giorno) is less formal than buon giorno and may be an attempt at making the client feel comfortable c’hanno detto is less formal than ci hanno consigliato, and may reveal a certain uncertainty in the client Formulaic ‘bureaucratic’ clause: se avesse bisogno di ulteriori informazioni Sentence Signs of unplanned speech: e quindi . . .; construction Use of conditional to make polite requests: quali sarebbero i periodi più indicati? Vocabulary “Polite” imperfect: volevo = vorrei Circumlocution: non so se sia conveniente Vocabulary shared mi sa dire; ricorre; dépliant; diverse soluzioni with R3 and ‘ofﬁcialese’ in tone Interjections, Ecco, guardi, mah, ma, beh, sa, vede, insomma ﬁllers, and connectors Polite formulae Greetings and farewells: Buon giorno, Giorno; Mi dica Mille grazie; grazie a Lei; altrettanto a Lei sono a Sua disposizione; molto gentile; Buona giornata; Ma si immagini Example of spoken R2: TV game show (from T. De Mauro et al., Lessico di frequenza dell’italiano parlato, Rome: Etaslibri, 1993) h o st conte stant h o st conte stant h o st 20 Allora Armando La Peccierella, piccolo il premio ma enorme la soddisfazione . . . soddisfazione, ecco sı̀. Abbiamo avuto una battaglia veramente fuori dell’usuale giovedı̀ scorso, quando la nostra grande campionessa in carica è stata sconﬁtta. Pensate, invece di dire “trentasei” o “ventisei” . . . no “trentaquattro” e “venti-” . . . . . . invece di dire “trentaquattro”. . . 1.10 conte stant h o st conte stant h o st conte stant h o st Extracts illustrating registers of Italian No invece di dire “ventiquattro” disse “trentaquattro.” . . . ha detto “trentaquattro”. (To viewers) Avete capito? E’ stato un lapsus e cosı̀ questo giovanotto, che era andato addirittura sotto zero, è diventato il nostro campione e ha vinto cinquanta milioni, che comunque è sempre una bella cifra per un ragazzo . . . Certo . . . cosı̀ giovane. (To contestant) Dunque allora c’è stata grande attesa giovedı̀ scorso a Napoli, quando sapevano che sarebbe venuto a partecipare al nostro gioco? Sembrava . . . (To viewers) I napoletani, come sapete, sono sempre pieni di entusiasmo: pensate che hanno tappezzato il suo quartiere con i . . . dei manifesti che vi voglio far vedere. Guardate un po’, eh! “I Segreti di Telemike,” (laughs) “I Segreti di Twin Peaks.” E allora quelli che passavano per le strade di Napoli dicevano “ma cos’è sta storia?” Hai capito? Perché forse non sapevano che avrebbe giocato con noi. Poi, pensate, hanno dovuto, nel suo quartiere . . . a casa sua hanno dovuto – si vede che lui ha un bel terrazzo – hanno messo uno schermo gigante, ecco. Guardate, un maxischermo e qui ci sono parenti, amici che applaudivano e facevano il tifo per lui quando ha vinto, perché è stata una . . . come se avesse vinto il Napoli, ecco. Comunque, fortunato il nostro campione in carica. Grammar Sentence construction A variety of tenses is used: present, passato prossimo, imperfect; also pluperfect, conditional perfect. One case of the (pluperfect) subjunctive and one of passato remoto At one point the narrative moves between the present, referring to the pictures being shown, qui ci sono, and the imperfect, taking us back to the time of the events, applaudivano e facevano il tifo The speakers use the Lei form of address. When the Host says Hai capito?, he is speaking to the audience and lapses into a generic tu instead of the usual (and correct) voi Sentences are short, or are made up of coordinated clauses. Subordinate clauses are syntactically simple – relative clauses introduced by che, or simple adverbial or noun clauses Formulaic sentences with inversion and no verb: piccolo il premio ma enorme la soddisfazione; fortunato il nostro campione in carica Self-correction Change of structure R1 features in reported speech: Ma cos’è sta storia? con i . . . dei manifesti perché è stata una . . . come se avesse vinto il Napoli 21 1 Varieties of language Parenthetical side remarks Vocabulary Semi-technical terms Interjections, ﬁllers, and connectors Regional features si vede che lui ha un bel terrazzo Vocabulary is simple and neutral The host’s reference to the contestant as a giovanotto is familiar and somewhat old-fashioned campionessa in carica, maxischermo Use of generic adjectives before nouns, almost as clichés: la nostra grande campionessa, una bella cifra, un bel terrazzo The ﬂat tone is lifted by adverbs: veramente, addirittura Dunque, allora, comunque; ecco; guardate, guardate un po’, pensate; come sapete; avete capito?, hai capito? Most sentences begin with a connector. This keeps the talk ﬂowing and helps the host hold the ﬂoor: allora, e cosı̀, comunque, dunque allora, perché, poi, guardate When the Southern contestant uses the passato remoto disse, the Northern host repeats the verb but in the passato prossimo: ha detto Example of R2–3: magazine editorial (from Il Mondo, 30 August 2002) This editorial in an economics weekly aims at a style which combines specialist knowledge with a chatty, familiar tone. Gli economisti assicurano che mai il pianeta terra in millenni di storia ha conosciuto livelli di ricchezza paragonabili a quelli raggiunti dall’occidente industrializzato nell’ultima metà del secolo scorso, quelli della società opulenta descritta da John Kenneth Galbraith. Società che è diventata ancor più che opulenta proprio in tempi recentissimi, fra il 1990 e il 2000. Ve lo ricordate? E’ stato il decennio d’oro della cosiddetta new economy, di Internet, delle nuove tecnologie. Ed è stato il decennio magico della Borsa: le quotazioni salivano, salivano, salivano. Sempre. Inutile dilungarsi in ricordi, basta un esempio di casa nostra: Finmatica, media società specializzata in software bancario, venne collocata in Borsa a 5 euro; salı̀ ﬁno a 180. La Borsa creava ricchezza (virtuale) senza sosta. E ci fu un gruppo di economisti (si fecero chiamare la scuola del Nuovo Paradigma) che cercò di dare fondamento teorico a quella follia sostenendo che i miglioramenti esponenziali di produttività legata alle nuove tecnologie avrebbero portato a tassi di crescita dei proﬁtti delle imprese mai conosciuti 22 1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian prima. E dunque la Borsa avrebbe continuato a salire creando ricchezza, tanta ricchezza, per tutti. Sogni. Si trattava di una bolla speculativa ed è esplosa. Come forse sarebbe stato ragionevole aspettarsi. L’esplosione ha creato e sta creando danni e problemi a non ﬁnire, ma soprattutto ha fatto capire che qualcosa non funziona nel nostro sistema, nel senso che la corsa all’Eldorado che ha caratterizzato il decennio del boom ha sovvertito tutte le regole. E’ cronaca di questi giorni: abbiamo saputo di manager che falsiﬁcavano bilanci pur di far salire le quotazioni delle loro società, di controllori che non controllavano, avallando le truffe, e via dicendo. In America l’amministrazione è già corsa ai ripari varando una serie di norme per garantire la trasparenza dei mercati, per difendere i risparmiatori dai manager disonesti, per fare in modo che ritorni la ﬁducia. In Italia si è aperto un dibattito sul destino del sistema: dopo il crollo del muro di Berlino e la morte del comunismo – si chiedono alcuni – non è che forse è iniziata anche l’agonia del capitalismo? Grammar Use of passato remoto for aspects of a time period barely two years past, to reinforce how much that time has been left behind The position of mai at the beginning of its clause, in the opening sentence, gives an emphatic, almost dramatic, tone The indicative in non è che forse è, instead of the more usual subjunctive, gives force to the statement in the che clause Sentence construction Omission of articles gives a technical tone: Finmatica, media società specializzata; falsiﬁcavano bilanci In general, a careful alternation of short and long sentences Sentences and clauses without main verbs: Sempre. Sogni. Inutile dilungarsi in ricordi Clauses written as if they were complete sentences, giving the impression they are being thought of on the spur of the moment, as in speech, e.g.: Società che è diventata ancor più che opulenta; Ed è stato il decennio magico della Borsa; Come forse sarebbe stato ragionevole aspettarsi Some features more typical of R2 (speech): Repetition: le quotazioni salivano, salivano, salivano Direct address: Ve lo ricordate? 23 1 Varieties of language And also R3 features: A somewhat contrived play on words: controllori che non controllavano Vocabulary Some technical collocata ﬂoated terms media società mid-sized company quotazioni share prices produttività productivity company proﬁt growth tassi di crescita dei proﬁtti delle imprese rates bolla speculativa speculative bubble bilanci accounts varando (. . .) norme to pass regulations risparmiatori savers / investors General R3 opulenta, miglioramenti esponenziali, dilungarsi, vocabulary sovvertire le regole, avallare, trasparenza Historical la corsa all’Eldorado allusion Anglicisms new economy (introduced and hedged by cosiddetta), software, boom, manager Expressions di casa nostra with a more tanta ricchezza (instead of molta) familiar, R2 tone Example of R3: written communication from bank to its customers (from L. Coveri, A. Benucci & P. Diadori, Le varietà dell’italiano: manuale di sociolinguistica italiana, Rome, Bonacci, 1998) Gentile Cliente, al ﬁne di risparmiarLe inutili perdite di tempo, qualora debba effettuare operazioni per un importo uguale o superiore a Lire 3.000.000 e non intrattenga alcun tipo di rapporto con la nostra banca (es. conto corrente, deposito a risparmio ecc.), La informiamo che potremo eseguire le Sue disposizioni solamente se Ella è munita di documento di identità e di codice ﬁscale. Si porta a conoscenza di tutta la clientela titolare di rapporti di conto corrente che con le banche indicate in calce, residenti sulla “piazza,” non viene effettuata la compensazione giornaliera dei titoli negoziati. Pertanto gli assegni bancari tratti sugli sportelli di dette banche verranno considerati come “fuori piazza,” ai soli ﬁni della determinazione dei giorni trascorsi i quali tali titoli devono intendersi pagati ed a prescindere dalla causale di versamento applicata all’operazione. 24 1.10 Extracts illustrating registers of Italian Preference for nouns over verbs: non viene effettuata la compensazione giornaliera dei titoli negoziati for i titoli negoziati non verranno compensati ai soli ﬁni della determinazione for solamente per determinare Passive viene effettuata, verranno considerati, devono intendersi pagati Impersonal form si porta a conoscenza Ellipsis Adjectives used elliptically for relative clauses: tutta la clientela titolare di rapporti Sentence Main clauses are short and simple, and contain almost construction no information; subordinate clauses are long and complex and carry the information; complex conjunctions: trascorsi i quali Vocabulary Formula of respect: Gentile Cliente Less common effettuare, eseguire for fare words used in Ella for Lei place of è munita di for ha con sé common ones in calce for alla ﬁne della lettera pertanto for quindi dette banche for queste banche (or le suddette banche) Synonymous Gentile Cliente, La informiamo expressions Si porta a conoscenza della spettabile clientela Technical residenti sulla piazza, titoli, sportelli, “fuori vocabulary piazza” (note the inverted commas), causale di versamento Grammar Example of R3: police report (from I. Calvino, ‘L’antilingua’ (1963), now in I. Calvino, Una pietra sopra, Turin: Einaudi, 1980) This is a classic parody of how R3 bureaucratic language can be unnecessarily complex and end up obscuring the meaning rather than aiding communication. The author identiﬁed the main characteristic of this “antilanguage” as terrore semantico, i.e. avoiding all words that refer explicitly to concrete reality. The two sections we focus on in the passage have been marked here as {A} and {B} for ease of reference. Il brigadiere è davanti alla macchina da scrivere. L’interrogato, seduto davanti a lui, risponde alle domande un po’ balbettando, ma attento a dire tutto quel che ha da dire nel modo più preciso e senza una parola di troppo: {A} Stamattina presto andavo in cantina ad accendere la stufa e ho trovato tutti quei ﬁaschi di vino dietro la cassa del carbone. Ne ho preso uno per bermelo a cena. Non ne sapevo niente che la bottiglieria di sopra era stata scassinata. 25 1 Varieties of language Impassibile, il brigadiere batte veloce sui tasti la sua fedele trascrizione: {B} Il sottoscritto, essendosi recato nelle prime ore antimeridiane nei locali dello scantinato per eseguire l’avviamento dell’impianto termico, dichiara d’essere casualmente incorso nel rinvenimento di un quantitativo di prodotti vinicoli, situati in posizione retrostante al recipiente adibito al contenimento del combustibile e di avere effettuato l’asportazione di uno dei detti articoli nell’intento di consumarlo durante il pasto pomeridiano, non essendo a conoscenza dell’avvenuta effrazione dell’esercizio soprastante. The “original” direct speech (A) is in R2, with one ungrammatical (R1) construction: non ne sapevo niente che . . . In R2 this would be non sapevo che . . . , or non (ne) sapevo niente del fatto che la bottiglieria fosse . . . The reported version (B) is R3. Grammar The reﬂexive in bermelo (A) disappears in consumarlo (B). Sequence of tenses: the ﬁrst sentence of A is vague (andavo . . . ho trovato) B pedantically expresses the anteriority of the ﬁrst action: essendosi recato. The demonstrative tutti quei in (A) makes sense because it refers to something in the immediate context. In the impersonal language of the written statement (B), it is replaced by the deﬁnite article i. Sentence The R2 version contains three sentences for a total of construction ﬁve clauses, only one of which is a subordinate clause. The R3 version is one long sentence, with seven subordinate clauses. Prepositions and adverbs A: each action in the story is a separate ﬁnite verb: andavo, ho trovato, ho preso, sapevo, era stata scassinata. B: the main verb is dichiara. This is the only ﬁnite verb (in fact the main clause is simply il sottoscritto dichiara). All the action verbs are non-ﬁnite or expressed as nominalizations: essendosi recato, d’essere incorso, avere affettuato, non essendo a conoscenza, l’avvenuta effrazione. A: in (cantina); B: nei locali di A: dietro; B: situati in posizione retrostante a A: per; B: nell’intento di A: di sopra; B: soprastante Vocabulary Semi-technical B: Il sottoscritto, dichiara, detti articoli vocabulary Nominalization A: accendere; B: eseguire l’avviamento A: trovato; B: incorso nel rinvenimento 26 1.10 Generic vs speciﬁc vocabulary Simple vs complex vocabulary Extracts illustrating registers of Italian A: preso; B: effettuato l’asportazione A: era stata scassinata; B: l’avvenuta effrazione The precise, concrete terms of A are replaced in B by more generic descriptions, e.g.: A: la stufa; B: l’impianto termico A: ﬁaschi di vino; B: prodotti vinicoli A: cassa; B: recipiente A: carbone; B: combustibile A: bere (bermelo); B: consumare A: bottiglieria; B: esercizio A: stamattina; B: nelle prime ore antimeridiane A: andare; B: recarsi A: cena; B: il pasto pomeridiano A: sapere; B: essere a conoscenza di Example of R3: formal letter This recent, authentic, and unedited letter, from a State museum to a person who had requested information, is in an elaborate style which would be difﬁcult to understand for most Italians. og g et to : Richesta informazione su G.M. nato 1833. Invio. Si dimette, qui compiegata, la relazione elaborata dalla dr.ssa P.B., che presta servizio in quest’Istituto, circa l’indagine in oggetto, richiesta dalla S.V. In ordine alla ricerca perfezionata si concorda sul metodo, sul livello d’approfondimento, sugli esiti. Pertanto siffatta relazione s’approva, si sussume e si loda nella speranza d’aver soddisfatto in congrua guisa la richiesta. Il Direttore The style is impersonal and elaborate in the extreme. The Direttore is sending a report, prepared by a member of his staff, and gives it his approval in this covering letter. But the use of impersonal si (for all main verbs) and learned/archaic vocabulary gives a bureaucractic, almost abstract, quality to the relationship between the writer of the letter and the matters he is referring to. Grammar All main verbs have impersonal si as subject. Note lack of conjunction between the three phrases in the second sentence. Vocabulary Oggetto: Re: Items common in above (i.e. in the line in oggetto formal beginning “Oggetto”) correspondence: by you (S.V. = Signoria dalla S.V. Vostra) 27 1 Varieties of language Items not normally si dimette found even in qui bureaucratic language compiegata in ordine a perfezionata siffatta s’approva si sussume si loda in congrua guisa 28 (it) is released attached, lit. “here folded together”, usually allegata; the expression corresponds to “please ﬁnd enclosed” with respect to (which has been) completed such, this not unusual elision of si this verb means to subsume, but here is equivalent to adopt it is striking that the Direttore praises the report in an appropriate way Words and their meanings r r r r r The following points apply throughout Chapters 2 to 13. Generally speaking, only the more common meanings of the Italian words and expressions listed in this section are taken into consideration. Italian adjectives are given in their masculine singular form. The gender of Italian nouns is given in some difﬁcult cases; for all other instances refer to Chapter 14. In normal Italian spelling, accents are written only on a stressed vowel at the end of a word spelt with two or more vowels, e.g. città, università, già, può (except for qua, qui, where the u cannot be stressed). Some monosyllables take an accent to distinguish them from other words otherwise spelt the same, e.g. è – e, dà – da, sé – se, tè – te, là – la. An accent is not usually written on an internal vowel, though this may occur to eliminate possible ambiguity, e.g. prı̀ncipi (pl of principe) – princı̀pi (pl of principio). We have used this device on many occasions to help with pronunciation. In normal usage such accents should not be written. Whenever appropriate, the usual Italian pronunciation of words of foreign origin is indicated in phonetic spelling in square brackets. 2 Misleading similarities 2.1 Similar form – different meaning: False friends The following two sections list pairs of words in the two languages that although similar in form have different meanings. 2.1.1 ‘Falsi amici’ I Except for a handful of cases – namely, grugno/groin, ostrica/ostrich, scannare/to scan, tappo/tap (2nd meaning), portiere/porter (2nd meaning) – the pairs consist of cognates, i.e. words with a common origin. “Falso amico” abile accidente (m) agenda English equivalent skilful, clever (usu) stroke diary, notebook English cognate able accident agenda aggiudicare (qc a qu) agonia to award (sth to sb) to adjudicate death pangs agony R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 30 The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. Italian equivalent capace incidente (m) ordine (m) del giorno (less frequently, agenda) giudicare, decidere angoscia, dolore acuto The usual Italian pronunciation of foreign words is given in phonetic spelling in square brackets whenever appropriate. 2.1 “Falso amico” agonizzare (R2–3) English equivalent to be in the death throes argomento topic, subject-matter; reason to infer, to deduce alderman, city/town councilor to wait (for sth/sb) arguire (R3) assessore attendere (qc/qu) attico attuale avvertimento baracca bordare bravo (adj) camera Similar form – different meaning English cognate to agonize (over sth) Italian equivalent tormentarsi (a causa/proposito di qc) discussione, lite (f ) argument (= discussion) to argue discutere, sostenere assessor (expert); (tax) perito; agente delle tasse to attend (= to be assistere (a qc), present) presenziare (qc) (R3) assistere (qu), to attend to sth/sb badare (a qc/qu), (= to take care of but al s o sth/sb) attendere (a qc/qu) (R3) penthouse attic sofﬁtta present, current actual reale, vero, di fatto warning advertisement annuncio (pubblicitario), inserzione (pubblicitaria) (newspaper), pubblicità (radio, TV, cinema) hut, shed, hovel barracks caserma (f s) to hem to board (a ship, a imbarcarsi, salire plane) (su) - (a train, a bus, a car, salire (su+art./in) a bicycle) - (to provide alloggiare (tr) lodgings) (tr), (to alloggiare (intr) take lodgings) (intr) (adj) good (of people, brave coraggioso usually at doing something); (interj, with agreement in Italian) bravo! brava! etc. room, chamber camera macchina but al s o camera fotograﬁca - (cine, tele, video) (not often, usu macchina da presa, television or cinema) cinepresa, telecamera 31 2 Misleading similarities “Falso amico” campo English equivalent ﬁeld English cognate camp carro cart, chariot, waggon car casino casino casseruola (R1–2) brothel; (R1∗ -1) mess (= confusione) saucepan casuale fortuitous casual casualmente fortuitously casually cauzione cava cocomero cognato/-a security, bail quarry, pit water melon brother/sister in law caution cave cucumber cognate collegio (boarding) school; college (UK, Aus) al s o board, council, body of people in the same profession casserole -(US) commediante (m/f ) commozione (R3) actor, (R1–2) hypocrite, pretender emotion comedian comodità compiacente compiacenza comfort obliging, complaisant courtesy, complaisance; satisfaction constitution (of body) commodity complacent complacency complessione (R2–3) 32 commotion complexion Italian equivalent accampamento, campeggio macchina, auto(mobile) (f R2–3) casinò (piatto consistente di) cibo cotto in casseruola informale, semplice senza formalità, semplicemente cautela caverna, grotta cetriolo parente (m/f ), congiunto; parola afﬁne scuola (superiore), pensionato (universitario) al s o (Cambridge, Oxford) college [kɔ llεdȢ ] (m) università, istituto universitario (attore) comico, attrice comica agitazione, confusione, trambusto merce (f ), prodotto compiaciuto di sé compiacimento di sé carnagione 2.1 “Falso amico” concreto (adj) English equivalent concrete (adj) English cognate concrete (n) concussione (R3, leg.) extortion, misappropriation concussion Similar form – different meaning -(med.) driver; conductor (heat, electricity) conductor (bus) - (orchestra) confrontare to compare - (lightning rod) to confront consistente (adj) - (pres. p.) (in/di) contento (adj) solid; relevant; consisting (of ) happy conduttore dècade (f ) consistent Italian equivalent calcestruzzo (R2–3), cemento scuotimento, scossa commozione cerebrale bigliettaio direttore (d’orchestra) parafulmine (m) affrontare; - (leg.) mettere a confronto but al s o (intr) confrontarsi (con qu) = to argue (with sb) coerente, costante content (adj), contented content (n) decade (= 10 years) soddisfatto to delude delusion destitute illudere illusione povero, indigente (R2–3) povertà, indigenza (R2–3) ridurre in cattivo stato, mandare in rovina in cattivo stato in rovina, cadente vergogna, disonore essere/cadere in disgrazia richiesta esigere, pretendere deludere delusione destituito period of ten days to disappoint disappointment removed from ofﬁce destituzione removal from ofﬁce destitution dilapidare (R3) to waste, to squander (money, a fortune) to dilapidate (tr) dilapidato wasted, squandered disgrazia misfortune, accident domanda domandare question to ask for dilapidated (gen) - (of buildings) disgrace but to be in/to fall into disgrace demand to demand contenuto decennio 33 2 Misleading similarities “Falso amico” editore English equivalent publisher English cognate editor - (head of a paper) - (edition reviser) - (ﬁlm) educazione (usu) upbringing; manners education effettivo (adj) effettivamente esito estenuante estenuare (R3) eventuale eventualmente evidenza real, actual in reality, actually result, outcome tiring, weakening to weaken, to tire (tr) possible possibly obviousness effective (adj) effectively exit extenuating extenuate eventual eventually evidence evincere (R3) to deduce to evince fabbrica facile fastidioso (usu) factory easy annoying, vexing fabric facile fastidious ﬁrma signature ﬁrm (n) ﬁsico (n) grazioso grosso physicist; physique, body crash, din, uproar full of genius, inspired, brilliant cute, graceful big, large grugno (R1–2) guerriglia inabitabile (adj) snout guerrilla warfare uninhabitable fracasso geniale 34 - (of lawyers) physician fracas genial gracious gross groin guerrilla (ﬁghter) inhabitable Italian equivalent redattore direttore curatore, editore tecnico del montaggio istruzione, formazione but al s o (as school subject) educazione (ﬁsica/musicale/ sessuale etc.) efﬁcace efﬁcacemente uscita attenuante attenuare ﬁnale alla ﬁne prova, testimonianza dimostrare, manifestare tessuto, stoffa superﬁciale pignolo, esigente, meticoloso ditta, impresa, azienda studio legale medico, dottore rissa, lite (f ) gioviale, affabile, cordiale gentile, cortese grossolano, volgare, crasso (R3) inguine (m) guerrigliero abitabile 2.1 “Falso amico” incidenza English equivalent inﬂuence, effect English cognate incidence infatti ingenuità indeed ingenuousness, naı̈veté insult to insult in fact ingenuity ingiuria ingiuriare ingrossare (tr); ingrossarsi (intr) interrogazione intimare (R2–3) injury to injure (sb) to cause sb/sth to to engross (tr) swell or to become/look big/fat; to swell, to become big/fat (periodical) oral test interrogation at school; parliamentary question to order, to to intimate command intossicare to poison to intoxicate invidioso istanza (R3) envious petition invidious instance largo lettura wide reading libraio libreria locazione (R3 leg.) lussuria lussurioso marrone (m) - (adj) miseria bookseller bookshop renting; lease lust lustful chestnut chestnut brown poverty, indigence large lecture (formal) - (university) librarian library location luxury luxurious maroon (n) misery Similar form – different meaning Italian equivalent ricorrenza, frequenza but angle of incidence = angolo d’incidenza in effetti, anzi ingegnosità ferita, lesione ferire (qu), fare male (a qu) assorbire, affascinare interrogatorio (by police, during trials etc.) far capire, sottintendere; dichiarare ubriacare, inebriare (R2–3) odioso esempio, but al s o istanza (R3, leg.) grande, grosso conferenza lezione bibliotecario biblioteca posizione; posto lusso lussuoso (color) marrone rossiccio infelicità, sofferenza 35 2 Misleading similarities “Falso amico” misero moneta morbido moroso English equivalent poor, wretched coin soft slow to pay, defaulter English cognate miser money morbid morose notorio occorrenza generally known (possible) need; recurrence to be necessary notorious occurrence ossequioso oste (m) ostessa (f ) obliging, respectful inn-keeper obsequious host hostess òstrica paesano (adj/n) oyster relating to a small town/dweller in a small town (paese) mime show ostrich peasant petulante petulanza comparison relative, relation (usu) driving licence ﬂoor (mineral) oil, petroleum insolent, impudent insolence, impudence paragon parent patent pavement (sidewalk) petrol (UK, Aus) petrol (US) petulant petulance polluzione (R3 med.) precipizio nocturnal emission (during sleep) ravine, chasm pollution occorrere pantomima paragone (m) parente (m/f ) patente (f ) pavimento petrolio preservativo 36 condom to occur pantomime (= Christmas show) precipice but ﬁg (= perilous situation) preservative (n) Italian equivalent avaro denaro, soldi (m pl) morboso cupo, tetro, imbronciato famigerato avvenimento, evento accadere; venire in mente servile, adulatore ospite (m/f, al s o = guest), padrone/-a di casa; but hostess (on a plane) = attendente di volo, hostess (f ) struzzo contadino spettacolo rappresentato nel periodo natalizio perfetto esemplare genitore brevetto marciapiede (m) benzina gasolio, nafta irascibile, irritabile irascibilità, irritabilità inquinamento parete rocciosa erta e scoscesa precipizio conservante (m) 2.1 “Falso amico” pretendere prevaricare (R3) English equivalent English cognate to want to, to expect, to pretend to claim (unjustly) to act dishonestly, to to prevaricate abuse one’s powers processare to put on trial to process pronto (adj) ready; (interj. inv) hello (on the phone) law suit, legal action to kidnap; (ﬁg) to enrapture play (usu by amateurs, e.g. at school) remuneration, reward, pay to sum up, to summarize; to re-employ to cover, to cover again pronto (adv) gratitude to remember; to remind memory; souvenir reconnaissance to record important, outstanding importance to hear again, to feel again; to feel the effects (of sth) rough (of people) relevant querela rapire recita retribuzione riassumere ricoprire riconoscenza ricordare ricordo rilevante rilevanza risentire (tr) - (di qc) rude quarrel to rape recital Similar form – different meaning Italian equivalent ﬁngere, fare ﬁnta agire in modo ambiguo, cavillare (R3), tergiversare (R2–3) sottoporre a un processo di lavorazione; elaborare (data); considerare (to consider) immediatamente, subito litigio, bisticcio violentare, stuprare (R2–3) esibizione solistica, recital [usu rεtʃ ital] retribution castigo, punizione to resume riprendere, ricominciare to recover ricuperare, ritrovare (tr) riprendersi (intr) ricognizione registrare record nota, documento; record (sport etc.) pertinente relevance to resent (sth/sb) pertinenza risentirsi (per qc/con qu) rude maleducato 37 2 Misleading similarities “Falso amico” rumore scalpello scannare English equivalent noise chisel to cut the throat (of animals or people) English cognate rumour scalpel to scan sensibile simpatico simpatia sensitive nice, likeable niceness (quality); attraction (feeling) to bear, to endure, to tolerate sensible sympathetic sympathy spada sword spade spogliare to spoil - (ﬁg, e.g. a child) sportive (adj) stravagante to undress, to strip (also ﬁg) sporty; sportsman/-woman eccentric, odd tappo plug, cork tap triviale vacanza vulgar, obscene (usu) holiday trivial vacancy vendicare to avenge, to revenge to vindicate vento venuta (n) wind arrival, coming sopportare sportivo (adj/n) 38 to support extravagant vent venue Italian equivalent voce (f ), diceria bı̀sturi (m) scrutare; dare un’occhiata; scandire; (computer) scannerizzare (R2–3) sensato, assennato comprensivo comprensione, commiserazione sostenere, mantenere (= to provide livelihood) vanga; (card suit) picche (f pl) rovinare viziare allegro spendereccio, prodigo (R2–3, of people), esoso (R2–3, of prices), eccessivo (for water) rubinetto; (light blow) colpetto leggero banale, fùtile usu translated with a noun + libero (adj), e.g. posto libero, stanza libera; but al s o (R3) vacanza (e.g. della sede pontiﬁcia) giustiﬁcare, rivendicare foro di ventilazione luogo convenuto 2.1 “Falso amico” verbalizzare verso (di una poesia) - (di un animale) - (= direzione) veste (f ) 2.1.2 English equivalent English cognate to include in a report to verbalize (tr); to write a report (intr) line (of a poem) verse (= stanza) - (= poetry in gen) - (Bible) call (of animals) direction, way (s) = frock; garment, vest (UK) clothing (often ﬁg = - (US, Aus) guise, capacity, format) (pl) = clothes Similar form – different meaning Italian equivalent esprimere a parole strofa versi (m pl) versetto maglia gilè (m), panciotto “Falsi amici” II: English (or English looking) words with different meaning in Italian Some of the following words have been imported into Italian as part and parcel of speciﬁc activities (e.g. the game of poker) or sports (e.g. football). As a consequence, their use in Italian is limited to very deﬁnite contexts and only partially overlaps with their use in English. Other words in the list have totally different meanings in the two languages. The usual Italian pronunciation of the foreign words in the following table has been indicated in square brackets. All the words listed are masculine nouns in Italian (unless otherwise stated) and select their articles according to their pronunciation (e.g. il/un jolly). Word bar [bar] basket [basket] body [bɔ di] English equivalents Italian synonyms of the word as (if any) used in Italian bar (place of caff è (m) refreshment) basketball body suit, body (stocking) pallacanestro (f ) - Italian equivalents of the word as used in English bar barra, sbarra (long piece of metal/wood); saponetta (soap); lingotto (gold etc.); professione legale (leg.); battuta (mus.) cesto, canestro corpo 39 2 Misleading similarities Word box [bɔ ks] English equivalents of the word as used in Italian pen (esp horses, cattle), playpen; small garage shower cubicle camping [kampiŋ ] camp-site cargo [kar o] cocktail [kɔ kteil/kɔ ktel] corner [kɔ rner] eskimo/eschimo [εskimo] ﬂipper [ﬂipper] footing [futiŋ ] full [ful] goal [ ɔ l] (often written gol) Italian synonyms (if any) recinto (piccolo) garage [ araȢ ]; cabina per la doccia campeggio cargo ship/plane nave/aereo da carico cocktail party; cocktail (al s o ﬁg = - ﬁg miscuglio, miscela mixture); corner kick (football) calcio d’angolo type of wind-cheater giaccone (m) fashionable in the (impermeabile) 1970s pinball machine biliardino (elettrico) jogging - full house (in poker) goal (football scoring) rete (f ) golf [ ɔ lf] jumper (UK, Aus), sweater (US); golf (sport) hostess [ɔ stes] (f ) air hostess, female ﬂight attendant jeans; [dȢ ints] (usu jeans, denim (una m p, but also m s and gonna (di) jeans = inv adj) a denim skirt) jolly [dȢɔ lli] joker (playing card) maglione (m), maglia di lana mister [mister] football coach ofﬁce (R2–3) [ɔ fﬁs] butler’s pantry laundry allenatore anticucina guardaroba, lavanderia 40 Italian equivalents of the word as used in English scatola (not big), cassetta, cassa (crate) (to go camping) andare in campeggio carico cocktail angolo eschimese pinna equilibrio (balance); base (f ), basamento (of buildings, R3) pieno (adj) scopo, meta, ﬁne (m); porta (football structure) golf (sport) attendente (f in this case) di volo - padrona di casa matta allegro (adj), cordiale (adj) signor(e) ufﬁcio jeans 2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning record [rεkord] English equivalents of the word as used in Italian poker (game) four (of a kind, e.g. poker d’assi = four aces) record (sport etc.) relax [relaks] relaxation riposo, distensione scotch [skɔ ttʃ ] adhesive tape Scotch whisky nastro adesivo whisky [wiski] note : (usu) il/un/i whisky - Word poker [pɔ ker] smoking [zmɔ kiŋ ] dinner jacket (UK, Aus), tuxedo (US) stage [staȢ , but often training period, steidȢ /stεidȢ ] workshop starter [starter] choke (car) tight [tait] morning suit 2.2 R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. Italian synonyms (if any) - (quattro) primato corso, periodo di tirocinio (valvola dell’) aria - Italian equivalents of the word as used in English poker (game); attizzatoio (for ﬁre) documento, atto; disco (mus.); record (sport etc.) rilassarsi (V), distendersi (V) scozzese (adj) fumare, fumante, fumando palcoscenico, scena motorino d’avviamento stretto (adj); teso (adj) Similar form – partly similar meaning: Partial deceptive cognates The cognates listed in this section have partially overlapping meanings in the two languages. In some way, they are even more deceptive than the previously listed ‘straightforward’ false friends. The semantic proximity between these cognates is intrinsically unstable and provides ideal conditions for the expanding inﬂuence of English on the Italian language. The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. The usual Italian pronunciation of foreign words is given in phonetic spelling in square brackets whenever appropriate. 41 2 Misleading similarities Italian abusare (di qc/qu) (R2–3) accomodare Partly equivalent English lookalike to abuse (= to take advantage of sth/sb, to commit indecent assault on sb) to accommodate (= to reconcile) accusare to accuse affettare to affect (= to show) aggiustare to adjust (= to rearrange, esp of clothes) (adj) alcoholic (of drinks, substances) to alter (sth, usu for the worse) to administer, to administrate (= to manage, to govern) alcolico alterare (qc) (R2–3) amministrare annoiare applicazione appuntamento assassinio astuto avarizia 42 Notes but to abuse (= to insult) = insultare al s o = (usu) to ﬁx, to repair accomodarsi = to make oneself comfortable, e.g. prego, si accomodi! = please, come in/sit down! but accommodate (= to provide lodgings) = ospitare, alloggiare al s o (accusare un dolore ﬁsico; accusare il colpo) = to show but to affect (= to inﬂuence) = inﬂuire (su qc/qu) al s o = (usu) to ﬁx, to repair, to mend al s o (m) = alcoholic drink but alcoholic (n, of a person) = alcolizzato but to alter (gen) = cambiare but to administer (= to give) = dare (= to give medicines, sacraments) = somministrare (R3) to annoy al s o (usu) = to bore but to annoy (usu) = dare fastidio, seccare (R1–2), scocciare (R1) application; but application (for a job) = domanda (di concentration; the act lavoro) of applying (e.g. medicaments), of putting into practice (e.g. theories) appointment but appointment (designation) = nomina (engagement) assassination al s o = murder astute (cunning) but astute (discerning) = sagace, avveduto avarice (miserliness) but avarice (greed) = avidità 2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning Italian bomba bordo cancelliere carattere carta cartello catapulta collare (m) collettore (R3) compasso competizione comprensivo compromesso (n) Partly equivalent English lookalike bomb Notes al s o = a great thing/person (R1) but bomb (US, Aus = failure) = ﬁasco; (Aus = old car) = catorcio (R1), carretta (R1) board in the but board (= plank) = tavola, asse (m); expressions on board - (= body of people with decision-making = a bordo, outboard powers) = consiglio (di amministrazione), collegio = fuori bordo (engine or boat) - half/full board = mezza pensione/ pensione completa chancellor but chancellor of a university = rettore character (feature, but character (in a book etc) = personality, font) personaggio card al s o = paper, document, map, charter - da gioco = playing card; - di credito = credit card - da visita (rare) = business card (R3 econ.) cartel al s o (usu) = sign, placard catapult (milit.) but catapult (= sling) = ﬁonda collar (for animals, but collar (shirt) = colletto, collo priests) - (coat) = bavero - (necklace) = collana - collar bone = clavicola collector (tax, money) al s o = collection drain, river etc. but collector (stamps, art etc.) = collezionista (m/f ) compasses, calipers but compass = bussola competition but competition (= contest) (= rivalry) = rivalità - (comm.) = concorrenza comprehensive al s o (of persons) = understanding (= inclusive) but comprehensive (= exhaustive) = esauriente compromise al s o (leg.) = preliminary contract 43 2 Misleading similarities Italian concorrere Partly equivalent English lookalike to concur (= to contribute, a qc = in sth) Notes al s o = to participate (e.g. concorrere alle spese = to participate in the expenses); to compete but to concur (= to agree) = essere d’accordo, concordare al s o = (formal) lecture conference (e.g. conferenza stampa = press conference) conﬁdenza conﬁdence (= faith in al s o = familiarity; conﬁdential revelation oneself ) confortevole (R2–3) comfortable (active, = al s o = comforting giving comfort) but comfortable (passive = at ease) = comodo (also active, = giving comfort) congelare, to congeal (= to but to congeal (= to coagulate) = congelarsi (intr) freeze) coagulare (intr -si) consentire (a qc, to consent al s o (tr) = to allow (sth to sb = qc a qu) con qu su qc) controllare to control al s o = to check, to verify, to inspect convenzione convention but convention (= conference) = (= agreed usage) convegno, congresso, conferenza coscienza conscience al s o = conscientiousness, consciousness (essere) costipato (R3) (to be) al s o (not common) = to have a cold constipated (usu soffrire di stitichezza, (essere) stitico (R1–2)) costipazione (R3) constipation (usu al s o (not common) = bad cold stitichezza) creatura creature al s o (R1) = child crema cream (of milk; al s o = custard cosmetic; al s o ﬁg = but cream (of milk) = (usu) panna (less best part of sth) frequently, crema (di latte)) - (medicament) = (usu) pomata cristianità Christianity al s o = Christendom decadere to decay (= to but to decay (= to rot) = marcire decline) – (= to decompose (intr)) = decomporsi – (of teeth) = cariarsi decente decent (= proper, but decent (of moral quality) = appropriate) rispettabile conferenza 44 2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning Italian deferire (R2–3) denunziare difettivo (R3) differire domestico emozione enfasi enfatico epico (adj) esibizione espletivo (R3) facilità fallire familiare (adj) ferale (R3) fermo (adj) festa Partly equivalent English lookalike to defer (= to refer) Notes but to defer (= to postpone) = differire (R2–3), rimandare to denounce al s o = to make known to the authorities, to report, to reveal, to expose defective (gram.) but defective (gen, = faulty) = difettoso to differ al s o (R2–3) = to defer, to delay (adj) domestic (related al s o domestico (n) = house servant to home and family) but domestic (internal affair) = interno, nazionale emotion al s o = excitement, agitation emphasis al s o (usu) = undue emphasis, rhetorical exaggeration, bombast emphatic al s o (usu) = over-emphatic, bombastic epic (adj) but epic (n) = poema epico, epopea (R2–3) exhibition (display) al s o presentation (of documents); show; performance but exhibition (= exposition) = esposizione, mostra expletive (= ﬁller, esp but expletive (= swear-word) = gram.) imprecazione (R2–3), parolaccia (R1–2) facility (ease) but facility (= facilitation) = facilitazione, agevolazione; facilities (= installations) = attrezzature (f pl) to fail al s o = (intr) to go broke/bankrupt; (tr) to miss (a target etc) familiar al s o = pertaining to the family, familial feral (funereal) but feral (= wild) = selvaggio, selvatico - (= cruel) = crudele ﬁrm (steady, al s o = still, motionless; determined) - (as a command, with agreement) stop! feast (holiday) al s o (R1–2) = (generic for) birthday, name day but feast (= banquet) = banchetto, festino (R2–3) 45 2 Misleading similarities ﬁne (adj) Partly equivalent English lookalike festive (relating to holidays) ﬁgure (shape, illustration, person) ﬁne (reﬁned, thin) ﬂemma phlegm (coolness) forma form formazione frase (f ) frizione formation phrase (R2–3) friction (massage); (R3) rubbing between two bodies (physics) fungus idiom (= language, dialect) Italian festivo ﬁgura fungo idioma (m) ignorare to ignore importante inconscio (adj) important unconscious (of behaviour) unconscious (= out cold) to intend to intervene incosciente intendere intervenire (in qc, su qc/qu) introdurre 46 Notes but festive (= merry) = festoso, allegro but ﬁgure (= number) = numero, cifra - (= amount) = somma, cifra but ﬁne (= beautiful) = bello - (= good) = (molto) buono, (molto) bravo (of people) but phlegm (= mucus) = sputo (mucoso), scaracchio (R1) al s o = mould but form (document to ﬁll) = modulo - (= school level) = classe (f ) al s o = education, training al s o = sentence al s o (usu) = clutch (cars) but friction (between surfaces or people) (usu) = affrito al s o = mushroom, toadstool but idiom (= expression typical of a language) = locuzione, idiomatismo (R3), frase idiomatica al s o = not to know (note : ignorante (R1) = rude) al s o = considerable (sum, loss) but unconscious (of people, = out cold) = svenuto, incosciente, privo di sensi al s o = irresponsible, careless al s o = to hear, to understand al s o (a qc) = to be present, to take part - (su qc/qu) = to operate (surgically) (on sth/sb) to introduce (to let in, but to introduce (= to make people meet) to put in; to start) = presentare 2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning investire Partly equivalent English lookalike invalid (= disabled [person]) to invest istruire to instruct lancio launch, launching (of rockets, missiles etc.; of products on the market) lavoro labor (econ.) licenza licence manifestazione marcia manifestation march (milit., mus.) materiale (m) medicazione mobile (adj) muovere material (= matter) (R2–3) medication (application of medicament) mobile, movable to move (tr) opportunità opportunity Italian invalido (n/adj) Notes but invalid (of things, = not valid) = (usu) non valido (invalido is only R3 leg.) al s o = to run down (with a vehicle), to collide with sb/sth; to assail, to hit al s o = (leg.) istruire un’inchiesta = to start an investigation but istruito (adj) = educated, learned al s o = throwing, throw (gen, including sport, e.g. lancio del disco = discus throw); jump, drop (with a parachute); introduction (of an actor, for instance) but launch (of a ship) = varo - (of a book) = presentazione - (= boat) = lancia, scialuppa, barca al s o (usu) = work, job but labor (= hard work) = fatica - (= working people/time) = manodopera - (in giving birth) = doglie (f pl), e.g. avere le doglie = to be in labor) - (political party) = partito laburista al s o = leave (milit.); school leaving examination/diploma but driving licence = patente (f ) al s o = demonstration (political etc.) al s o = speed, gear (mech.); motion e.g. mettere (tr)/mettersi (intr) in marcia (to set into motion, to get going); walk; walking (sport discipline) but material (= fabric) = stoffa al s o = wound dressing but medication (= medicament) = medicina, medicamento (R2–3) al s o mobile (m) = piece of furniture but to move (emotionally) = commuovere - (gen, intr) = muoversi - (house) = traslocare, trasferirsi al s o = opportuneness, timeliness 47 2 Misleading similarities Italian orfano Partly equivalent English lookalike orphan palazzo pensione palace pension percepire pezzo to perceive piece (part from a whole; chess, music, etc.) polso pope (m) portento portiere pulse (med.) pope (Greek Orthodox priest, papa) portent (= prodigy) porter (= janitor) preparazione preparation preservare to preserve (= to protect) primitive (crude; primordial) process propaganda proposition (math.) primitivo processo propaganda proposizione (R3) proseguire provvedere 48 to prosecute (to continue) to provide (to make available) Notes al s o (orfano di padre/di madre) = fatherless/motherless al s o multi-story building, block of ﬂats al s o = superannuation; boarding house; boarding charge; accommodation with meals (pensione completa = full board, mezza pensione = half board) al s o = to receive (usu pay/salary) al s o = newspaper article; excerpt; part (mech.); idiom.: un pezzo = a long time; (un) pezzo di . . . = a great big . . . (e.g. un pezzo d’uomo = a great big man; pezzo d’asino! = you great big dunce!); pezzo grosso = bigwig; pezzo forte = pièce de résistance. al s o (usu) = wrist but Pope (= Pontiff ) = papa (m) but portent (= omen) = presagio al s o = goalkeeper (sport) but porter (for luggage) = facchino but the preparations (for an event) = i preparativi; - (chem.) = preparato but to preserve (= to keep in good condition) = (usu) conservare al s o = former, earlier, originary al s o = lawsuit, trial al s o = advertising al s o = clause (gram.) but proposition (= proposal) = proposta but to prosecute (legally) = (tr) perseguire; (intr) ricorrere in giudizio al s o = to take (the necessary) steps; - (a qc/qu) = to look after sth/sb 2.2 Similar form – partly similar meaning Italian questione Partly equivalent English lookalike question (problem) reale reattore registrare regno relazione real reactor to register, to record reign relation(ship) resto rest (= remaining part) reticente (R2–3) reticent (= unwilling to talk) revision (contracts, texts etc.); overhaul (engines); auditing (accounts) reception (radio waves but reception (= party) = ricevimento etc.) - (= receiving sb) = accoglienza - (hotel) = reception [res εppʃ on] (f ) to reconcile (= to end but to reconcile (= to harmonize) = a disagreement) conciliare recurrence al s o = (recurrent) occasion/festivity to recur al s o = to have recourse, to resort to refer (to) (intr) al s o riferire (tr) = to tell, to report, to relate but to refer (tr) = (ri)mandare, deferire to report al s o = to bring/take back; to carry over (of numbers) to restore (= to but to restore (art works, buildings) = refresh) restaurare sanctuary (temple) but sanctuary (= place of protection) = asilo (for people); riserva (naturale) (for animals) scenario al s o (usu) = theater set, scenery (al s o ﬁg) revisione ricezione riconciliare ricorrenza ricorrere riferirsi (a qc/qu) riportare ristorare santuario scenario Notes but question (= interrogation) = domanda al s o = royal al s o = jet (plane, engine) al s o (mech.) = to adjust al s o = kingdom al s o = affair; report but relation (= kinship) = parentela - (= relative) = parente (m/f ) al s o = balance (of a payment), change; - (math.) = remainder resti (pl) = remains but rest (repose) = riposo but reticent (= reluctant) = restı̀o, riluttante but revision (= review for an exam etc.) = ripasso 49 2 Misleading similarities Italian scolaro, -a secolare sentenza sicurezza sicuro soggetto sostanziale sperimentare (tr) spettacolo stabilimento storia succedere (intr) suggestione superbo suscettibile tavola temporale (adj) termine (m) 50 Partly equivalent English lookalike scholar (= schoolboy, -girl) secular (lay) sentence (leg.) security (stability; ﬁnancial security) Notes but scholar (= learned person) = studioso, erudito (R2–3) al s o = hundreds of years old but sentence (gram.) = frase (f ) al s o = safety (e.g. sicurezza stradale = road safety, cintura di sicurezza = safety belt); (self-)conﬁdence secure (stable; with no al s o = safe (e.g. al sicuro = safe, in a safe danger, well defended) place); sure; conﬁdent, steady (of persons); (adv, R1–2) certainly, di sicuro = certainly subject (gram., art) al s o = person but subject (= school topic) = materia - (of a country) = cittadino - (of a ruler) = suddito substantial but substantial (of meals) = sostanzioso (= fundamental) - (= considerable) = considerevole, consistente - (= solid) = solido to experiment al s o = to try, to experience (on/with sth) spectacle but spectacles (= glasses) = occhiali (m pl) establishment (act of al s o = specialized building for industrial establishing) (and other) purposes, works, factory story al s o = history to succeed (= to al s o = to happen follow) but to succeed (= to be successful) = riuscire, avere successo (in qc) suggestion but suggestion (= piece of advice) = (psychological) suggerimento (of things) superb al s o (of people) proud, haughty susceptible but susceptible to (e.g. disease) = soggetto a table (set for eating) al s o = plank, board; but table (gen) = tavolo temporal al s o temporale (m) = (thunder)storm term al s o = boundary; end but term (time) = periodo (di tempo) - (= 3 months of school) = trimestre 2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings Partly equivalent English lookalike trio (music); (ﬁg.) set of three persons connected in some way (work etc.) Italian trio tronco (m) trunk (tree, body) udienza (R2–3) audience (papal) umore (R3) humour (= [biological] liquid) vague vago vano (adj) veriﬁcare vain (= useless, empty) to verify vizioso vicious (= corrupt) vuoto (n) void (= vacuum, emptiness) 2.3 Notes but trio of things (or persons, in some cases) = terna (R2–3); note : terzetto (threesome) is used if the connection between three persons is coincidental. but trunk (luggage) = baule (m) - (car) = bagagliaio, baule (m) - (elephant) = probòscide (f ) al s o = court hearing (leg.) but audience (theater etc.) = pubblico, spettatori (m pl) al s o (usu) = mood but humour (= wit) = umorismo al s o (R3, literary) = eager; beautiful; wandering al s o vano (n) = space; room; opening but vain (= conceited) = vanitoso al s o = to check note : veriﬁcarsi = to happen but vicious (= savage, ferocious) = selvaggio, feroce al s o (adj) = empty but void (= vacant) = vacante - (= devoid) = privo (di qc/qu) - (= null) = nullo Paronyms with similar meanings The highly phonetic nature of the Italian alphabet means that two words identical in sound will have identical spelling. By comparison with R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. The usual Italian pronunciation of foreign words is given in phonetic spelling in square brackets whenever appropriate. 51 2 Misleading similarities languages like English or French, in Italian there are few real homonyms, that is, unrelated words that sound the same but mean different things, e.g. piano plan and piano plane, or scolare to drain and scolare (adj) related to school. In most cases, the difference in meaning between identical Italian words simply reﬂects different stages of the semantic evolution of the same word, e.g. espresso (m) meaning express, special delivery letter, as well as espresso (coffee). This section will therefore concentrate not on homonyms but on paronyms, i.e. words with different meanings that, although not identical, are similar enough in form and sound to constitute a potential source of ambiguity for the student. Intransitive verbs taking the auxiliary essere (cf. chapter 22) have been indicated throughout this section. 2.3.1 Paronyms with similar meanings: a general list accezione (R3) meaning accettazione acceptance; reception (in a hospital) accrescimento (R2–3) increase crescenza (R3) growth (usu physical) alcolico (adj) alcoholic (of substances) (n) alcoholic drink alcolizzato(n) alcoholic (person) ambiente atmosphere, ambience, environment àmbito circumscribed space; (ﬁg) scope, circle animato alive, lively; animated animoso brave; hostile anno year (gen); buon anno = happy new year annata period of one year, with reference to its events or its duration, e.g. una buona annata = a good year (in terms of production, usu agricultural); all the issues for one year of a newspaper or periodical apparizione apparition apparenza outward appearance argomentazione line of reasoning; complex of interconnected reasonings argomento topic, subject matter; reason 52 crescita growth (gen) 2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings arrossare (usu tr) to make red, to redden arrossire (intr aux essere) to blush assaporare to savour (also ﬁg) insaporire to make tasty atterraggio landing (of a plane) atterramento knocking down (of a person in wrestling, boxing etc.) attrattiva psychological attraction, appeal; (in the pl) appealing features attrazione attraction (gen, also = highlight of a show) avanzo (econ.) surplus; (math.) remainder; al s o (usu pl) remains, leftovers; (ﬁg) avanzo di galera = jail-bird avanzata advance (esp milit.) boccata mouthful (usu of gaseous or liquid substances); una boccata d’aria = a breath of fresh air boccone (m) mouthful of food, morsel; (ﬁg) something to eat bollare to stamp; (ﬁg) to brand bollire (tr and intr) to boil caldo (adj) warm (also ﬁg) (n) warmth, heath caloroso (adj) warm (only ﬁg); (R1–2) said of a person who does not feel the cold calorifero (R2–3) (n) radiator, heater caloriﬁco (adj) caloriﬁc calorico (adj) caloric cambiamento change cambio change; swap, e.g. facciamo (a) cambio (R1–2) = let’s swap; exchange (also econ.), exchange rate; (mech.) gears, gear-box scambio exchange (not econ.), swap, trade; mix up; scambio ferroviario = railway points/switch; scambi commerciali = trade avanzamento act of advancing or putting forward; promotion; progress 53 2 Misleading similarities campo ﬁeld (also ﬁg); (sport) ﬁeld, oval, pitch, court; camp (same meaning as accampamento, and in set phrases, e.g. piantare/levare il campo = to pitch/to strike camp) accampamento encampment, camp (of troops, nomads, refugees) camping (m) camp-site (for leisure) cantante (m/f ) cantore (R2–3, cantora f ) chorister (usu in church) cantautore (cantautrice f ) singer (gen) canzone (f ) song (with words, popular, e.g. le canzoni della prima guerra mondiale = the (pop-)songs of the years of the First World War); type of poem campeggio camp-site; camping, e.g. andare in campeggio = to go camping singer who writes his/her own songs canto art of singing, singing (also of birds); melody; song (liturgical, military, e.g. i canti della prima guerra mondiale = the military songs of the First World War); canto (poetry) captare (R2–3) catturare to pick up, to to capture intercept (usu with devices such as a radio etc.) carro cart, waggon, chariot; carro bestiame = cattle wagon, stock car (US); carro armato = tank; carro funebre = hearse carrello trolley (cart) (shopping, tea); carriage (typewriter); undercarriage (plane); dolly (cinema) carriola carretta wheelbarrow small cart; (ﬁg, R1) old, run-down vehicle carrozza carriage; coach, passenger car (US) carrozzella small carriage; horse-drawn cart for hire (in Rome and Naples); pram, baby carriage (US); wheelchair carrozzina pram, baby carriage (US) 54 carrozzone (m) caravan (circus, gipsies) 2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings cattiveria nastiness, naughtiness, mischief (also = naughty action) cattività captivity cava quarry caverna cave cemento concrete cimento (R3) test, trial; danger cerchio circle; hoop circo circus circolo circle, circolo polare artico/antartico = Arctic/Antarctic Circle, circolo vizioso = vicious circle; club, association cinta belt (clothing accessory); enclosure wall, cinta delle mura = circle of walls; muro di cinta = boundary wall cinghia strap; belt (clothing accessory, mechanical) cı̀ntola belt (clothing accessory); waist cinturone (m) cintura holster-belt belt (clothing accessory or for the purpose of protection, e.g. cintura di sicurezza = safety belt; cintura di castità = chastity belt); waist, girdle cinturino watch-strap colorato colored colorito (adj) colored, colorful (also ﬁg of speech, but not of character); red or pink, referring to the cheeks (n) skin color (esp of the face); (ﬁg) coloring of expression (in language, music, art) colpevole (adj) guilty, culpable (n, m/f ) culprit colposo (R3) culpable (of actions that are damaging but without malice), omicidio colposo = manslaughter compimento (R2–3) completion complimento compliment complemento complement 55 2 Misleading similarities compı̀to (R2–3) usu well-mannered, polite, but also completed compiuto (p.p. of compiere) completed, ﬁnished, ha compiuto tre anni = he/she has turned three (years old) comprensibile comprehensible, understandable comprensivo (of persons) understanding; (of things) comprehensive, inclusive concentrazione concentration (also mental) concentramento concentration (not mental); campo di concentramento = concentration camp conduttore (R2–3) driver (trains, public transport, and also [R3] Formula 1); conductor (of heat, electricity); (R3 leg.) tenant conducente (m R2–3) driver (esp public transport), e.g. non parlare al conducente = do not speak to the driver conoscente (m/f ) acquaintance conoscitore (conoscitrice f ) connoisseur, expert creatore (adj) creative (= that creates); (n, creatrice f ) creator, il Creatore = the Creator, the Maker creativo (adj) creative (= that can create, esp with reference to imagination) cuocere (tr with direct object always expressed) to cook (to roast, to boil etc), e.g. cuocere la pasta = to cook/to boil the pasta (intr aux essere) to cook (intr aux avere) (ﬁg, R1–2) to burn (of the sun), e.g. il sole oggi cuoce = today it’s very hot cucinare (tr) to (prepare and) cook food, a dish, a meal etc, e.g. cucinare la pasta = to (prepare and) cook the pasta (and its sauce, possibly); so cucinare (not so cuocere) = I can cook; cucinare la cena = to prepare and cook dinner deforme deform difforme (R2–3) different, dissimilar difettivo (R3) defective (gram.) difettoso faulty, defective (gen) deﬁciente (R2–3) lacking sth; (R1) idiot effettivo actual efﬁcace effective efﬁciente efﬁcient 56 2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings emotivo emotional, excitable (of persons), concerning emotions emozionante exciting energico energetic, full of energy, strong energetico concerning energy, e.g. fonte energetica = energy source fallire (tr) to miss (the mark) (intr aux essere) to fail, to be unsuccessful fallare (R3) to make a mistake, to err famoso famous, renowned famigerato (R2–3) notorious (usu of persons) felicità happiness felicitazione (usu in the pl) congratulations festività festivity, holiday, (holy) Day, e.g. la festività della Pasqua = Easter Day festa feast, holiday; party; (R1–2) birthday, name-day (= onomastico) festivo relating to holidays and non-working days in general festoso festive, cheerful, merry fondazione act of founding, e.g. la fondazione di Roma = the foundation of Rome; foundation (as in charitable organization); (pl) foundations of a building fondamento foundation (of a building, pl –a); also ﬁg (pl -i), e.g. una teoria senza fondamento = a groundless theory fossa hole in the ground; grave fossato ditch; moat freddezza coldness (also ﬁg) freddo (n) cold (adj) cold gelo frost (in general, freezing temperature, ice), e.g. giorni di gelo = freezing days gelata frost (a single occurrence of frost, for instance during one night), e.g. questa settimana ci sono state due gelate = this week there have been two frosts freddura (R2–3) witticism, pun 57 2 Misleading similarities giorno day (a period of 24 hours as well as, in contrast with night, the period of daylight, with all related meanings); buon giorno! = (usu) good morning! but also = have a good day! (concluding a visit, a conversation etc); un bel giorno = one day (in stories); di giorno = during the day, in daylight giornata day (usu the time between dawn and dusk, with reference to the way of spending it or its duration or the ‘quality’ of its events, including the weather); buona giornata! = have a good day!; una bella giornata = a beautiful day; di giornata = today’s, fresh (esp of eggs); in giornata = (within) today; a special or historic day, e.g. le cinque giornate di Milano; la giornata missionaria = Mission Day giudiziario, giudiziale (R3) concerning judges or judgments, judicial, judiciary giuridico concerning the law, legal governatore (governatrice f ) governor (ofﬁcial position) governante (m) person who governs (f ) nanny, housekeeper giudicare to judge giustiziare to execute guardia act of guarding, e.g. fare la guardia a qc/qu = to guard sth/sb; guard (one or more soldiers or armed citizens with guarding responsibilities); sentry guardiano keeper, guardian, watchman, e.g. guardiano dello zoo = zoo keeper, guardiano notturno = night watchman impazzire to go mad impazzare to run wild inclinare (tr) to tilt, to tip (intr) (R3) to lean; to be inclined to inchinare = chinare, but less frequent 58 chinare (tr) to lower, to bow, to bend towards the ground, usu head, eyes, e.g. il capo, la testa, gli occhi, lo sguardo, as a sign of submission, modesty, humiliation, shame etc. 2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings inclinarsi to tilt (intr), to bend over (usu of things and in a rather rigid way, in opposition to piegarsi) inchinarsi to bow (also ﬁg = to give in), to curtsey (= fare l’inchino/la riverenza) inconscio (adj) unconscious (of behaviour) (n) unconscious incosciente irresponsible; unconscious (out cold) informale informal informe shapeless informazione piece of information informatica information science, IT interesse (m) interest interessamento interest (not econ.); intervention (usu of a bureaucratic or political kind, as in “sb’s good ofﬁces”) interrogazione (periodical) oral test at school; parliamentary question interrogatorio interrogation (by police, during trials etc.) lamento lament, moan, wailing lamentela complaint lingua tongue (also ﬁg); language (of a community, a nation; as opposed to dialects) linguaggio language (gen, as way of communicating; in particular, faculty of speech); way of speaking, jargon, e.g. linguaggio burocratico = bureaucratic jargon lusso/lussuoso luxury/luxurious lussuria/lussurioso lust/lustful mantenimento sustenance, upkeep, maintenance manutenzione maintenance (= repair and upkeep of machinery, roads etc.) marcare to stamp, to mark (also in sports); to emphasize; to score a goal marchiare to mark, to stamp, to brand (also ﬁg) mattino, mattina morning (time of the day) mattinata morning (period of time between dawn and midday, with reference to its duration, to its events or to the weather) chinarsi to stoop, to bend down (only of persons) 59 2 Misleading similarities medicina medicine (science, drug) medicazione medicamento (R2–3) dressing (of a wound); medicine (= drug) application of medication medio middle ﬁnger media average, mean medio (adj) medium, e.g. altezza media = medium height; in the middle, e.g. le (scuole) medie inferiori/superiori = ‘middle’ school (ﬁrst three years after primary school)/high school (next ﬁve years) mediano (adj) in the middle; (n) centerﬁeld player, half-back (sport) montagnoso/ montuoso full of mountains, mountainous, hilly montanaro (adj) pertaining to mountain dwellers, e.g. canzone montanara = mountain song (m, f- a) mountain dweller monte (m) mountain, mount (esp in names), e.g. il monte Bianco montagna mountain, mountainous region, e.g. andare in montagna = to go to the mountains morbido soft morboso morbid notte (f ) night (gen) nottata night (with reference to the way of spending it or its duration or the “quality” of its events, including the weather) onda wave (gen, also in physics); the stress, also in ﬁg uses, is on continuity and swelling more than on breaking power ondata breaker, wave; (ﬁg) surge, wave; the stress, also in ﬁg uses, is more on the breaking power of the wave 60 (mass) media (m pl) [mas midja/mεdja] (mass-) media medium (m/f ) medium (in seances) montano (adj) pertaining to the mountains, e.g. ﬂora montana = mountain ﬂora 2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings originale (adj) pertaining to the origin (of sb/sth), original; new, eccentric; authentic; (n, m) original; (n, m/f ) eccentric person originario (adj) originally from a given place, e.g. originario dell’America = originally from America; of the place of origin, e.g. il paese originario = the country of origin; original, former perseguire to pursue; (R3) to prosecute (legally) perseguitare to persecute piano (adj) ﬂat, level; plane (adv) slowly; softly (n) ﬂat surface; plain; plane; ﬂoor, storey; plan; pianoforte note plane tree = plàtano - plane (tool) = pialla piana level ground, plain polpo octopus pòlipo polyp note : often also used for polpo potere capacity of acting according to one’s will, power (absolute, judicial, legislative, executive etc.); inﬂuence, authority potenza strength, power (physical, mech., math., and also = country); potency (sexual) pregiudicato (m, f -a) previous offender (leg.) spregiudicato (adj) free from prejudice; unscrupulous preparazione preparation (gen) preparato (n) preparation (chem.) presenziare (tr/intr) to be present (at sth = qc/a qc) presentare to introduce sb, to present procedura procedure procedimento way of proceeding; course, development; process; proceedings (leg.) processo process, course; trial (leg.) processione procession pianura plain, level ground preparativo (usu in the pl) preparations 61 2 Misleading similarities proposta proposal propòsito resolution, intention; topic, matter, e.g. in proposito = on this topic; a proposito = while on this topic, by the way radio (f ) radio (m R3) radius (bone); radium raggio ray, beam (of light); spoke (of a wheel); radius (of a circle), e.g. nel raggio di cinque chilometri = within a ﬁve-kilometer radius rapimento kidnaping rapina robbery (of banks, people etc., but not houses) rapire to kidnap, to abduct; (ﬁg) to enrapture rapinare to rob (banks, people etc., but not houses) recùpero (ricùpero) recovery, retrieval, salvage; il ricupero/ i minuti di ricupero = stoppage time (sport) ricòvero hospitalization; shelter; old people’s home recital [usu ’r εtʃ ital] recita play (usu by amateurs, solo performance, recital at school etc.) relitto wreck (also ﬁg) reliquia relic (religious) restaurazione reinstatement, restoration (politics, history) ristorazione food catering, restaurant catering ricetta recipe; medical prescription; (ﬁg) cure ricettazione receiving of stolen goods riconoscenza gratitude riconoscimento recognition; acknowledgment rilassare to relax (tr) rilassarsi = to relax (intr) rilasciare to release; to give (an interview); to issue (a document); (less common) to relax (tr) 62 restauro restoration (of buildings, art etc.) ristoro refreshment, relief ricognizione reconnaissance 2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings retrarre (R3) to retract (as in ritrarre) ritirare to withdraw (tr, gen) ritrarre to withdraw, to draw back, to retract (usu hands, feet etc.); to depict, to paint, to make a portrait ritiro retreat, place of retreat (religious or similar); revocation (of passport, driver’s licence etc.); collection (of money, tickets etc.); withdrawal (also military, but without urgency), e.g. il ritiro programmato dei soldati dell’ONU = the planned withdrawal of the UN soldiers ritirata retreat (military, usu in front of an advancing enemy); tattoo (milit.); latrine rocca fortress (usu on a mountain) roccia rock (substance, geological term) romano Roman romanico Romanesque romanesco (adj) related to modern Roman customs (cuisine, dialect etc); (n) the dialect of Rome romancio (R3) romanista (adj) related to Roma Romansch football team; (n) supporter or player of Roma football team; (R2–3) Romanist (law, philology, archeology) rotare (ruotare) (tr and intr) to rotate, e.g. la Terra ruota intorno al sole = the Earth rotates around the Sun roteare (R3) (tr and intr) to rotate, to whirl, to roll around (quickly), e.g. roteare gli occhi = to roll one’s eyes ritrattare to recant; to retract (an accusation) romantico Romantic; romantic, sentimental romanzo (adj R2–3) Romance; (n) novel romeno/rumeno Romanian 63 2 Misleading similarities segretario (m), -a (f ) segreteria secretary secretary’s ofﬁce, secretariat seguire to follow seguitare to continue selvaggio (adj) wild, of anything that lives in forests or wild places, often (also ﬁg) with a connotation of ﬁerceness and violence; pertaining to a very primitive culture (n) savage selvatico (adj) wild, of spontaneous plants and untamed animals that live free from human interference (n) gamy ﬂavour or smell, e.g. sa di selvatico = it tastes gamy sensato sensible, judicious sensibile sensitive; noticeable, perceptible sera evening (time of the day), di sera = in the evening; ieri sera = last night, yesterday evening serata evening, night (period of time between sunset and the night, with reference to its duration, its events or the weather); soirée, evening performance or ball or party sostenere to support, to maintain (also ﬁg); sostenere un esame = to sit for an exam sostentare to provide sustenance, to maintain economically sostanziale fundamental; (philosophy, R3) constituting a substance sostanzioso full of substance, substantial (e.g. un pasto sostanzioso = a substantial meal) spezia spice specie (f ) species spirituale spiritual spiritoso witty, funny 64 sensitivo sensitive; sensorial spirı̀tico spiritistic, spiritualistic 2.3 Paronyms with similar meanings squadrone (m) squadron (cavalry, tanks) squadra set-square; team; squadron (two or more divisions in the navy or the air force) squadriglia squadron (air force, small vessels) suggerimento suggestion, piece of advice suggestione suggestion (psychological); inﬂuence, instigation tavola plank; table (set for eating) e.g. a tavola = at/to the dinner table); table (with columns and rows) e.g. la tavola pitagorica = multiplication table; table (ancient law) e.g. le tavole della legge = the Tables of the Law; illustration in a book; tablet, panel tavolo table = piece of furniture, for all purposes, e.g. tavolo da biliardo = pool table; tavolo da gioco = card table tavolino small table, usu for writing or studying, desk; small table in a bar or a “caffè” tavolato (R2–3) plank ﬂoor; paneling tabulato (R2–3) tabulation tabella table (arrangement of data in columns and rows) televisione television (gen, including television set) televisore television set tempestoso stormy tempestivo timely tempestato (R2–3) covered with, e.g. una corona tempestata di diamanti = a crown covered with diamonds terra earth; land; soil; ground, e.g. per terra = on the ground terreno (n) ground; terrain; soil; plot of land; (adj) worldly, earthly (as opposed to heavenly), e.g. vita terrena as opposed to vita eterna terrestre (n) earthling; (adj) terrestrial, of the Earth; earthly, e.g. paradiso terrestre = Earthly Paradise; referring to land as opposed to sea tònico (n) tonic, reconstituent; (adj) tonic tonale (adj) tone-, tonal 65 2 Misleading similarities trattamento treatment tratto stroke, line; section (of a road etc.) ufﬁciale (m) ofﬁcial (= person with a position in a public ofﬁce); ofﬁcer (military); (adj) ofﬁcial ufﬁcioso (adj) semi-ofﬁcial, unofﬁcial, e.g. in via ufﬁciosa = unofﬁcially trattato treaty; treatise ufﬁcio ofﬁcina ofﬁce (also as a place); workshop, small factory duty valente (R2–3) skilful valido valid; strong valoroso valorous, valiant di valore valuable (objects); leading (persons) veglia wakefulness, vigil, e.g. veglia funebre = wake sveglia time for waking up, wake-up call, dare la sveglia a qc = to give sb a wake-up call; alarm clock vetro glass (material), sheet of glass, piece of broken glass vetrina vetrata large window, usu with ﬁxed shop window; panes; stained-glass window show-case, glass-fronted cupboard vetrino slide (for the microscope) vincita vittoria win (lottery, gambling victory (war, sport etc.) etc.) vizioso vicious, corrupt viziato spoilt; vitiated votazione voto vote (= act of voting); vow; vote, voting; mark, grade (school) mark, grade (school) 2.3.2 Paronyms with similar meaning: misleading “alterati” This is a special subset of cognate paronyms, some of which (e.g. tavolo/tavolino, carro/carrello) were included in the table above with other related words. As indicated in a separate chapter of this book (see chapter 5, Sufﬁxes), many Italian nouns are alterations of existing words through sufﬁxes but have meanings of their own. As a consequence, we have sets of paronyms in which the original value of the alteration has 66 2.4 Paronyms with different meanings been lost, giving rise to situations that are potentially confusing for the student. It must be stressed that the list given here is only a small sample. busta envelope bustarella (R1–2) bribe canna reed; cane, rod; barrel (gun); ﬂue (chimney); pipe (organ); cross-bar (bicycle); (R1) joint (e.g. marijuana) cannone (m) cannon casa house, home casino (R1–2) brothel; (R1∗ –1) mess, confusion, racket forca hayfork, pitchfork; (usu) gallows forcina hairpin mazzo bunch, bundle mazzetta (R1–2) bundle of banknotes; (R1) bribe pane (m) bread panino (usu) sandwich storia history; story storiella joke note : short story = novella vigna vineyard vignetta illustration, cartoon 2.4 bustina small paper packet with one dose of medicine or other substances, e.g. bustina di tè = tea-bag cannuccia straw (for drinks) forcone (m) dung-fork, hayfork, pitchfork cannella (spout of a) tap, e.g. bere alla cannella = drink from the tap; cinnamon forchetta fork (for eating) Paronyms with different meanings In the following list, the paronyms within each set are generally unrelated and their meanings quite different. artéﬁce (m/f ) artist, author, maker, creator artiﬁcio artiﬁce 67 2 Misleading similarities atterrare atterrire (tr) to knock down; to frighten (intr) to land note : to land on the moon = allunare; on the sea = ammarare calare (tr) to lower; (intr aux essere) to descend colare to ﬁlter; to drip, to ooze (also intr aux essere) cànone (m) canon (mus., also = norm); rent, fee, e.g. il canone d’afﬁtto = the rent cannone (m) canònico cannon; (ﬁg, R1) è un (n) canon (religious); cannone = he/she is (adj) canonical very good (at sth) commendatore honorary title; person with such title commentatore annotator; commentator consigliare to advise, to counsel conciliare to reconcile; to be conducive to; to (agree to) pay a ﬁne on the spot consiglio concilio advice; council, board council (religious), e.g. concilio ecumenico = (of directors etc) ecumenical council R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 68 fango mud fungo mushroom, toadstool, fungus feroce ferocious, savage, ﬁerce ferace (R3) fertile (also ﬁg) The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. The usual Italian pronunciation of foreign words is given in phonetic spelling in square brackets whenever appropriate. 2.4 Paronyms with different meanings folla crowd folle (adj) mad (n m/f ) mad person fondare to found fóndere to smelt, to fuse, to melt greggio (adj) raw (n) crude oil gregge (m) ﬂock (of sheep), also ﬁg note : greggi (pl) is usu feminine inferire (R3) to infer; to inﬂict inﬁerire (su/contro qu) to act with ferocity against sb insolazione (R2–3) insolation, sunstroke isolamento isolation; insulation marciare to march marcire to rot messa Mass (religious) messe (f ) harvest negare to deny annegare (tr/intr aux essere) to drown parte (f ) part, share, side parto childbirth prodigio portent; prodigy, e.g. ragazzo prodigio = child prodigy, genius pròdigo prodigal, e.g. il ﬁgliol prodigo = the prodigal son proposizione clause (gram.) preposizione preposition rimediare rammendare (tr) to ﬁx roughly; to mend, to darn (R1) (to manage) to obtain sth; (intr) to put right (sth = a qc) riporto number/amount carried over f èndere to split, to cleave, to cut through sth rammentare to remember; to remind (sb sth = a qu qc) rapporto report 69 2 Misleading similarities scala scaglia stairs, staircase, ladder; scale (in animals); chip, ﬂake scale (in music, measurements, also ﬁg); straight, run (cards) 2.5 scàndalo scandal, outrage scandaglio sounding-line, sounding-lead schermare (R2–3) to screen, to shield schermire (R3) (tr) to defend, to shield; (intr) to fence (sport) schernire (R2–3) to scorn, to deride teste (m/f ) witness testo text testa head tetto roof tetta (R1∗ -1) tit tettoia cover, roofed shelter tono tone tuono thunder tonno tunny-ﬁsh, tuna Verbs with similar stems The following table is an indicative sample of a vast category of Italian verbs. The semantic differences generated by the use of different preﬁxes with common stems are at times subtle, at times surprisingly obvious, and are therefore potentially confusing for the student. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 70 The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. The usual Italian pronunciation of foreign words is given in phonetic spelling in square brackets whenever appropriate. 2.5 Verbs with similar stems abbassare to lower (gen) ribassare to lower (prices, rent etc.), e.g. ribassare i prezzi affrontare to confront, to face, to tackle confrontare to compare battere to beat (gen, in an orderly way; also = to win); to strike; battere a macchina = to type; to serve (tennis etc.); battere un rigore/una punizione/un calcio d’angolo = to take a penalty/a free kick/a corner kick (football); to ﬂap (wings) battersi sbattere to hit oneself; to beat (in a rough way: rugs, eggs); to throw sb/sth to ﬁght against sth (contro qc); sbattere la porta = to slam the door; to bump (sth) against/into sth, e.g. ho sbattuto (la testa) contro il tavolo; to ﬂap (wings); sbattersene (R1∗ -1) = not to give a damn imbattersi (in qu/qc) to run into sb, to come across sth scacciare cacciare to chase away, to throw out; to scatter (tr) to hunt; to chase away, to throw out; to stuff (into sth); (intr) to go hunting; (reﬂ.) to get to/into, e.g. cacciarsi nei guai = to get into trouble cadere (intr aux essere) to fall decadere ricadere (intr aux essere) to decline (intr aux essere) to fall again; to relapse, to backslide; (ﬁg, of guilt, responsibility etc.) to fall, to rest cambiare (tr) to change (gen); (intr aux essere) to change (gen); (intr aux avere) (R1–2) to change gear; (reﬂ) to get changed (clothes) ricambiare (tr) (usu) to repay, to reciprocate (favours etc.); al s o = to change again scadere (intr aux essere) to expire; to fall due; to decline (in value) scambiare to trade, to swap; to mistake sth/sb for sth/sb else (qc/qu per qc/qu altro) 71 2 Misleading similarities chiudere (tr) to close, to shut, to lock up; to turn off (tap); (intr) to close (schools, shops etc.); to close properly (doors, windows etc.) richiudere to close again rinchiudere to lock up (inside somewhere) cogliere to pick, to pluck; to grasp; to catch, e.g. cogliere di sorpresa = to catch by surprise; to hit, e.g. cogliere nel segno = to hit the target (also ﬁg) accogliere to receive, (sb); to accept (sth) raccogliere to pick up (from the ground), to pluck (e.g. ﬂowers, usu from the ground); to pick, to harvest (agricultural products); to gather colare (tr) to ﬁlter; to drip, to ooze (also intr aux essere) scolare (tr) to drain, e.g. scolare la pasta (intr aux essere) to drain, to drip (R1, usu reﬂ. to drink) conciliare to reconcile (= to harmonize); to be conducive to, e.g. una musica che concilia il sonno = a music conducive to sleep; to (agree to) pay a ﬁne on the spot riconciliare to reconcile (= to end a disagreement) conservare to save, to keep, to preserve preservare to protect contare to count raccontare to tell, to recount scontare (qc) to discount; to deduct; to pay (the penalty for sth) correre (tr) to run (races, distances etc.), to race; (intr aux essere or avere) to run (gen), to race discorrere (intr) to talk, to converse (with sb = con qu) scorrere (tr) to glance over (intr aux essere) to ﬂow; to glide; to pass (of time) 72 schiudere to open slightly and slowly, to part 2.5 Verbs with similar stems ricorrere (intr aux essere or avere) to have recourse, to resort (to sb/sth = a qu/qc); to occur (of anniversaries etc.); al s o = to run again, to go back (also ﬁg) rincorrere (tr) to chase, to run after deferire (R2–3) to defer (= to refer) differire (R2–3) (tr) to defer (= to postpone), to delay; (intr) to differ fondare to found sfondare to break the bottom of sth, to wear (the bottom) out of sth; to crash through, to burst open, e.g. sfondare la porta gelare (tr/intr aux essere) to freeze (natural phenomenon); (ﬁg) to horrify surgelare congelare (tr) to freeze, to deep-freeze (only (tr) to freeze (often artiﬁcially, e.g. food; also ﬁg, food) of funds etc.) giudicare to judge aggiudicare to award; to sell at auctions pregiudicare to jeopardize; to damage; to prejudice gustare to savour, to enjoy (usu of food, drinks, but also ﬁg); to taste degustare to sample, to taste (food, wine) disgustare to disgust (also ﬁg) ispirare to inspire inspirare (R2–3) to breathe in legare to tie (up), to fasten; to link rilegare (usu) to bind (books); al s o = to tie again mantenere to maintain, to keep; to provide livelihood sostenere to support, to hold up (physically, morally); to bear (expenses, losses); (tr/intr) to maintain, to assert mollare to slacken, to let go; (R1) to give (slaps, kicks etc.), e.g. mollare uno schiaffo ammollare to soak, to soften (by soaking); to slacken; (R1) to give (slaps, kicks etc.), e.g. ammollare uno schiaffo muovere to move (tr, not emotionally) commuovere to touch, to move (emotionally) 73 2 Misleading similarities negare to deny (sb sth = qc a qu) rinnegare to repudiate, to disown passare (tr) to pass (gen); to cross, to go through (also ﬁg, e.g. passare un guaio); to overtake; to supply; to strain (food, drinks); (intr aux essere) to pass (by) oltrepassare to cross, to go beyond; to go past (esp stationary objects, people etc.); (ﬁg) to exceed pesare (tr/intr aux avere/essere) to weigh; (ﬁg) to be a burden; (ﬁg) to matter soppesare (R2–3) (tr) to weigh up (esp ﬁg = to value carefully in one’s mind) porre to put (R2–3, less common than mettere), to set (down), e.g. porre freno/dei limiti = to set some limits, to curb comporre to compose; to put together; to constitute, to make up, e.g. due giocatori compongono la squadra = two players make up the team portare to take, to bring, to carry; to wear (of clothes etc.) sopportare to bear, to endure, to tolerate premere to press, to push (e.g. a button); (intr) to press (against sth/sb = contro qc/qu); (R2–3) to matter (a qu) spremere to squeeze (usu fruit, but also ﬁg of money etc.) provare approvare to try; to test; to taste; to approve (of sth = qc) to prove rubare (qc) to steal (sth); to commit burglary, to be a thief 74 derubare (qu) to rob (sb) ripassare (tr) to cross again, to pass again; to review (studying); (intr aux essere) to pass (by) again scomporre to disassemble, to break down; to upset sorpassare to overtake (esp vehicles and other moving objects, people etc.); to grow taller/higher than sb/sth; (ﬁg) to exceed ricomporre to reassemble esprimere to express (opinions, thoughts, feelings etc.) riprovare to try again; to taste again; (R2–3) to condemn 2.6 Gender paronyms perseguire to pursue; (R3) to prosecute (legally) seguire (tr) to follow; (intr aux essere) to follow, to come after (sth/sb = a qc/qu) conseguire (tr) to achieve; (intr aux essere) to ensue vegliare (R2–3) to stay awake svegliare (tr) to wake up (tr) note to wake up (intr) = svegliarsi vendicare to avenge, to revenge rivendicare to claim, to vindicate venire (intr aux essere) to come svenire (intr aux essere) to faint 2.6 rivenire (intr aux essere) to come again proseguire (tr/intr) to continue, to go on rinvenire (tr) to ﬁnd; (intr aux essere) to regain consciousness Gender paronyms The gender difference dividing the following paronyms shows itself in the distinct endings of the nouns in each set. A short list in nouns distinguished only by gender (i.e. with identical endings) can be found in section 14.5.5. 2.6.1 R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. Gender paronyms with similar meanings Masculine Feminine animo seat of intellect, will and personality; courage anima soul banco long and narrow seat, pew; school desk; counter, bench (for working, testing etc.); bank (only in speciﬁc cases, e.g. Banco di Santo Spirito); note : banco di sabbia = sand bank banca bank (ﬁnancial institution in general), e.g. vado in banca = I’m going to the bank; la Banca d’Italia The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. The usual Italian pronunciation of foreign words is given in phonetic spelling in square brackets whenever appropriate. 75 2 76 Misleading similarities Masculine Feminine bilancio balance sheet, budget bilancia weighing scales; la Bilancia = Libra botto shot, crack, loud noise; botti (pl R1–2) = ﬁreworks; di botto = suddenly botta blow (also ﬁg = damage); crash (noise); dare un sacco di botte a qu (R1–2) = to give sb a beating up bozzo bump, swelling bozza bump, swelling; draft, proof brı̀ciolo (only s, ﬁg) bit, scrap, e.g. non ha un briciolo di cervello (R1) = he/she doesn’t have any brains brı̀ciola crumb, left-over bit buco hole (gen), e.g. un cappotto pieno di buchi = a coat full of holes; il buco della serratura = the keyhole buca hole (usu in the ground), e.g. un strada piena di buche = a road full of holes note , however: buca delle lettere = letter/mail box (hole); buca del suggeritore = prompter’s box; buca del biliardo = pool table pocket calcolatore calculator, computer calcolatrice calculator canonico canon (person) canonica parsonage caramello caramel caramella sweet (UK), lolly (Aus), candy (US) carico loading; load carica charge (electrical; military); ofﬁce, position, rank cassetto drawer cassetta (small) case; cassette (video, audio) 2.6 Gender paronyms Masculine Feminine cerchio circle cerchia (R3) large, circular shaped structure, e.g. cerchia di mura = circle of walls, cerchia di montagne = ring of mountains; set of people bound by some kind of relationship, e.g. una ristretta cerchia di amici = a select group of friends cero votive candle; large candle for religious purposes, e.g. il cero pasquale = the Paschal Candle cera wax; polish (for shoes, ﬂoors, wooden furniture) corso course; main street corsa race, run, rush coscio leg of larger butchered animals coscia thigh; leg of butchered animals (gen) covo den, lair; hiding place (with negative connotations) cova (R3) brooding, brooding place, brooding time critico critic critica criticism, critique, review fallo foul (sport); (R2–3) mistake, fault; (R3) phallus falla leak, hole (in ships, boats etc.), also ﬁg foglio sheet, leaf of paper foglia leaf fosso ditch; moat fossa hole in the ground; grave frutto piece of fruit; (ﬁg) fruit, product, earning, proﬁt frutta fruit (collective, in general and as part of a meal), e.g. frutta di stagione = fruit in season, essere alla frutta = to be at the end of the meal (al s o [ﬁg] = to be well past one’s prime) gambo stem, stalk (ﬂowers, mushrooms) gamba leg (humans, clothes, furniture) 77 2 78 Misleading similarities Masculine Feminine gelato ice-cream gelata frost (a single occurrence of frost, for instance during one night) goccio drop (ﬁg), a small amount of liquid, e.g. un goccio di vino = a very small amount of wine to drink goccia drop (lit) grano wheat, grain (also measurement) grana (R1–2) trouble; (R1) dough (money); (R3) grain (in photographs) note : il grana (padano) = a hard cheese similar to Parmesan legno wood (material) legna ﬁrewood modo way, manner, method; mood (gram.) moda fashion, e.g. alla moda = in fashion, fashionable moro Moor; dark-skinned/haired man mora dark-skinned/haired woman, brunette; mulberry, blackberry; (R2–3) delay or default (in paying rent, fees etc.), and also the related penalty fee morso bite; morsel; bit (horse) morsa vice (tool); (ﬁg) (vice-like) grip palmo (hand) span palma palm of the hand; palm tree pendolo pendulum pendola pendulum clock, grandfather clock peso weight pesa weighing; weigh-house; weigh-bridge pezzo piece, bit, fragment pezza piece of fabric, cloth, rag; patch politico politician politica politics, policy 2.6 Gender paronyms 2.6.2 Masculine Feminine pozzo well pozza puddle regolo (calcolatore) slide ruler regola rule sinistro (R2–3) accident; left punch/shot (sport) sinistra left hand stecco twig, stick stecca picket (on a gate); whalebone (corset); rib (umbrella); cue (billiard); slat (shutters, fan); splint (for fractured limbs); carton of cigarettes; false note (esp singing, as in prendere una stecca) suolo soil; ground suola sole (of shoes) tavolato plank ﬂoor; paneling tavolata group of people sitting at the table for lunch/dinner together, e.g. una tavolata di amici terno set of three winning numbers in the game of lotto, e.g. vincere un terno al lotto = to hit the jackpot terna (R2–3) set of three, trio (not mus.) terzino fullback (football) terzina (R2–3) tercet (poetry); triplet (music) Gender paronyms with different meanings Masculine Feminine arco bow; arch; arc arca ark; (R2–3) sarcophagus armo (R3) crew (sailing, rowing) arma weapon baleno lightning balena whale ballo dance, ball balla bale; (R1) tall story 79 2 80 Misleading similarities Masculine Feminine bando (R2–3) announcement, notice; ban banda band (musical, radio); gang; stripe bombo (R3) kind of bumble-bee bomba bomb branco group of animals (herd, ﬂock pack); (ﬁg) bunch/pack of persons (derogatory, e.g. branco di idioti = bunch of idiots) branca claw, clutches; branch (also ﬁg of sciences, disciplines etc., e.g. una branca della medicina = a branch of medicine) busto bust; corset; bodice busta envelope capriolo roe deer, roebuck capriola (usu) somersault; (less frequent) female roe deer cartello sign; placard; cartel (econ.) cartella briefcase, schoolbag; ﬁle, folder; page caso fate, chance; case, instance; case (gram.); fare caso a qc/qu = to notice sth/sb casa home, house collo neck colla glue colpo blow, stroke, shot, e.g. bel colpo! = good shot! colpa guilt; fault, e.g. è colpa tua = it’s your fault costo cost costa coast ﬁco ﬁg, ﬁg tree ﬁca (R1∗ ) cunt ﬁlo thread ﬁla row, line, queue, e.g. fare la ﬁla = to queue (up), to line (up) (US) ﬁsico physicist; physique, body ﬁsica physics groppo (R2–3) tangle; avere un groppo in gola = to have a lump in one’s throat groppa back, rump; in groppa (a qu) = on sb’s shoulders, on sb’s back 2.6 Gender paronyms Masculine Feminine lancio launch, launching (of rockets, missiles etc.; of products on the market); throw, throwing (gen); jump, drop (with a parachute); introduction (of e.g. an actor) lancia launch (boat); lance, spear limo (R3) mud, slime, silt lima ﬁle (tool) lotto lotto, State lottery lotta ﬁght, struggle; wrestling manico handle manica sleeve; la Manica = the English Channel mazzo bundle, bunch; pack (cards) mazza cudgel; mace; club (golf ); bat (baseball, cricket); stick (hockey) mento chin menta mint (herb) mostro monster; (R1) phenomenon, e.g. è un mostro! = he/she is a phenomenon (= he/she is incredibly good at something) mostra exhibition, show moto motion; movement; physical exercise, e.g. fare un po’ di moto = to take some exercise; (R2–3) uprising note : moto (f ) is short for motocicletta = motorcycle mota (R3) mud palo post, pole; goal-post (sport) pala shovel; blade (propeller, oar) panno cloth panna cream partito (usu) party (politics) partita game, match (sport, cards); lot, shipment, consignment pianto weeping, crying pianta plant (as in tree etc.) 81 2 82 Misleading similarities Masculine Feminine picco peak, pinnacle picca pike; picche (only pl) = spades (cards) polpo octopus polpa pulp porto port, harbour porta door posto place, spot; seat; position, job; space, room, e.g. non c’è posto = there is no room posta post, mail punto point (gen); dot; full stop, period; stitch punta point, tip, sharp end; touch, trace; (ﬁg) peak, maximum level; ora di punta = rush hour pupillo (R2–3) favourite; (R3) ward, pupil pupilla pupil (eye) (al s o = feminine of pupillo) raspo grape-stalk raspa rasp razzo [raddzo] rocket razza [raddza] (sting-)ray note : razza [rattsa] = race, breed; sort, kind romanzo (n) novel; (adj) Romance romanza romanza scalo port, airport; stop-over, e.g. volo senza scalo = non-stop ﬂight scala stairs, staircase, ladder; scale (mus. and ﬁg); straight, run (cards) tasso rate, e.g. tasso d’interesse = interest rate; badger tassa tax, fee testo text testa head tetto roof tetta (R1∗ -1) tit tormento torment tormenta blizzard, snowstorm 2.7 Deceptive minimal pairs 2.7 (1) (2) (3) (4) r r R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. Masculine Feminine tòrto wrong; avere torto = to be (in the) wrong tórta cake velo veil (also ﬁg); thin layer (of sugar, dust etc.) vela sail Deceptive minimal pairs For the English-speaking person the differences separating the paronyms in this section can be difﬁcult to hear and/or pronounce. They are: è [ε] vs é [e] ò [ɔ ] vs ó [o] single vs double consonant position of the stress With the obvious exception of (3), in most cases these differences do not show in the written language. Furthermore, all of them, including (3), often disappear, according to different patterns, in regional varieties of spoken Italian (cf. section 1.6). Nevertheless, the advanced student of Italian should be aware of their existence in the standard variety, since to overlook them could lead to confusion, as shown by the tables below. While the pronunciation of some words has been given in square brackets, it should be recalled that the conventional rules on written stresses have been applied to all Italian words in bold. Minimal pairs that are less likely, in context, to lead to misunderstanding have been excluded: hence the absence of sets of paronyms containing a verb and a word from a different category (noun etc.), e.g. mente [mεnte], from mentire, to lie, and mente [mente] (f ), mind; è [ε], from essere he/she/it is, and e [e], conjunction, and; ho [ɔ ], from avere, I have, and o [o], conjunction, or. An exception has been made for the single/double consonant group, since native speakers are on the whole more sensitive to this type of opposition, and less ‘forgiving’ towards mispronounced words of this kind. The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. The usual Italian pronunciation of foreign words is given in phonetic spelling in square brackets whenever appropriate. 83 2 Misleading similarities Table 2.7.1 è vs é è [ε] pesca [pεska] peach é [e] pesca [peska] ﬁshing venti [vεnti] winds (pl of vento) venti [venti] twenty re [rε] D (musical note) re [re] king tè (the) [tε] tea te [te] you Table 2.7.2 ò vs ó r 84 ò [ɔ ] botte [bɔ tte] blows (pl of botta) ó [o] botte [botte] (f ) cask, barrel colto [kɔ lto] picked-up; plucked; caught (p.p. of cogliere) colto [kolto] well educated, learned corso [kɔ rso] Corsican corso [korso] course; main street dotto [dɔ tto] learned dotto [dotto] (R3) duct foro [fɔ ro] forum foro [foro] hole torta [tɔ rta] twisted (f p.p. of torcere) torta [torta] cake In view of the point made above, the very small number of Italian words differing only in the pronunciation of s [s/z] or z [tȢ /dz] has not been included. For some consonants, minimal pairs of this kind do not exist; for others they are very few and of such a nature that they cannot be a source of confusion. This explains why they are not represented in the following list. Minimal pairs do not exist for the letters z and for the groups gl, gn, sc. With regard to the spoken language, it should be pointed out that by taking into account contextual elements – such as, for instance, the deﬁnite article – new sets of potentially misleading “pairs” can be generated, e.g. l’arena (the arena) – la renna (the reindeer). The phenomenon exempliﬁed in table 2.7.4 can be observed in a number of verbal forms, as a regular feature of the ﬁrst conjugation: 1 s present indicative vs 3 s passato remoto (e.g. amo, I love, vs amò, he/she/it loved); 2.7 Deceptive minimal pairs and also in forms from different verbs, e.g.: capito [kapito], capitò [kapitɔ ], both from capitare, to happen, and capito [kapito] from capire, to understand. The semantic pattern seen below in the two forms of bisbiglio and gorgheggio applies also to other less common words. Table 2.7.3 Single vs double consonant Single consonant Double consonant ano anus anno year avito (R3) ancestral avvito I screw (in/down) (from avvitare) baco caterpillar, grub Bacco Bacchus cade he/she/it falls (from cadere) cadde he/she/it fell (from cadere) camino chimney cammino journey, walk; path; way caro dear carro cart, waggon, chariot casa house, home cassa crate colèrico related to cholera, choleric collèrico hot-tempered, angry coma (m) coma comma (m R2–3) sub-section (leg.) copia copy; (R3) abundance coppia couple dici you say (2 s pres. indic dire) dicci tell us (2 s imperative dire) loto lotus lotto lotto, State lottery luci lights (pl of luce [f ]) lucci pikes (ﬁsh) (pl of luccio) mora dark-skinned/haired woman, brunette; mulberry, blackberry; (R2–3) delay or default (in paying rent, fees etc.), and also the related penalty fee morra morra (game) 85 2 Misleading similarities Table 2.7.3 (cont.) Single consonant Double consonant nono/-a ninth nonno/-a grandfather/grandmother note notes (pl of nota) notte (f ) night pala shovel palla ball papa (m) Pope pappa mush, child’s food tufo tufa (rock) tuffo dive; dip Table 2.7.4 Position of tonic stress 86 ambito [ambito] circumscribed space; (ﬁg) scope, circle ambito (R2–3) [ambito] (p.p. of ambire) coveted balia [balia] wet nurse balia (R3) [balia] power, usu in the expression in balia di qu/qc (R2) = in the hands of sb, at the mercy of sth bisbiglio [bizbi␭␭o] whisper bisbiglio [bizbi␭␭io] frequent, continuous whispering calamita [kalamita] magnet (also ﬁg) calamità [kalamita] calamity, disaster casino [kasino] (R1–2) brothel; (R1∗ -1) mess, confusion, racket casinò [kasinɔ ] casino compito [kompito] task, homework compito (R2–3) [kompito] usu well-mannered, polite, but also completed (from compire) cupido (R3) [kupido] covetous, greedy; lustful Cupido, cupido [kupido] Cupid; any image of Cupid, putto formica [fɔ rmika] Formica formica [formika] ant gorgheggio [ or eddȢ o] trill, trilling (in singing); warble gorgheggio [ or eddȢ io] continuous trill/warble maneggio [maneddȢ o] handling; riding ground maneggio [maneddȢ io] bustling, fussing about 2.8 Other types of misleading similarities Table 2.7.4 (cont.) 2.8 meta [mεta] goal, destination metà [meta] half nocciolo [nɔ ttʃ olo] stone, kernel, pip nocciolo [nottʃɔ lo] hazel-nut tree papa (m) [papa] Pope papà (m) [papa] daddy para (f ) [para] (R2–3) Para (type of rubber, commonly used for shoe soles) parà (m) [para] paratrooper pattino [pattino] (roller-)skate, (ice-)skater pattino [pattino] small craft with two hulls, propelled by oars, used mostly for pleasure principi [printʃ ipi] princes (from principe) principi [printʃ ipi] principles (from principio) retina [rεtina] retina retina [retina] small net, hairnet scia [ʃ ia] wake, trail (of boats etc., also ﬁg) scià [ʃ a] Shah Soﬁa [sɔ fja] Soﬁa, Soﬁya (capital of Bulgaria) Soﬁa [soﬁa] Sophia, Sophie (name of person) Other types of misleading similarities The above misleading similarities between Italian and English are of a superﬁcial kind. In some cases, however, the danger lurks at a deeper level, hidden in the apparently similar semantic structure of words or expressions in the two languages. The following examples should sufﬁce to keep the student on the alert. English Italian Italian English at large in libertà; (= at length) per esteso, diffusamente al largo alla larga offshore (ﬁg); with verbs like stare or tenersi = (to keep) away from sth/sb, e.g. stare alla larga da qu/qc = to stay clear of sb/sth; alla larga! (R1) = keep (it) away! 87 2 Misleading similarities English Italian Italian English at length esaurientemente, per esteso; (= ﬁnally) alla ﬁne a lungo alla lunga for a long time in the long run big head to have a big head = essere presuntuoso testone blockhead; stubborn downhill (lit) (giù) a valle, in discesa but (ﬁg) to go downhill = andare in declino/sempre peggio, e.g. since then it’s been downhill, for him = da allora le cose sono andate sempre peggio, per lui in discesa (lit) downhill but (ﬁg) da allora è stato tutto (or la strada è stata tutta) in discesa, per lui (R1–2) = since then everything has been easy, for him horny (= horned) cornuto; (= made of horn) di corno; (skin) incallito; (= sexually excited) assatanato (R1), arrapato (R1), eccitato sessualmente, lascivo (R3) cornuto (R1∗ -1, usu) cuckold, betrayed; (lit R3) horned note : to avoid misunderstanding, the expression con le corna is used for the literal meaning point-blank (adj/adv) (lit, of shooting) a bruciapelo; (ﬁg) senza mezzi termini di punto in bianco suddenly, unexpectedly, out of the blue 88 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” Real synonyms – in the sense of unconditionally interchangeable words with the same meaning – are very rare in Italian as in other languages. Consequently, when looking for the Italian counterpart of an English term in a dictionary, students are usually confronted with a list of words or expressions that are not perfectly equivalent. This section highlights these differences of meaning or use in a number of common “semantic ﬁelds,” which have been listed according to their English heading. In some cases, the cells containing the most common Italian words for a particular heading have been highlighted. acc i de nt incidente (m) disgrazia contrattempo intoppo impediment imprevisto unforeseen difficulty infortunio unfortunate event; sport injury sinistro (R3 esp insurance) harmful event sventura sciagura scontro collision minor ← R1* vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. disastro calamità catàstrofe (f ) often due to natural causes, usu many people affected → serious The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. The usual Italian pronunciation of foreign words is given in phonetic spelling in square brackets whenever appropriate. 89 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to ag re e with somebody to be in agreement (with sb on sth) essere d’accordo (con qu su qc) convenire (con qu su qc) (R2-3) to come to an agreement (with sb on sth) mettersi d’accordo (con qu su qc) accordarsi (con qu su qc) to get along (with sb) andare d’accordo (con qu) to suit (sb) (gen) to be good for sb’s health confarsi (a qu) (R3); addirsi (a qu) (R3) far bene (a qu); giovare (a qu) (R2-3) to something to consent (to sth) acconsentire (a qc) of things to correspond (to sth) to tally (with sth) to agree (with sth) (gram.) corrispondere (a qc) concordare (con qc) concordare (con qc) BUT agreement (gram.) = accordo to agree + infinitive to agree to do sth (two or more people) to accept to do sth to consent to do sth concordare di fare qc accettare di fare qc acconsentire di /a fare qc to agree + clause to agree that … (two or more people) to accept that … to admit that … to consent that … 90 concordare che … accettare che … ammettere che … acconsentire che … Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to annoy R1∗ R1 R2 R3 dar fastidio (a qu) dare noia (a qu) to annoy seccare to bother disturbare to disturb importunare, incomodare, recare disturbo/fastidio (a qu) to inconvenience rompere (le scatole) (a qu) to annoy intensely rompere le palle/i coglioni/il cazzo (a qu) to annoy profoundly, to give (sb) the shits, to piss sb off infastidire to pester molestare to harass scocciare to bother, to pester irritare, innervorsire to get on sb’s nerves affliggere to afflict (also fig), to trouble tormentare to torture (esp fig) to g et ang ry R1∗ R1 R2 R3 arrabbiarsi perdere la pazienza to lose one’s patience perdere le staffe to lose one’s temper incavolarsi, incacchiarsi incazzarsi infuriarsi, imbestialirsi, andare su tutte le furie to get furious andare in bestia to get furious adirarsi indignarsi to become indignant 91 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” ap pearanc e (see also fac e ) external appearance apparenza usu of things bearing portamento (R2-3) look aria usu of persons: air, demeanour look [luk] (m R1-2) in terms of fashion act of appearing comparsa apparizione (R2-3) supernatural appearance in court comparizione (R3) publication pubblicazione aspetto uscita to ask question chiedere qc a qu to ask sb sth domandare qc a qu to ask sb sth fare/porre (R3) una domanda (a qu) to ask (sb) a question interrogare to question, to interrogate; to test orally at school 92 demand or request to ask chiedere qc a qu di + inf a qc di + inf che + subj (sb for sth) (to do sth) (sb to do sth) (that ...) to ask officially (as in fare richiesta/domanda (R2-3) a qu/presso qu (R3) (to sb) writing), to apply di/per qc (for sth) (for sth) to request richiedere (as chiedere) to request urgently sollecitare (R3) qc da parte di qu (sth by sb) qu a + inf (to urge sb to do sth) to claim rivendicare (R2-3), reclamare (R2-3) to demand esigere, pretendere qc da qu (sth from sb) di + inf (to do sth) che + subj (that …) to beg sb to do sth pregare qu di + inf supplicare, scongiurare, implorare (R2-3) (constructed as pregare, but stronger in meaning) Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” bac k (n) of persons schiena, dorso (R2-3) spalle (f pl) (lit ‘shoulders’) esp in fig expressions, e.g. alle/dietro le spalle di qu = behind sb’s back of animals schiena of pack animals groppa (on sb’s back = in groppa a qu) of hands dorso of coins, fabric etc. rovescio of pages etc retro (only s, R3) of clothes dietro (only s), didietro (usu s); rovescia of houses, shops etc retro (only s, R2-3), dietro (only s), didietro (usu s), parte (f ) posteriore of chairs etc schienale (m), spalliera of interiors fondo in sports difensore BUT backhand (sport) = rovescio BUT back to front/inside out = alla bal l general specific sfera (R2-3) sphere palla ball sport and games pallone (m) football, basketball etc ALSO pallone (aerostatico) = air balloon palloncino balloon pallina small ball, e.g. pallina da ping pong bilia/biglia billiard ball, marble boccia bowl boccino, pallino jack body parts bulbo/globo oculare (R3) eye-ball coglione (m R1∗) palla (R1∗-1) testìcolo (R2-3) testicle other globo (R2-3) globe il globo terrestre (R2-3)/ terracqueo (R3) the globe palla di fucile/pistola, pallòttola, proièttile (m) bullet palla (di cannone) cannon ball cuscinetto (a sfera) (R3) ball-bearing gomìtolo ball of wool 93 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” b eaut i f ul general R1 R1∗ R2 R3 bello carino nice, cute, pretty figo/fico grazioso pretty, cute leggiadro fair, graceful particular meanings pleasant R1 R2 R3 piacevole gradevole ameno usu of places very beautiful bellissimo magnifico magnificent meraviglioso wonderful mirabile wondrous stupendo stupendous splendido splendid incantevole delightful delizioso delightful, very pretty ALSO delicious attractive persons/things attraente affascinante charming, fascinating seducente seductive ammaliante bewitching only persons avvenente attractive formoso shapely piacente likeable only things allettante tempting b e h i nd, bac k s i de R1∗ bottom R1 R2 culo arse, ass R3 sedere didietro (usu s) fondo schiena, posteriore deretano chiappe (f pl) buttocks nàtiche (f pl) glùtei (m pl) big big, great (dimensions; importance, excellence, cf. 18.4) grande big, large (mass or volume; importance) grosso boat barca boat nave (f ) ship barca a vela/barca a motore sailing boat/motorboat nave da guerra/nave passeggeri warship/liner bastimento (old fashioned) ship, cargo-ship vascello (R2-3) vessel, (war)ship (usu old type, with sails) veliero sailing ship legno (R3) ship (usu old type, wooden, with sails, oars) battello boat battello pneumatico (R2-3)/battello a vapore inflatable boat/steamboat imbarcazione (R2-3) craft transatlantico (transatlantic) liner traghetto ferry canotto (R1-2) inflatable boat motoscafo motorboat canoa canoe fuoribordo outboard motorboat vaporetto motor boat for public transport (esp in Venice) lancia (R2-3) launch scialuppa di salvataggio lifeboat small ← → large 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” bot t le general bottiglia bottiglione (m) large bottle bottiglietta small bottle specific fiasco fiasca/fiaschetta glass container, usu for wine, with a flask, usu glass or leather, flat in narrow neck and the round bottom shape, once used also for gunpowder externally covered with straw or other fibres that allow it to stand borraccia water-bottle, canteen biberon (m) [bibe'rɔn] baby bottle boccetta small bottle, usu glass, for perfume etc ampolla (R3) cruet (esp for oil and vinegar); ampulla flacone (m R2-3) small bottle, usu for medicine, perfume or cosmetic boy, g i r l There is a wealth of regional or local words meaning “child,” “boy,” “girl.” They are very often used at the lower registers. figlio/-a son/daughter bambino/-a baby, child neonato/-a newborn baby lattante (m/f ) (suckling) baby poppante (m/f ) (suckling) baby; (R1) whippersnapper piccino/-a (R1-2) piccolo/-a baby, small child 96 pupo/-a (R1-2 Roman) bimbo/-a (R2-3) baby, child adolescente (m/f R2-3) adolescent signorina young lady marmocchio (R1-2) fanciullo/-a (R3) pàrgolo/-a (R3) fantolino/-a (R3) frugoletto/-a (R3) child teen-ager (m/f ) [ti'nedȢer] teenager giovanotto young man garzone (m) shop boy; (R3) boy giovane (m/f ) young man/woman bebè (m) baby creatura child, creature infante (m/f R3) infant, baby ragazzino/-a young boy/girl moccioso/-a (R1-2) (snotty) child (insulting) monello street urchin younger ← ragazzo/-a boy/girl ragazzaccio/-a bad boy/girl → older Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to b reak (tr) (see also to damag e ; to de st roy ) r Those verbs whose reﬂexive form provides the corresponding intransitive meaning are followed by (-si) (see also section 24.5). R1 R2 R3 general rompere (-si) specific spezzare (-si) to break (up), e.g. spezzare il pane = to break the bread spaccare (-si) to crack open, to split, to cleave fare a pezzi to break/cut/pull/tear to pieces spezzettare to break/cut/chop into pieces sminuzzare to break/cut/chop into small pieces sfasciare (-si) to wreck, to shatter scassare (-si) to break, to smash, usu of mechanical contraptions (car, bicycle, clock etc.) schiantare (-si) to smash (violently) incrinare (-si) to crack, to produce a crack in sth fracassare (-si) to smash, to shatter infrangere (-si) to shatter (esp of glass), to break (fig, a promise, a rule etc.) frantumare (-si)/mandare in frantumi to smash (to pieces), to shatter 97 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to c l i m b salire transitive (AUX avere) intransitive (AUX essere) limited to very few do, eg salire le scale = to climb/to go up the stairs salire i gradini = to climb the steps absolute or followed by a destination = to go/come/get up, to rise (also of prices, temperature etc.) salire su qc = to climb (on) sth arrampicarsi (su qc) = to climb (sth), eg a mountain, a tree etc arrampicarsi montare (R2-3) same as salire, with the addition of animals (e.g. horses) as possible do (= to ride, to mount) scalare (R2-3) (usu mountains) = to ascend ALSO (R3) = to climb with ladders, to scale (walls etc.) ascendere (R3) (rare, usu mountains) = to ascend montare (usu followed by a destination) = to get up, to climb on sth, esp animals (= to mount, to ride) montare su qc = to climb (on) sth only in expressions like ascendere al/in cielo = to ascend into heaven ascendere al trono = to ascend the throne com pet i t i on competizione competition (usu not abstr.), contest (gen, often sport) concorrenza economic competition ALSO : la concorrenza = the competition, i.e. the competitors concorso competition (usu test or exam) for a job also concorso ippico = horse jumping contest concorso di bellezza = beauty contest concorso a premi = advertising competition (with prizes) rivalità competition (abstract), rivalry gara contest (usu sports), race (of all kinds) also gara d’appalto = tender for contract fare a gara = to vie with each other incontro partita match (most ball games, eg football, tennis etc) match (most ball games; boxing, fencing) game (cards and most board games) 98 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” c ri m e crimine (m) serious crime (gen) delitto serious crime, often murder; also fig = real pity reato (R2-3 leg) crime, offence misfatto (R3) crime, misdeed (gen) colpa fault (both abstract and concrete); ALSO = guilt; blame dare la colpa a qu di qc = to blame sb for sth peccato sin infrazione (R3 leg) infraction, breach contravvenzione (R3 leg) infringement, offence (R1-2) fine trasgressione (R3 leg) transgression violazione (R2-3 leg) violation, infringement inosservanza (R3 leg) failure to comply with given laws/rules fallo foul, fault (sport) ALSO essere : in fallo (R3) = to be at fault cadere in fallo (R3) = to err cogliere in fallo qu (R2-3) = to catch sb out 99 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to c ut to cut (gen) tagliare to cut down (trees) (figurative) abbattere to cut down (of trees) ridurre to reduce, to cut down (fig, esp econ.) to cut into incidere to cut into, to carve, to engrave; incidere un disco) intagliare to carve, to engrave to cut off (gen) mozzare (R2-3) to chop off (with one sharp blow), also of body parts as a punishment, e.g. mozzare il capo; ALSO (fig): da mozzare il fiato (used as adj) = breathtaking troncare (R2-3) to chop off, to snap off, to truncate recidere (R3) to cut off amputare (R2-3) to amputate, to cut off body parts (med.) mutilare (R2-3) to mutilate, to cut sb’s limbs/body parts, violently or by accident spuntare to cut the tip off, to trim, to clip (esp of hair, plants) potare to prune (body parts) (tips) (branches) ALSO to record (e.g. to cut short accorciare to shorten (gen) abbreviare (R2-3) to shorten (with reference to time) to cut through fendere (R3) (usu present or imperfect) to cleave, to cut through, to plough through to cut up tritare to chop up, to mince tagliuzzare (R1-2) to cut into small bits, to chop up trinciare (R2-3) to cut into bits, to chop (up) affettare to cut into slices, to slice tranciare (R3) to cut into large slices (usu fish); ALSO : to cut in a sharp and decisive way sezionare to divide into sections; also: (R3 med.) to dissect dissecare (R3 med.) to dissect into bits into slices into sections to cut = to mow to cut = to shave to cut = to shear 100 falciare to cut grass, hay etc; ALSO (fig) = to mow down, to kill radere to shave (tr; intr = radersi) rasare (R2-3) to shave (tr; intr = rasarsi); ALSO : to level out (hedge), to mow (lawn) tosare to shear (sheep etc); ALSO : to mow Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to damag e, to sp o i l (see also to b reak ; to d i st roy ) general danneggiare: to damage sciupare to ruin, to spoil deteriorare (R3) to deteriorate, to damage guastare (R2-3) to ruin, to spoil, usu alterare to change for the worse; ALSO to change in an abstract sense; ALSO (with mechanical devices as do ): to break shape or aspect deformare to deform storpiare to cripple, to disfigure; ALSO (fig) to pronounce badly sfigurare (R2-3) to disfigure deturpare (R3) to deface food adulterare (R3) to adulterate, to alter avariare (R3) to spoil (usu food, with external agents as subjects, e.g. (usu foodstuffs, eg wine) for heat, humidity etc.); past participle personal advantage; often used in often used as an adjective the past participle as an adjective character viziare to spoil (e.g. a child) on purpose sabotare (R2-3) to sabotage = to harm corrompere to corrupt nuocere a qu/qc (R2-3) to damage sb/sth, to harm sb/sth 101 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to de f eat, to b eat, to w i n vincere (intr/tr) to win (gen), used intransitively or with a do referring to the “context” of the victory eg la guerra, or the prize e.g. la medaglia d’oro or , less frequently, the opponent (usu abstract) e.g. la paura (in the case of persons contro qu is more common) battere qu/qc to beat sb/sth (opponent, record; in sport, games, contests etc, but usu not war); also: to hit; to serve (sport) sconfiggere qu/qc (R2-3) to defeat sb/sth (often in war, but also in sport, and fig, e.g. il male) avere la meglio (su qu/qc) to come off better (against sb/sth) piegare qu (R2-3) to subdue sb; also (lit R2) to fold, to bend (usu qc) trionfare (su qu/qc) to triumph (over sb/sth) stravincere (intr/tr) (R1-2) to win/to beat hands down (usu in sport, games, contests), constructed as vincere stracciare qu (R1) to lick sb (sport, games, contests); also (lit R2) to tear (paper, fabric etc) sgominare qu (R2-3) sbaragliare qu (R2-3) to put to flight, usu militarily, with plural or collective nouns as do sottomettere qu to subdue sb, to bring sb under one’s control assoggettare qu (R2-3) soggiogare qu (R3) to subjugate sb conquistare qc to conquer sth (e.g. territory, a city etc) militarily or with the use of force; also to achieve sth through hard work note: conquistare qu = to win sb over, to win sb’s love weaker ← 102 → stronger Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to de st roy (see also to b reak ; to damag e ) general distruggere to demolish demolire to demolish (building etc.) far crollare qc to cause sth to collapse (also with hostile intentions) buttar giù (R1-2) to pull down (building, tree etc.) abbattere to pull down (wall, tree etc.) smantellare (R2-3) to dismantle to raze radere al suolo to raze to the ground spianare to flatten, to raze to the ground; also to level to lay waste devastare to undo disfare to annihilate annichilire/annichilare (R 3), annientare disintegrare (R2-3) to disintegrate (tr) polverizzare (R2-3) to pulverize incenerire to incinerate, to reduce to ashes sterminare to exterminate (living creatures) 103 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” d i rty sporco dirty, also fig, morally dirty, e.g. denaro sporco (fruit of unlawful activities); indecent (shows, jokes etc.) general lercio filthy (stronger than sporco), also fig, morally dirty sudicio dirty, also fig, indecent, morally dirty sozzo ['sottso] (R2-3), zozzo ['tsottso] (R1, Center, South) dirty; (fig) indecent (usu shows, jokes) lurido (R2-3) filthy (stronger than sporco), also fig, morally filthy, indecent immondo (R3) filthy (stronger than sporco), often fig, morally filthy lordo (R3) soiled, also fig, morally dirty sordido (R3) dirty, also fig, sordid, base, mean specific: soiled, stained macchiato stained, spotted infangato muddy insanguinato blood-stained inquinato polluted unto oil-stained, greasy bisunto usu reinforces the above in the expression unto e bisunto impolverato dusty, covered with dust (usu clothes, persons, things) polveroso dusty, full of dust (usu places, e.g. room) imbrattato (R2-3) soiled, esp with liquids (e.g. paint, mud) 104 disgusting schifoso (R1) disgustingly filthy, disgusting, also morally morally dirty sconcio dirty (usu shows, jokes) indecente indecent (gen) spinto dirty (shows, jokes) osceno very dirty, indecent (shows, jokes, behaviour, proposals); also awful scurrìle (R3) scurrilous turpe (R3) morally filthy (gen) Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” dry asciutto dry, not wet (gen, often with a positive connotation); also (of persons) lean, not fat secco dry (climate, places, also fig, usu with a negative connotation); also (of persons) skinny; (of plants) dead arido arid, dry (climate, places, also fig, e.g. il cuore) arso (R2-3) dried up, scorched (places, also fig, e.g. la gola) riarso (R3) parched (places, and also fig, e.g. la gola) prosciugato, disseccato (R3) dried up (lakes etc) disidratato (R2-3) dehydrated weaker ← → stronger to e xam i ne general specific esaminare studiare to study controllare to check analizzare to analyse verificare to verify investigare indagare to investigate scrutare (R3) to scrutinize, to scan ispezionare (R2-3) to inspect perquisire (R2-3) to search (usu of police) valutare (R2-3) vagliare (R3) to evaluate, to weigh up perlustrare (R3) to reconnoitre visitare to examine medically 105 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” fac e (see also ap pearanc e ) part of body faccia (R1-2) also meaning expression, aspect appearance, expression aspetto aspect muso (animal) muzzle; also (R1) (ugly) face (often in idioms) viso volto (R2-3) espressione expression cera the way sb’s face looks with reference to health, in set expressions, e.g. hai una brutta cera (R1-2) you don’t look well tratti (m pl R2-3), lineamenti (m pl R2-3), fisionomia (R2-3), fattezze (f pl R3) features (of sb’s face) surface faccia side, facet lato side figurative, idiomatic perdere la faccia to lose face superficie (f ) surface faccia tosta cheek (insolence) fare una smorfia/boccaccia to pull a face rompere il muso a qu (R1) to smash sb’s face fare/mettere il muso (R1) to pull a long face, to sulk fat (of persons) grasso grassottello (R1-2), grassoccio plump bene in carne (R1-2) well-covered ben nutrito (R1-2) well fed paffuto (R2-3) chubby florido (R2-3) healthy, flourishing pingue (R3) fat ciccione (f -a, also n) (R1) fat pesante heavy grosso big panciuto paunchy, also fig (e.g. pots) corpulento (R2-3) corpulent, bulky obeso (R3) obese less (or euphemistic) ← → more ﬁ re fuoco fire (also fig, passion etc.), gunfire falò bonfire rogo stake; also (R2-3) large destructive fire ardore (R2-3), passione passion 106 incendio large destructive fire pira (R3) (funeral) pyre, stake stufa stove, heating appliance Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” f ortune, luc k , c hanc e bad luck good luck caso fate; also accident, event, case destino fate, destiny fato (R2-3) fate sorte (f R2-3) fate, destiny fortuna buona sorte (R2-3) provvidenza (godsend) culo (R1∗ ) sfortuna mala/cattiva sorte (R2-3) scalogna (R1) iella (R1, Center, South) sfiga (R1∗-1, North) note the expressions: avere sfortuna/scalogna (R1)/iella (R1)/sfiga (R1∗ -1) to be unlucky note the expressions: avere fortuna/culo (R1∗ ) to be lucky f ue l ( l i qu i d ) liquid fuel (gen) carburante (m) combustible combustibile (m/adj R2-3) (liquid, solid, gaseous) propellant propellente (m/adj R3) (liquid, solid) oil lubricant, cooking olio petroleum petrolio crude petrolio greggio, greggio kerosene cherosene (m) diesel oil; fuel oil (for heating) gasolio, nafta petrol, gasoline benzina unleaded benzina verde/senza piombo super/premium benzina super, super (f R1-2) 107 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” gate cancello garden gate cancellata imposing gate, with railings barriera barrier; major motorway entrance/exit sbarra movable barrier (eg level crossing); also bar (metal/wood) casello motorway entrance/exit porta gate of a city (if gen, usu plural) entrata entrance uscita exit; boarding gate (airport) gift present regalo present, gift general pensiero (R1) present, gift; un pensierino (R1) = a little something, a little gift dono (R2-3) gift presente (m R3) present specific for Christmas strenna (natalizia/di Natale) (R2-3) Christmas present commercial omaggio gift, often commercial, e.g. in omaggio = as a (free) gift, complimentary; also = tribute legal donazione (R3 leg) legal gift, legal donation donation offerta offering, donation elemòsina alms; fare/dare l’elemosina = to give alms òbolo (R3) (small) donation; l’obolo di San Pietro = Peter’s pence elargizione (R3) generous donation; fare elargizioni (R3) = to give generously note the common expressions: chiedere la carità = to beg; fare la carità = to give alms natural gift talento talent 108 dono (R2-3) natural gift dote (f R2-3) endowment; also dowry Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to g ive general dare specific as a present donare (R2-3) to donate to grant concedere to grant, to allow, to concede to offer offrire to offer elargire (R3) to give generously regalare to give as a present accordare to grant porgere (R3) to offer; also (R2-3) to pass to provide provvedere (R2-3) qu di qc fornire qu/qc di qc to provide sb with sth fornire qc a qu to provide sth for sb to surrender cedere to give up, to hand over, to surrender; also (R2-3) to sell, to legally transfer rights, property, shares etc. dotare qu/qc di qc to endow sb with sth to equip sth with sth to deliver consegnare to deliver; also to hand in recapitare (R2-3) to deliver (esp mail, parcels etc) to award, to bestow assegnare to assign, to award aggiudicare to award, to adjudge attribuire to award, to assign; also to attribute, to ascribe to entrust to administer unpleasant things burdens conferire (R3) to confer, to bestow affidare qc a qu to entrust sth to sb; affidare un incarico = to assign a task somministrare (R3) to give medicines, sacraments sbolognare (R1) to palm off (counterfeit notes etc., on sb = a qu); to get rid (of useless things, of annoying persons) affibbiare (R1) appioppare (R1) to give unpleasant things, e.g. slaps, kicks, fines, nicknames, burdens, responsibilities; to palm off (counterfeit notes etc., on sb = a qc) rifilare (R1) to palm off (counterfeit notes etc.); to give (a slap, a kick) mollare (R1) to deal (slaps, kicks) accollare qc a qu to saddle sb with sth (burdens, responsibilities, expenses etc); to lay on sb the responsibility for sth addossare qc a qu to lay on sb the responsibility/the blame for sth 109 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” g las s (see also w i ndow ) substance vetro glass (gen) for drinking bicchiere glass calice (m R3) goblet; chalice boccale (m R2-3) tankard, jug coppa (R3) goblet, drinking cup; also (R2) cup ( = prize) cristallo crystal; also pane of glass, plate glass note: all these vessels can be made of different materials, e.g. bicchiere di carta/plastica = paper/plastic cup for looking through occhiali (m pl) glasses, spectacles binocolo binoculars, field glasses lente (f) (d’ingrandimento) (magnifying) lens/magnifying glass for other uses 110 clessidra hour glass, sand glass Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to g row , to i nc rease (intr) r All the following intransitive verbs take essere as auxiliary general more abstract crescere to grow, to increase in size (natural process) aumentare to increase (quantity, weight, extension, price, temperature) accrescersi (R3) to grow, to increase (quantity) moltiplicarsi to multiply, to increase (quantity) espandersi (R2-3) to expand estendersi (R2-3) to extend ampliarsi (R2-3) to grow larger, to extend specific to expand, to extend to get bigger ingrandirsi (less common ingrandire) to grow larger in dimensions, also fig to expand commercially etc. to get fatter to get dilated, swollen to get longer to get wider to get taller, higher ingrossare/ingrossarsi to grow larger (volume, mass); to swell, to get fat ingrassare/ingrassarsi gonfiarsi to swell (also of rivers etc.) dilatarsi (R2-3) to dilate; to expand (physics) allungarsi to lengthen (space or time), to grow taller; also to lie down prolungarsi (R2-3) to extend (space), to get longer (time); also to dwell at length on sth allargarsi to get wider, to widen, to spread alzarsi to grow taller; to rise; also to get up to grow up diventare grande (R1-2) to grow up, to become an adult venire su (R1) to grow (persons, plants) to develop svilupparsi to develop evolversi (R2-3) to evolve 111 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” g un general arma (pl armi) weapon arma da fuoco (R2-3) fire-arm rivoltella revolver (m R2-3) revolver pistola pistol mitra (m) mitragliatrice (heavy) machine-gun specific hand gun machine-gun fucile (m) mitragliatore (R3) sub-machine-gun shotgun, rifle cannon 112 fucile (m) gun, shotgun, rifle carabina (R2-3) rifle, carbine doppietta double barrelled gun schioppo (R1-2) rifle, shotgun lupara sawn-off shotgun moschetto (R2-3) musket trombone (m R3) sawn-off shotgun archibugio (R3) (h)arquebus spingarda (R3) springald cannone (m) cannon, large gun mortaio mortar pezzo d’artiglieria (R2-3) piece of ordnance Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” ha i r human animal individual collective individual collective capello (one) hair (on head) capelli (pl) hair (on head) capigliatura (R2-3), chioma (R2-3) head of hair zazzera long hair (on head) pelo hair (gen) sétola bristle crine (m) horsehair baffo whisker pelo (one) hair (gen, face and body) peluria (R2-3) fine hair cover, down pelo coat pelliccia fur, coat peluria (R2-3) fine hair cover, down mantello (R2-3) coat vello (R3) fleece criniera mane; also (fig) = thick head of hair ciglio eyelash ciglia (f pl) eyelashes sopracciglio eyebrow sopracciglia (f pl) eyebrows baffi (m pl) moustache; also baffo (R1-2) half or whole moustache barba beard pizzo goatee basette (f pl) sideburns favoriti (m pl) muttonchops 113 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” handle maniglia handle (door, drawer etc.) mànico handle, shaft (often long in shape), for cutlery (e.g. knife), tools (e.g. hammer), handbag, umbrella, broom, shovel etc. impugnatura (R2-3) grip (racquets, whips, pistols, swords etc.) manovella crank, starting handle manubrio handlebar (bicycle etc.) pomo, pomello (R2-3) knob (doors, drawers, walking sticks etc.) calcio (R2-3) butt (rifle, pistol) ansa (R3) handle (vase, jug etc.) elsa (R3) hilt calcagno (R2-3) heel (usu foot, but also sock, shoe, less common than tallone) tacco heel (shoe) heel tallone (m) heel (usu foot, but also sock) to h e l p general aiutare dare una mano a qc (R1-2) to give sb a hand assistere to assist, to attend (usu persons with health or social problems); to help in a professional way (nurses, lawyers etc.) soccorrere (R2-3), prestare soccorso a qc (R2-3) to help sb in dangerous or difficult situations coadiuvare (R3) to assist, to help specific to support sostenere to support (gen) sorreggere (R2-3) to support physically or morally appoggiare to support, to back up to co-operate collaborare (con qu a qc) (R2-3) to collaborate (with sb in sth) cooperare (con qu a qc) (R2-3) to co-operate (with sb in sth) to facilitate 114 facilitare, agevolare (R2-3) Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” hill whole, general altura (R3) rise, height, hill, mountain poggio (R3) hillock montagna mountain collina hill colle (m R2-3) hill (often in monte (m) mountain (often in names; strictly names; strictly speaking, less speaking, more than than 600 meters high) 600 meters high) whole, specific picco (R2-3) peak massiccio (R3) massif duna (sand) dune dosso (R3) small hill on roads slope discesa downhill slope china (R2-3), pendìo (R2-3), declivio (R3) slope, declivity salita uphill slope pendice (f R2-3) slope, side of hill/mountain costa (R2-3) side of hill/mountain pendenza (R2-3) gradient, slant (abstr.) erta (R3) steep uphill slope scarpata steep slope (usu short) 115 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to g et h ol d of (see also to take ) general pigliare (R1-2 Center, South) prendere specific accalappiare (R3) to catch (usu stray dogs; fig, persons) to catch acchiappare (R1) to catch (usu persons, animals) acciuffare (R1-2) to catch (usu persons) afferrare to catch and hold tightly agguantare (R1) to catch catturare to capture, to take prisoner aggrapparsi a qc/qu to grab and hold onto sth/sb to grab cogliere to pick, to pluck; fig to seize (e.g. opportunity) ghermire (R3) to clutch (of birds of prey etc.) impugnare (R2-3) to grab, to grip with one’s hand (weapons, racquets, tools etc.) impossessarsi di qc/qu (R2-3) to appropriate, to seize to take possession impadronirsi di qc/qu (R2-3) to appropriate, to seize; fig to master (e.g. languages) h ole general buco hole (gen) buca hole (usu in the ground), one side opening foro (R2-3) hole (usu round) pertugio (R3) small, narrow hole specific 116 crepaccio large crack in ground, rock or glacier (crevasse) fessura (R2-3) crack, narrow opening fenditura (R3) cleft, crack crack crepa crack hollow vuoto hollow, gap pit fossa hole dug in the ground, pit; tomb scavo (R2-3) excavation (others) apertura (R2-3) opening cavità (R2-3) cavity, hollow orifizio (R3) orifice breccia (R3) breach, gap in a fortified wall Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” h ol i days festivity day off work festa holiday, usu festivity but also day off work; in the plural it often refers to the Christmas holidays e.g. buone feste = season’s greetings giorno festivo (R2-3) holiday, usu opposed to giorno feriale = week day, working day festività (R2-3) festivity, feast day ricorrenza (R2-3) recurring feast day solennità (R2-3) (solemn) feast day (usu religious) vacanza holiday (from school, work); in vacanza = on holiday permesso leave; in permesso = on leave ferie (f pl) holidays (from work); in ferie = on holiday (from work) congedo leave, usu from military service (also = discharge), but also from work; usu in the expression in congedo = on leave (also = retired, discharged) licenza leave (usu military); often in the expression in licenza = on leave ponte (m) day(s) off work bridging two holidays; also used to indicate the resulting extended holiday anno sabbatico (R2-3) sabbatical to h urry to hurry (to do sth) sbrigarsi (a + inf) (R1-2) spicciarsi (a + inf) (R1) fare presto (a + inf) to be quick (at doing sth) correre (a + inf) to run (to do sth) affrettarsi (a + inf) (R2-3) to hurry precipitarsi (a + inf) (R2-3) to rush to be in a hurry avere fretta andare di fretta/corsa 117 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to i nf orm general R1 R2 R3 far sapere (qc a qu) informare (qu di/su qc) mettere al corrente (qu di qc) rendere noto (qc a qu) ragguagliare (qu su qc) specific notificare (qc a qu) (R3) to notify avvertire (qu di qc) avvisare (qu di qc) to notify; to warn ammonire (R3) to warn prevenire (R3) to forewarn comunicare (qc a qu) (R2-3) to communicate partecipare (qc a qu) (R3) to communicate; to announce annunciare (qc a qu) to announce to k now sapere to have knowledge of sth; to know how to do something 118 intendersi di qc conoscere to be acquainted/familiar with to be competent about sth, to sth/sb; to meet sb for the first be an expert on sth time Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” lang uag e lingua linguaggio type of language, language faculty idioma (m R3) language, idiom dialetto dialect vernacolo (R3) vernacular, dialect favella (R3) (power of) speech, talking gergo jargon, slang parlare (m R2-3) way of speaking, dialect parlata way of speaking, dialect, accent parola (gift of) speech to leave transitive lasciare abbandonare to abandon intransitive (see also TO MOVE) note: aux essere unless otherwise stated; place of departure usu introduced by da partire (per + destination) to leave andarsene, andar via to go away allontanarsi to go off, to wander from uscire to go out decollare (R2-3) (aux avere) to take off salpare (per + destination) (R3) to weigh anchor, to set sail le g gamba leg (human, furniture) arto inferiore (R3) lower limb arto posteriore (R3) hind limb coscia thigh; also leg of butchered/cooked animals, e.g. coscia di pollo = chicken leg, drumstick zampa leg (animal), paw coscio leg of larger animals, when butchered or cooked, e.g. coscio di agnello = leg of lamb 119 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” money general soldi (m pl) denaro (danaro) (more abstract and less common than soldi) quattrini (m pl R1-2) also = dough specific cash contante (m) usu pl, as in the expression in contanti = cash (as a way of payment) change resto (balance of a transaction) coin moneta also = currency; money (abstr.); (R1 North) small change spiccioli (m pl) loose change currency valuta (R2-3) divisa (R3) dough etc grana (R1) fortune (denaro) liquido (R2-3) pecunia (R1) conquibus (m R1) dindi (m pl R1, baby talk) money baiocchi (m pl R1) (also (lit R3) = baiocs, old papal currency) schei (m pl R1, Veneto) money palanche (f pl R1, North) money fortuna capitale (m R1-2) (usu [R2] = capital) patrimonio (R1-2) e.g. costare/spendere un patrimonio = to cost/to spend a fortune; also (R1-2-3) = estate funds fondi (m pl) nest-egg risparmi (m pl) savings gruzzolo (R1-2) savings peculio (R1) (also [R3] = peculium) note : un soldo, una lira, un quattrino (R1-2), il becco di un quattrino (R1) are used in negative sentences, meaning (not) a penny/a twopence/a bean/a cent mouth f ul boccone (m) mouthful, bite (of food), morsel boccata mouthful, usu of air (= breath) or smoke (= puff) morso bite (gen) tirata (R1) puff (cigarette smoke) sorso sip sorsata sip, gulp 120 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to move (intr) to shift muoversi (absolute or with direction) to move (gen, with or without changing place) spostarsi (absolute or with direction or with destination) to move (usu from one place to another) to move house traslocare (aux avere), traslocarsi (absolute or with destination) trasferirsi (absolute or with destination) to go away andarsene sloggiare (aux avere) to move out nam e name, surname nome (m) name (also fig); full name; given name; also noun cognome (m) surname, family name nome di battesimo (R2-3) first name, Christian name nominativo (R3) name (bureaucratic, usu in lists etc) note: in Italy, the practice of putting surname before name often finds its way outside the realm of bureaucracy nickname soprannome (m) nomìgnolo appellativo (R3) pseudonym pseudònimo (R2-3) pseudonym (gen) nome d arte (R3) pseudonym (esp of actors); pen-name nome di battaglia (R3) pseudonym, nom de guerre insult insulto, ingiuria (R2-3), insultare qc, coprire qc di insulti (R2-3) = to call sb names 121 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” nat ive noun (person only) indigeno person born and found living in a specified place, usu outside Europe aborigeno (R3) original inhabitant, esp, but not only, of Australia oriundo (R2-3) person of specified birth/ancestry (usu indicated by adj, e.g. oriundo italiano) nativo (R3) person born in a specified place (more common as an adj) adjective belonging to a place by birth of persons of culture, flora, fauna etc. nativo di (R2-3) native originario di native of, of, originally originally from from indìgeno (R2-3), autòctono (R3) original to a given place, local local of persons, flora, locale, del luogo fauna, culture etc. relating to sb’s birth of places e.g. città, paese, terra etc. natale, nativo, natìo (R3); note: (madre) patria = native country, fatherland of language materno e.g. lingua materna note: madrelingua = mother tongue; di madrelingua = native (speakers) no i se rumore gen, usu inanimate or unknown sources; also = sound (when not perceived as musical or referring to human voice) 122 verso “voice’’-generated noise, esp of animals Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” no i se s of an i mal s r All the verbs in -ire in the following table are “isc” verbs. r The ﬁrst term in the animals column is the most common form for the particular breed; the respective feminine or masculine form has been given in brackets, if irregular (see also section 14.1.2). r In the list of animal noises, the inﬁnitive of the verb is often used as a noun, e.g. il ragliare degli asini. r The Italian verb for “to go” as in “the rooster goes cockadoodledoo” is fare, e.g. il gallo fa chicchirichı̀. animal verb noun noise (all R1) cinguettare cantare trillare (R3) miagolare cinguettìo canto trillo (R2-3) miagolìo cip /cip-cip miao pigolare pigolìo pio-pio muggire muggito muu gracchiare gracchio (R2-3) cra cra bramire (R3) bramito (R3) - cane (cagna) abbaiare latrare guaire latrato guaìto bau/bau-bau caì /caì-caì donkey asino ragliare raglio hi ho; i-o elephant elefante (m) barrire barrito - frog goose; duck rana oca; anatra gracidare - gracidìo - qua qua hen gallina, chioccia - coccodè - nitrito ruggito - bird uccello cat gatto chick; little bird cow (bull) deer pulcino; uccellino mucca, vacca (R1-2) (toro) corvo; cornacchia cervo dog (bitch) crow horse lion, tiger, leopard etc. mouse chiocciare (R2-3) cavallo nitrire leone (m), tigre ruggire (f ), leopardo etc. topo squittire squittìo squit/squitsquit grugnire grugnito - rooster sheep/ewe (ram) goat maiale (m), porco (R1∗-1) (scrofa) gallo pecora (montone) capra cantare belare canto belato chicchirichì bèe swallow turkey tacchino garrire (R3) - garrito (R3) - glu-glu wolf lupo ululare ululato - pig (sow) róndine (f ) - 123 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” oth e r no i se s / s ound s r Words based on English onomatopeic verbs – e.g. sniff, bang, gulp, sob, pronounced the Italian way – have become known in Italy through comic books. However, they are not normally used in the spoken language. This table lists a number of more common Italian onomatopeic terms. source verb noise-producing action (noun) noise (all R1) child crying piangere pianto uè uè/uà uà sb drinking bere bevuta glu glu sb smacking sb dare uno schiaffo schiaffo paf/pàffete sb sneezing starnutire starnuto eccì sb/sth falling cadere caduta patapùm/ capitómbolo (R1-2) patapùnfete sb/sth falling and/or hitting sth/sb cadere sbattere urtare caduta urto botta pam/pàmfete sb/sth knocking on a door bussare - toc toc sth breaking rompersi spaccarsi crac rottura - (spacco = crack, not cracking) sth falling and/or breaking, also fig cadere rompersi caduta rottura patatrac bomba bomb esplodere esplosione botto bum campana (large) bell (church etc.) scampanare suonare/sonare rintoccare scampanìo (R2-3) suono rintocco din don din don din/don campanello (small) bell (bicycle, door etc.) scampanellare suonare/sonare trillare (R3) scampanellìo suono trillo (R2-3) drin/drindrin dring /dring-dring arma da fuoco fire-arm sparare sparo pim/pam orologio clock, watch ticchettare ticchettìo tic-tac telefono telephone suonare/sonare trillare (R3) suono trillo (R2-3) drin, dring 124 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” ol d persons things vecchio old (also of animals); former anziano elderly, aged; senior antico ancient avanti negli anni di età avanzata di una certa età (all somewhat euphemistic) old, well on in years annoso (R3) old; age-old (esp of questions, arguments etc) maturo mature senile (R3) old (esp of age, e.g. età senile) vetusto (R3) very old, ancient secolare (R2-3) very old (of trees etc); age-old; (lit) century old/centuries old attempato (R2-3) elderly bacucco (R1) (derogatory, often after vecchio) dotard usato used, second hand (of clothes etc) di seconda mano second hand stagionato (R2-3) matured (of food); seasoned (of wood); also (R1) elderly (of persons) obsoleto (R3) obsolete invecchiato aged decrèpito (R2-3) (often after vecchio) decrepit, very old 125 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” out sk i rt s , surround i ng s general dintorni (m pl) surroundings nei dintorni (di) = in the vicinity (of) paraggi (m pl R2-3) neighbourhood, environs; nei paraggi (di) (R2) = not far (from) vicinanze (f pl R2-3) environs; nelle vicinanze (di) (R2) = in the vicinity (of) adiacenze (f pl R3) surroundings nelle adiacenze (di) = in the vicinity (of) zona limitrofa (R3) (often in the pl), area circostante (R3) surrounding area of a city periferia outskirts, suburbs (as opposed to the city center) sobborgo (R2-3) suburb borgata suburb in the outskirts of porte (f pl) (city) gates e.g. alle Rome; also village porte di Roma = at the gates of Rome, just outside Rome cintura (R3) belt (esp cintura industriale = industrial belt) hinterland ['interland] (m R3) geographic area of influence of a big city e.g. l'hinterland milanese pa i r , coup le pair couple paio of objects made of two similar and complementary parts, e.g. un paio di forbici/calzoni/mutande/occhiali/ etc. of sets made of two similar and strictly complementary objects e.g. un paio di scarpe/calze/guanti/etc. un paio (di) (usu not with nouns forming a pair) a couple (of ), about two, e.g.un paio d’ore = a couple of hours compagno (f -a) member of a set of two objects coppia of two elements of the same kind (usu, but not only, persons or animals) in some way related and considered as a set, e.g. una coppia di gemelli (pair of twins)/innamorati (lovers)/canarini (canaries, i.e. male and female)/assi (aces (etc.), in card games)/etc. fare coppia con qu = to pair off with sb a coppie = in pairs coppia (married) couple, e.g.una bella coppia = a handsome couple note the difference in the following pair of examples (coppia di esempi): una coppia di avvocati = a pair of lawyers (i.e. a team of two lawyers) 126 un paio di avvocati = a couple of lawyers (i.e. two (or three) lawyers, not necessarily connected) Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” path concrete cammino path, way; also journey mulattiera (R2-3) mule-track via stradina stradicciola (smaller) path (also fig), track (in fields etc.); route; lane, path also (usu) street; way pista (R2-3) track; also (R2) trail, ski slope, racing track; (R2-3) runway sentiero path, track, usu on mountains, in woods, fields etc. viale (m) vialetto (smaller) path in gardens, parks etc. viottolo narrow path, usu through fields tragitto (R2-3) route, journey traiettoria (R2-3) trajectory (physics, e.g. of bullets etc.) abstract corso route percorso route, run; lungo il percorso = en route pay pay (gen) stipendio salario pay, esp settimanale/mensile (monthly/weekly), usu for manual workers daily pay monthly pay giornata day’s pay diaria (R2-3) day’s pay; (R3) daily allowance for travelling expenses, per diem mensile (m) monthly pay mensilità (R2-3) monthly instalment (of salary) tredicesima extra monthly pay given as part of annual salary quattordicesima further monthly pay given beside the tredicesima as part of annual salary gratifica (R3) bonus indennità (R3) also indemnity allowance for specific services remuneration paga pay oraria/giornaliera/settimanale/ etc (hourly/daily/weekly/etc) onorario (R2-3) doctor’s fee parcella (R2-3) usu lawyer’s fee corresponsione compenso (R2-3) rimunerazione (remunerazione) also (usu) (R2) (all R3) reward competenze (f pl R3) fee for professional services retribuzione (R3) also reward mercede (f R3 literary) also reward 127 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” p ol i c e man general policeman (for general police purposes) agente (m) (di polizia/di pubblica sicurezza (R2-3)) poliziotto (R1-2) note : la polizia = the police celerino (R1) note : la Celere = the Flying Squad questurino (R1) guardia (R1-2) also guard, cop, e.g. guardie e ladri = cops and robbers gendarme (m R1-2 old fashioned) also cop carabiniere member of the Carabinieri, an army corps with police duties (including traffic) specific traffic police vigile (urbano, -a), pizzardone (m R1 Rome), ghisa (m R1 Milan) traffic policeman (in cities) agente (m) (della polizia stradale), mìlite (m R1) traffic policeman (usu on roads outside cities); also (R3) soldier note : collectively, la polizia/milizia stradale; la milizia (R1); la stradale (R1)) financial police finanziere customs or revenue officer note : collectively, la Guardia di Finanza/la Finanza (R1-2)/(less common) le Fiamme gialle nightwatchman metronotte (m), guardia notturna derogatory 128 flatfoot piedipiatti (m R1-2) cop sbirro (R1), sgherro (R1) (both not very common) Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” p o ste r , not i c e, s i g n notice (abstract) (concrete) road sign avviso notice (esp written, also official, legal etc); advertisement in newspapers annuncio notice; announcement (esp spoken); advertisement in newspapers inserzione (R2-3) insertion, advertisement in newspaper bando (R3) public announcement (usu calling for tenders or applications to compete for a job) cartello notice (referring to the object as well as the content), placard, sign cartello (stradale) (for traffic rules, directions) segnale (m) (stradale) (for traffic rules, directions) indicazione (stradale) (R2-3) (for directions only) shop sign insegna, e.g. insegna al neon/luminosa = neon sign; also (R3) emblem; ensign poster manifesto poster (gen), bill; also (R3) manifesto cartellone (pubblicitario) poster (often on a free-standing billboard) locandina (R2-3) small poster, usu advertising films, plays etc. affisso (R3) bill, poster réclame [reklam](f) advertisement in media, esp television and radio, but also poster poster (m) poster used for decoration, usu at home placard, board cartello placard (in demonstrations etc.) tabellone (m) (notice) board, billboard banner striscione (m) banner (at the stadium, in demonstrations etc.) stendardo (R3) banner of a knight, army corps etc. writing gonfalone (m R3) banner of a city, town etc. scritta writing on wall, pavement, placard, plaque, tablet etc. iscrizione (R2-3) inscription (usu on stone or metal) epìgrafe (f R3) epigraph plaque, slab epitaffio (R3) epitaph targa (R2-3) (usu metal) plaque, plate; also usu (R2) car number plate placca (R3) (metal) plaque, plate (in general) làpide (f R2-3) (stone) (memorial) stone/tablet/slab; tombstone 129 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” p roud positive fiero (positive connotation) essere fiero di = to be proud of orgoglioso (either positive or negative connotation) essere orgoglioso di = to be proud of negative superbo haughty, proud; superbia = pride, as one of the deadly sins; also (not of persons) superb haughty, disdainful conceited altero (R3) haughty, disdainful altezzoso (R3) haughty sdegnoso (R2-3) disdainful sprezzante (R2-3) disdainful, scornful montato (R1-2) swollen-headed pieno di sé (R1-2) full of oneself presuntuoso presumptuous pretenzioso (R3) pretentious spocchioso conceited tronfio (R2-3) puffed up boastful vanaglorioso (R3) vainglorious vain vanitoso vain fatuo (R3) fatuous arrogant arrogante arrogant borioso (R2-3) arrogant burbanzoso (R3) arrogant protervo (R3) arrogant, insolent tracotante (R3) arrogant 130 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to re pa i r general usu concrete accomodare, aggiustare to repair, to fix (also fig) rabberciare, racconciare, raffazzonare to fix in a botchy way note the following colloquial (R1) expressions: dare un’accomodata/un’aggiustata/una rabberciata/racconciata/ raffazzonata/rappezzata/rimediata/riparata/sistemata (a qc) to fix (sth) quickly and in a botchy way concrete or abstract riparare (qc) to repair (gen); to make amends for (injustice etc.); (a qc) (R2-3) to put right, to remedy rimediare (a qc) to put right, to find a remedy (for sth); also (R1) to fix the best one can (qc = sth) usu abstract correggere to correct rettificare to rectify sistemare to settle; also to fix (fig) specific to restore restaurare to restore (esp works of art, buildings etc.); to re-establish (monarchy etc) ripristinare (R2-3) to restore (buildings etc); to re-establish (public order, services etc.) to repair clothes rammendare to mend, to darn rattoppare rappezzare to patch (up), also (R1) to patch (up) fig = to fix in a botchy way ristrutturare to renovate (buildings) 131 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” roc k , stone general roccia rock, usu large and ‘in situ’, on mountains, in the ground etc; also in science pietra stone (small piece of rock; material); fig cuore di pietra = heart of stone pietra angolare (R2-3) cornerstone pietra filosofale (R3) philosopher’s stone pietra focaia (R2-3) flintstone pietra miliare (R2-3) milestone pietra di paragone (R3) touchstone pietra preziosa precious stone, gem pietra tombale/sepolcrale (R2-3) tombstone sasso stone (small piece of rock), pebble; fig rimanere/restare di sasso = to be dumbfounded specific large masso, macigno boulder; e.g. caduta massi = falling rocks (warning sign) small ciottolo, sassolino pebble loose breccia road metal; gravel other rock in the sea ghiaia (fine) gravel (esp on garden paths) pietrisco road metal, crushed stone (esp for mixing in concrete) scoglio rock in the sea, cliff, crag Rock of Gibraltar rocca di Gibilterra paving stone selce (f ) flint; cobblestone (roads etc.) sampietrino (R1-2) paving stone (roads etc. in Rome) 132 kidney stone calcolo memorial stone lapide (f ) tablet; tombstone gem gemma Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to say, to te l l , to speak , to tal k to say, to tell The Italian verbs in this column are usu tr or followed by a declarative clause to speak, to talk The Italian verbs in this column are intr (AUX avere), unless differently specified to say, to tell (gen) dire to speak, to talk parlare (also = to give a speech/ talk); tr with languages, e.g. parlare il francese to tell (stories, past events) raccontare to tell, to narrate to express oneself esprimersi (R2-3) to tell (to blab) spiattellare (R1) to blab to converse, to discuss conversare (R2-3) to talk, to converse narrare (R2-3) to narrate, to tell (esp stories) spifferare (R1) to blab, to spill the beans to state, to maintain discorrere (R2-3) to talk, to converse dichiarare to declare sostenere to maintain dialogare (R2-3) to converse, to hold a dialogue affermare (R2-3) to state asserire (R3) to assert to report riferire to report, to tell to announce annunciare to proclaim proclamare (R2-3) to admit, to confess ammettere to admit confessare to confess to utter to recite pronunciare to utter, to pronounce discutere (also tr) to discuss, to debate to chat chiacchierare confabulare (R2-3) to talk/to chat in secret (usu ironic) to talk idly, to gossip cianciare (R1), cicalare (R1) to talk idly, to chatter proferire (R3) to utter, to pronounce (solemnly) ciarlare (R1) to chat idly, to gossip articolare (R3) to utter, to articulate spettegolare (R1) to gossip recitare to recite; also (intr) to act to talk nonsense blaterare (R1-2) (also tr) to talk nonsense in a noisy way spiegare to explain farneticare (R2-3) to talk nonsense; also (lit) to be delirious esporre (R2-3) to expound, to explain straparlare (R1) to rave, to talk wildly declamare (R3) to declaim to explain pronunciarsi (R2-3) to express one’s opinion note the following R2-3 expressions: to give a talk = tenere una conferenza to give a speech = fare (R2)/pronunciare (R2-3) un discorso to start to speak, to take the floor = prendere la parola 133 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” seat abstract place where one can sit posto place (gen), seat (theater, cinema, train, plane, school etc.); also posto a sedere as opposed to posto in piedi place where sth is sede (f ) seat, headquarters, main office; also fig la sede dell’intelletto the located seat of intellect centro center, seat electoral district seggio seat; polling station (seggio (elettorale)); also (R3, concrete, also fig) chair/throne of person in authority concrete = object on which one can sit general sedile (m) any object used to sit on; bench, seat, esp in means of transportation (car seat etc); part of a chair where one sits specific seats bench panca long seat, bench (gen, but not fig in sport) panchina bench, usu outdoors, e.g. park, station etc; also fig in sport banco bench, usu indoors and for specific purposes: pew, desk (for students in classrooms), dock (banco degli imputati), jury-box (banco della giuria), members’ seats in parliament (banchi dei deputati); also long table, counter; bank. chair sedia, sèggiola (Tuscan, less common) armchair poltrona; also stall (theater); comfortable seat in gen (cinema etc) deck-chair sedia a sdraio, sdraio (f R1-2) highchair seggiolone (m) small chair seggiolino small chair/seat (esp for children); pilot seat (seggiolino eiettabile = ejector seat) important seats trono throne seggio (R3) seat/throne of person in authority scanno (R3) stall, seat in solemn places, e.g. parliament, church (choir) scranno/scranna (R3) high-backed chair (e.g. of judges) other seats strapuntino folding seat (car, train, cinema) gradinata (usu pl gradinate) tier(s) of seats in a stadium sella saddle and other seats one sits astride on, e.g. motorbicycle, bicycle (also sellino = bicycle seat) stool note 134 sgabello, panchetto (less specific) : “seat’’ in garments = fondo (lit = bottom) Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” se rvant Some of the Italian terms may sound offensive if used out of an appropriate context. lower schiavo/-a slave (also fig) sguattero/-a (R2-3) scullery boy/maid, dishwasher (also derogatory) servo/-a servant (also fig and derogatory); note servitù = servants, household staff, but also (R2-3) servitude, slavery servitore servant (servitrice is less common) perceived social standing domestico/-a (R2-3) (household) servant cameriere/-a (house) (household) servant/ (house)maid cameriere/-a (hotel) manservant/ (chamber)maid (restaurant) waiter/waitress higher donna/uomo (less common) delle pulizie cleaning lady/cleaner donna/persona di servizio maid/servant; personale (m) (di servizio) = staff note: uomo di servizio is not used colf (f, short for collaboratrice familiare) (household) helper, housemaid inserviente (m/f R2-3) attendant (gen in hospitals, hotels etc) governante (f R2-3) housekeeper; nanny maggiordomo butler note: there is no exact equivalent of “civil servant’’ in Italian: funzionario statale/dello stato State official (generic); impiegato statale State employee (generic, usu not at a high level); buròcrate (m) bureaucrat (often with negative “red tape’’ overtones) 135 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” sh oe, boot general calzatura (R2-3, term used in official communications in preference to scarpa) footwear, shoe specific shoe (gen) scarpa moccasin mocassino (usu slip-on shoe, without laces) sport shoe scarpa da tennis tennis shoe; also (in gen) training shoe, trainer scarpa da ginnastica training shoe, trainer (for specific sports, scarpa da + sport) open shoe infradito (m/f) flip-flop (UK), thong (Aus) sàndalo sandal zòccolo clog boot (high) stivale (m) knee-high boot, usu leather (horse riding etc.) or rubber (Wellington boot (UK), gumboot (Aus)); lo Stivale = the Italian peninsula, Italy low boot stivaletto ankle-high boot (in a variety of materials) heavy boot scarpone (m) heavy ankle-high boot, esp for skiing light boot for sport scarpa da ..., e.g. scarpa da calcio = football boot slipper pantòfola ciabatta slipper or worn-out shoe used at home; (fig) old and worn-out thing pianella flat slipper babbuccia slipper (not common); knitted footwear (usu in wool) for newborn baby; (R3) babouche galosh caloscia (galoscia), soprascarpa note: horse-shoe = ferro di cavallo 136 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to sh oot (see also g un ) with a weapon to fire a weapon (at sb/sth) sparare (a qu/qc) (also fig) fare fuoco (R2-3) (contro qu/qc) to shoot sb ferire/uccidere (a colpi di pistola/fucile/arma da fuoco [R2-3] etc.) to wound/kill (with a handgun/rifle/fire-weapon etc.) fucilare, passare per le armi (R2-3) to execute by shooting to shoot oneself spararsi to shoot down (sb/sth) abbattere (qu/qc) to shoot down (esp planes), to kill to shoot (sport) tirare (a qc); shooting range = polìgono di tiro note : sparo usu refers to the noise of the shot; tiro usu refers to its length, accuracy etc. to hunt andare a caccia (di qc) (also [fig.] = to look for sb/sth); cacciare (R2-3, less common) with a ball (sport) to kick/throw (a ball) tirare, fare un tiro to shoot a goal fare (un) gol, segnare (un gol/una rete) (football etc.); fare (un) canestro (basketball) with a camera photo fotografare to photograph fare fotografie (R1-2), scattare fotografie (R2-3) to shoot photos movie filmare (qc), riprendere (qc) to film sth girare (un film) to shoot (a film) figurative to shoot heroin farsi le pere (R1) note: some fig meanings of “to shoot’’ (= to do sth fast and/or suddenly), can be translated in Italian by the verb indicating the action modified by an appropriate adverb, such as velocemente, all’improvviso etc. 137 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” sh op, store large shop, store (large variety of goods, with a large staff) smaller bazar (m) [bad'dzar ] messy store with a large variety of goods; bazaar emporio (R2-3) large store with a large variety of goods supermercato, supermarket (m) supermarket, selling mainly food, drinks (including spirits), and household consumable goods grande magazzino (usu pl) (R2-3) department store, usu called by its proper name (e.g. la Rinascente) larger ipermercato, ipermarket (m) hypermarket, very large supermarket, also selling furniture, electrical goods etc., usu situated on main roads, in the outskirts of cities small shop (small variety of goods, with a small staff) R1 R2 R3 negozio shop (gen) shopkeeper negoziante (m/f) bottega small and usu specialized shop; also workshop note: the noun has an overtone of subdued simplicity, but is today often used to name small but glitzy establishments bottegaio/-a (R2-3) (only for low-key shops) spaccio small shop (usu food, drinks and household goods) also spaccio aziendale, the shop set up by a (small) factory, processing plant etc., to sell directly to the public note: spacciatore/ spacciatrice usu drug dealer boutique (f ) [bu'tik] boutique, up-market shop (clothes, accessories etc.) rivendita (di generi alimentari) small food shop rivenditore/ rivenditrice retailer (gen) punto vendita outlet (commercial) esercizio commerciale shop (bureaucratic) 138 esercente (m/f R3) Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to sh ow to make sb see sth fare vedere (qc a qu) general mostrare (qc a qu) to point to/at indicare to indicate, to point to; to denote additare (R2-3) to point to/at to point out segnalare (R2-3) to point out to explain spiegare to explain to display to give proof (of sth) dimostrare (qc) to demonstrate, to prove; to show, to display dare prova (di qc) (R2-3) (usu persons as S) to show, to display (esp personal qualities) to manifest manifestare (R2-3) (usu person as S), to manifest, to display (feelings etc.) palesare (R3) (usu person as S) to manifest, to make known to present presentare (person or thing as S) to present, to offer; (person as S) to show, to produce (esp documents); to introduce to put on display esporre to display (concrete objects, e.g. goods for sale, art in exhibitions, notices); also (abstr.) to expound to reveal, to denote rivelare (thing as S) to reveal, to show, to display; (person as S) to disclose denotare (R2-3) (usu thing as S) to show, to denote esibire (R2-3) (also concrete, usu person as S) to exhibit, to display (qualities etc.), to show (off); to produce (documents) to show off mettere in mostra (also concrete) to display, to show (off) (no exaggeration implied) ostentare (R3) to show off, to flaunt (some exaggeration implied) 139 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” s i de general abstract or concrete lato side (also fig and in polygons) note the expressions: da un lato… dall’altro = on the one hand… on the other hand di lato = sideways parte (f ) side (also fig, e.g. da che parte stai? = whose side are you on?); also part, portion; direction, way; region note the expressions (cf. section 25.5.5): da parte = aside; da una parte… dall’altra = on the one hand… on the other hand; d’altra parte = on the other hand ( but dall’altra parte = on the other side) usu concrete fianco side, flank (of human/animal bodies and things in general) note the expressions: di fianco = sideways; a fianco (di qu/qc) = next to sb/sth; fianco a fianco = side by side specific car etc. fiancata (whole) side (car, building, piece of furniture etc.) coin, medal faccia side; face (solid geometry) edge (gen) bordo (e.g. sul bordo della strada = on the side/edge of the road) margine (m) margin, edge of river, lake etc sponda bank, shore; also the edge of a bed and any side of a billiard/pool table riva bank, shore of road mountain banchina (R3) parete (f ) mountainside, face versante (m R2-3) hillside, mountainside page facciata one of the two sides of a page; also façade (building) team squadra other common expressions with “side” from all sides da tutte le parti; (fig) da tutti i punti di vista offside (sport) fuorigioco/fuori gioco on every side da tutte le parti; (= everywhere) dappertutto, ovunque, dovunque on the side come attività extra, in più (both expressions R1-2) 140 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” sm e l l pleasant unpleasant odore smell (also fig) sentore (R3) smell, scent (also fig: avere sentore di qc = to get wind of sth) general profumo (somewhat stronger than buon odore) beautiful smell, scent (esp flowers, herbs, soap etc., but also food, wine etc.); ALSO perfume general puzza/puzzo (R1-2) stench, stink cattivo odore unpleasant smell (polite) specific buon odore nice smell (formal) afrore (R3) acrid smell, esp of fermenting grapes, sweat etc. fragranza (R2-3) delicate scent, fragrance (esp flowers, perfumes etc., but also food) esalazione (pestilenziale) (R2-3) unhealthy stench coming from swamps, chemicals etc. specific food odorino/profumino (R1-2) (usu) nice smell of (cooked) food aroma (m) aroma (coffee, wine, herbs etc) fetore (R2-3) strong nauseating stench (e.g. corpses) lezzo (R3) stench, esp from filthy things/animals/persons miasma (m R3) stench coming from putrescent organisms, esp in swamps etc. wine bouquet (R3) [bu'kε ] bouquet other olezzo, effluvio (both R3 poetic) tanfo (R2-3) scent (not food) stench, esp stuffy, musty, mouldy smell note: all the terms in this column can be used ironically in R1 to mean a bad smell zaffata (R1-2) whiff particular smells odore (R2)/puzza (R1-2) di muffa musty/mouldy smell odore (R2)/puzza (R1-2) di chiuso stuffy smell odore (R2)/puzza (R1-2) di sudore body odor 141 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to steal , to rob R1 R2 R3 rubare (qc a qu) to steal (sth from sb) to steal sth scippare qc (a qu) to snatch on the run (usu from a motorcycle) sth (esp handbag) (from sb) portare via qc (a qu) to take away (gen) arraffare (quickly) to grab, to snatch, to pinch fregare qc (a qu) (R1∗ -1) to pinch (from sb); also to trick (sb = qu) appropriarsi (di qc) to steal, to misappropriate (sth); also to appropriate fare sparire to steal, to pinch sottrarre (qc a qu) to steal, to remove (sth from sb) grattare to steal razziare (qc), fare razzìa (di qc) to steal sth (by raid, esp livestock, food); also to raid (a place) sgraffignare to pinch (with sleight of hand, often used jokingly) estorcere (qc a qu) to extort, to wrest (not only valuables, by means of force, threat, deception etc) frodare (qc a qu) (usu money) to steal by fraud (sth from sb); also to swindle (qu di qc = sb out of sth) soffiare to pinch (e.g. boyfriend, parking spot, but usu not valuables) to steal sb to rob a place trafugare to steal, to filch rapire qu to kidnap (sb) sequestrare qu to kidnap (sb); also to confiscate (qc = sth) rapinare qc (less common qu) to rob (usu establishments, e.g. bank, esp at gun point) svaligiare to rob, to clean out, to burgle (house, safe, establishments etc.) ripulire qc (less common qu) to clean out (sth, e.g. safe, flat) depredare (qc) to plunder (a place); also to rob sb (qu) saccheggiare (un luogo) to sack, to plunder, to loot (a place) to rob sb derubare qu to rob sb scippare qu to rob sb on the run spennare qu to fleece (not necessarily unlawful; a degree of naivety is implied in the victim) 142 borseggiare qu (di qc) to pick (sth from sb’s) pocket (bag etc.) spogliare qu/un luogo di qc to strip, to clean out sb/a place of sth st i c k pole, post palo pole, post (also goal post in football etc.), not only wood, usu stuck in the ground pertica long and thin pole (also in the gymnasium), perch (also measurement), usu wood; also fig (R1) tall person, bean pole asta thin pole, not only wood, eg asta della bandiera = flagpole; (sport) salto con l’asta = pole vault; rod (curtains) sbarra bar, barrier (usu metal, but also wood etc.), used esp to restrict access to places or to limit freedom (e.g. in cages, railway crossings) bar spranga cross-bar (usu metal) used to lock doors; also bar used as a (street) weapon stanga long bar (usu wood), with rectangular/square cross-section; often fig (R1) tall person, bean pole barra (R2-3) bar, esp on boats (helm); also bar of (precious) metal; barra di uranio = rod/bar of uranium; but cross bar (sport) = traversa cudgel mazza bludgeon, cudgel, mace (ancient weapon); mace, baton (ceremonial/symbolic); walking stick (less common than bastone); also (sport): club (golf), bat (cricket, baseball), stick (hockey) manganello cudgel, truncheon clava club (usu prehistoric weapon, made of wood) randello big stick for hitting (esp people), cudgel, truncheon (usu wood) sfollagente (m) (short) baton used by police slat stecca (gen) slat, thin rod (usu wood), often used for structural support in corsets (whalebone), umbrellas (rib), shutters or fans (slat), with fractured limbs (splint), in sails; also picket (in a gate); billiard cue stake, peg paletto small post, stake (in fences, to support plants etc.) picchetto picket, stake; tent-peg piolo peg (usu wood, cylindrical; to hang coats etc.); picket; rung (on a ladder) bastone (m) stick (gen, also for hitting persons/animals); walking stick; also hockey stick (bastone/mazza da hockey) stick canna reed; rod, esp canna da pesca = fishing rod; walking stick, cane (less common than bastone); also cross-bar (bicycle); barrel (fire-arms); pipe (organ); flue (chimney) verga (R2-3) small cane or thin, flexible branch, also for hitting persons/animals small bastoncino small stick (in icecreams etc); also bastoncino di pesce = fish finger, fish stick bacchetta small stick (also used for beating at school); wand (e.g. bacchetta magica = magic wand); baton (orchestra conductor) other drumstick (drums) (chicken leg) joystick (planes) (videogames) stick of dynamite twig bacchetta (di tamburo) coscia di pollo cloche (f) [klɔʃ] (R2-3), barra di comando (R3) joystick (m) [dȢɔistik] candelotto di dinamite ramoscello (secco) (dry) twig stecco dry, leafless twig, small stick; fig (R1) very skinny person sterpo (R2-3) dry, leafless twig; withered thornbush, often pl (= scrub) 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” storm general temporale (m) thunderstorm (usu brief and localized, with wind, rain, and often hail) bufera storm, esp with strong winds, often with snow (blizzard) burrasca storm, esp at sea fortunale (m R2-3) storm, esp with strong winds perturbazione (R2-3) meteorological disturbance (in official weather forecast) procella (R3 literary) storm stronger weaker specific pioggia rain rain acquazzone (m) sudden short downpour diluvio heavy rain (usu causing floods), deluge, also fig; note: il diluvio universale = the Flood rovescio (R2-3) sudden and very short downpour, shower scroscio (di pioggia) (R2-3) sudden and very short shower, downpour of pelting rain; note: scroscio refers to the noise of falling water and also, fig, of applause etc. nubifragio (R3) cloudburst, downpour (often causing floods) grandinata hailstorm hail nevicata snowfall, snowstorm snow bufera (di neve), tormenta snowstorm (with high winds), blizzard bufera (di vento) windstorm, gale wind mulinello small whirlwind; also whirlpool tornado tornado tromba d’aria tornado, whirlwind; note: tromba marina = waterspout tùrbine (m R2-3) whirlwind other: cyclone 144 ciclone (m R2-3); fig (R1-2) very active person, dynamo hurricane uragano also fig, e.g. uragano di proteste typhoon tifone (m R2-3) (China Sea or NW Pacific) Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” st ri ng general cavo cable spago twine, string corda rope fune (f R2-3) rope cordone (m) cordicella cordoncino thin rope filo thread, wire; filo di perle = string of pearls refe (m R2-3) thread for sewing thick thin specific legaccio (R2-3) strap, tie, lace lace, tie laccio lace, tie (gen) G string perizoma (m) hamstring tendine (m) del ginocchio (humans)/garretto (animals) wire cord corda (in bows, musical instruments etc.); the strings (mus.) = gli archi stringa lace (usu shoes) figurative series (gen) serie (f) series (gen) filza (R2-3)/sfilza (long) series (also of insults) sequela (R2-3) series (esp of bad things) chain catena chain (of events, of hotels, shops etc.; also of mountains) of bits stringa (di bit/caratteri) (R3) string of bits/characters (computers etc.) of onions treccia string (of onions, garlic); lit = plait, braid line (gen) moving line resta (R3) string of onions/garlic fila, coda row, line, queue carovana caravan (also of vehicles) corteo procession; motorcade conditions filza (R2-3) string (of onions, garlic, sausages etc.) colonna column (of vehicles, persons) processione procession (usu persons) sfilata parade (fashion etc); (fig) long line (of cars, houses etc.) condizioni (f pl) (vincolanti [R3]), vìncoli (m pl R2-3) 145 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” stup i d, i d i ot of persons r The feminine ending of the nouns is indicated if it exists. r The literal meaning of words used ﬁguratively (for “idiot” or “stupid”) has been indicated (in italics, if obsolete or uncommon). r Although the frequency of use of some of the terms may vary from region to region, those that have been highlighted are frequently heard throughout Italy. r All the Italian nouns in this table can be used as direct insults. R 1∗ Italian word n or adj f lit meaning usu meaning coglione usu n (m) -a testicle testicle; idiot cazzone usu n (m) -a big penis idiot (Center) penis (North) idiot (North) pirla n (m) 1∗-1 minchione usu n (m) -a big penis (South) idiot (Center, South) bìschero usu n -a penis (Tuscany) idiot (Tuscany) babbeo usu n -a baccalà n (m) 1 stockfish idiot big beet simpleton (Tuscany) (mentally) deficient idiot cracked (referring to female genitals) idiot (R1∗-1 South) bietolone usu n (m) deficiente usu n (m/f) fesso usu n -a gonzo usu n -a grullo n/adj mammalucco usu n -a Mamluk (childish) simpleton n -a blackbird sucker goose fool (esp girl, woman) merlo oca n (f) rimbambito n/adj salame n (m) scimunito testone tonto zuccone 146 blockhead, sucker usu n -a sucker, fool simpleton (Tuscany) imbecile, dotard salami nitwit, dotard -a usu n (m) -a usu n -a usu n (m) -a idiot big head fathead, thickhead dope big pumpkin/head fathead, thickhead Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” R 1-2 2 Italian word n or adj f m -a baggiano usu n -a balordo n/adj beota usu n (m/f) citrullo usu n cretino n/adj cretin; stupid idiota usu n (m/f) idiot; idiotic imbecille n/adj imbecil; stupid scemo n/adj fool; silly allocco semplicione stupido 2-3 duro (di comprendonio) èbete mentecatto poco intelligente 3 usu n (m) lit meaning tawny owl dunce, idiot fool (esp North) idiot; silly Boeotian (uncommon) idiot; silly idiot, numskull; silly -a simpleton -a n/adj idiot; stupid adj hard of understanding n/adj usu n (m) usu meaning slow-witted idiot; obtuse -a insane adj lunatic; fool, idiot not very intelligent sciocco n/adj fool; silly insensato usu adj senseless insulso adj ottuso adj stolido adj stolto n/adj dull, insipid obtuse (of angles) obtuse foolish fool; foolish 147 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” stup i d of things The adjectival use of most of the Italian expressions in the above table is often possible in theory, but in actual terms rather infrequent. With things it appears to be even more limited than with persons. In many cases the adjectives are only found in connection with words relating to sb’s expression (e.g. sguardo, espressione, aria etc.). The most common adjectives meaning “stupid” and the “things” with which they tend to be used are listed in the following table. R 1 adjective babbeo look, expression deficiente look, expression fesso idea rimbambito expression scimunito expression tonto expression 1-2 balordo 2 148 idea, action, look, expression, speech beota look, expression cretino idea, action, behavior, expression, speech, joke (verbal and practical) idiota idea, action, behavior, look, expression, speech, joke (verbal and practical) imbecille look, expression scemo joke (verbal) stupido idea, action, behavior, look, expression, speech, word, joke (verbal and practical) etc. 2-3 èbete 3 things usu associated look, expression poco intelligente idea, action, behavior, look, expression, speech etc. sciocco idea, behavior, speech, word, joke (esp verbal) insensato idea, action, behavior, speech, word insulso idea, action, behavior, speech, word, joke (verbal) ottuso look, expression Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to take, to b ri ng, to carry (see also to g et h ol d of ) to take “to” general portare to take, to bring, to carry; to lead, to guide, to accompany recare (R3) to bear (e.g. gifts, news) to carry avere con sé to have with oneself, to take to lead accompagnare to accompany condurre to drive, to lead, to take/bring (persons) guidare to guide menare (Tuscany) to take (persons, animals); note: outside Tuscany, mostly found in idiomatic expressions (with this meaning) trasportare to transport scortare (R2-3) to escort to take “in” general prendere to take (e.g. appunti (notes), medicine (medicines)); also = to react to events etc. to receive, to get, to catch to take “from” to take away, to take off portare via to take away, to carry away levare, togliere to take off, to take away, to remove (from sth = da qc; from sb = a qu) asportare (R3) sottrarre (R2) to subtract (math.); (R2-3) to to take away, to remove (also surgically) (from sth = da qc; from remove, to steal (from sth = da sb = a qu) qc; from sb = a qu) rimuovere (R3) to remove (also = to tow away) note: take-away (of food) = da portar via/da asporto (R3) 149 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” teac h e r school/university teacher kindergarten, primary school teachers (asilo, scuola elementare) secondary school teachers (scuola media inferiore/superiore) university teachers (università) insegnante (m/f) teacher (less common for university) docente (m/f R2-3) teacher (gen), lecturer (most common for university); also adj, e.g. il personale docente = the academic/teaching staff maestro/-a (d’asilo/di scuola) teacher, also of music, martial arts etc; also = master, also fig professore/professoressa secondary school teacher, professor prof (m/f R1, students’ jargon) secondary school teacher assistente (m/f) (universitario/-a) assistant lecturer ordinario (R2-3) (full) professor (more common for university) titolare (m/f R2-3) cattedratico (R3) professor (holder of a chair) lettore/lettrice (R2-3) lector, language tutor direttore/direttrice prèside (m/f ) capo d’istituto headmaster/headmistress rettore chancellor other istruttore/istruttrice instructor (usu in practical activities, e.g. driving, flying, sailing) istitutore/istitutrice (R2-3) precettore (R3) tutor (esp in the wealthy/noble families of old or in boarding schools) educatore/educatrice (R2-3) educator, pedagogist pedagogo (R3) pedagogue; (literary) tutor 150 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” th i n (of people) positive connotation usu negative connotation magro slim, thin, skinny àgile agile, slender deperito (R1-2) run-down, haggard smilzo skinny asciutto lean pelle e ossa (R1-2) skin and bone denutrito (R2-3) underfed slanciato slender, tall and slim rinsecchito (R1-2) skinny, gaunt scarno (R2-3) lean, skinny snello slender, slim sciupato (R1-2) worn-out, skinny, haggard schelètrico (R2-3) skeletal secco (R1-2) skinny segaligno (R2-3) tall and skinny allampanato skinny, gaunt smunto (R2-3) pale and emaciated, gaunt èsile slight, thin sparuto (R2-3) puny, haggard gràcile puny emaciato (R3) emaciated, haggard mingherlino thin and frail macilento (R3) emaciated, skinny and weak note: svelto and sottile mean “thin,” “slender” when referring to things; when referring to persons, they usu mean, respectively, “quick” and “sharp,” “subtle”; e.g.: una ragazza dalla corporatura svelta/sottile = a girl of slender build; una ragazza svelta = a quick girl; una ragazza sottile = a subtle/sharp girl 151 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to th row aim usu involved tirare to throw, to toss; also to pull (see also to shoot) lanciare to fling, to throw, also fig (e.g. accusations), to launch (a rocket, a product, a star); to toss (a coin etc.) no aim usu involved buttare to throw (away), to toss, to fling buttare via = to throw away buttare fuori = to throw out note: buttare (giù) la pasta (R1-2) = put the pasta in boiling water to cook it gettare to throw (away), to toss, to cast; gettare via = to throw away; note: usa e getta = disposable scagliare (R2-3) to cast, to fling, to hurl (far away, often with violence), e.g. stones; also fig, e.g. insults scaraventare (R2-3) to hurl, to fling (far away, often with violence) proiettare (R3) to throw (forward), to cast, to project (esp lights, shadows); often in the passive (= to be thrown); also (R2-3) to screen (films etc.) tooth dente (m) tooth (gen), also in saws, combs, cog-wheels (cog), forks and rakes (prong) 152 zanna tusk, long and protruding tooth in some large animals; sharp tooth of large meat-eating mammals, fang (but for snakes dente (velenifero [R3]) is more common) Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” top top part general il (di) sopra (R1-2) la parte di sopra (R1-2) la parte superiore (R2-3) of clothes giacca jacket, top (e.g. pyjamas etc.) top (m) sleeveless top, singlet (usu for women) reggipetto/reggiseno bikini top (usu = brassiere) (il) pezzo di sopra (R1-2) (the) top piece, bikini top surface superficie (f) top, surface (of liquids etc.) cover lid, plug tappo (it usu fits inside the opening it stops) cork, plug; also screw cap coperchio (it usu sits on top of the opening it closes) lid, cover cappuccio (it usu sits on and around the top or the tip of the object it covers) cap (esp pens); also hood roof tetto roof (buildings, cars, trains etc.) capote (f R2-3) [ka’pɔt] ca(p)potta soft top, hood (cars) palato top of the mouth, roof of the mouth, palate highest point general cima top of trees, mountains, towers, skyscrapers etc. da cima a fondo = from top to bottom, from beginning to end in cima a = on top of, at the top of (e.g. pages) in cima in cima (R1-2) = on the very top NOTE ALSO dall’alto (di qc) = from the top (of sth) of mountains cocùzzolo/cucùzzolo (R1-2), sommità (R2-3), vetta (R2-3), cresta (R3) (also of waves) top, peak, summit of pages, lists principio, inizio beginning note also a capopagina = at the beginning of the page figurative apex colmo, cùlmine (m R2-3), vèrtice (m R2-3), àpice (m R3), apogeo (R3) top, height, apex, climax best il massimo (R1-2), il top (R1-2), il/la migliore, il non plus ultra (R2-3) the top, the best note: the Italian translation of “top” used with an adjectival value before a noun usu expresses the ideas of “superficial”, “highest” or “last” in a series of levels, and “best”, e.g.: the top layer of the earth’s crust = strato superficiale della crosta terrestre the top layer of a cake = lo strato più alto (or l’ultimo strato) di un dolce the top level = (abstr.) il livello più alto; (= top floor) l’ultimo piano the top player = il giocatore migliore/più bravo but top spin = top spin (m) (or, more generically, effetto = spin of a ball) 153 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to t ry to try + verb provare a + inf to try doing sth (usu as a means to achieve something else: the ability to perform the action expressed by the infinitive is not in question); to have a go at doing sth cercare di + inf to try to do sth (usu as a goal in itself: the ability to perform the action expressed by the infinitive is in question); to strive to do sth sforzarsi di + inf to try hard/to strive to do sth tentare di + inf to attempt to do sth (usu implying little chance of succeeding) fare del proprio meglio per + inf to try/do one’s best to do sth fare di tutto/fare il possibile per + inf to do everything possible to do sth vedere di + inf (R1-2) (only present, future and, less common, imperfect) to try to do sth, to try and do sth to try + noun to try sth to try sb provare qc to try sth (also = to taste); to test sth (e.g. a car); to experience sth (esp feelings) provare con qu to try (with) sb note: provare qu (R2-3) = (in past tenses) to wear sb out tentare qc to attempt sth note: tentare qu = to tempt sb mettere alla prova qc (R2-3) to put sth to the test mettere alla prova qu (R2-3) to try sb, to put sb to the test giudicare (R2-3) to try (a legal case); also (R2) to judge processare qu to try sb (legally) assaggiare qc to try food/wine, to taste sth collaudare qc (R2-3) to test sth, usu professionally (cars, planes etc.) sperimentare qc (R2-3) to try out sth; to test sth 154 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” to v i s i t persons fare (una) visita a qu to visit sb, to pay sb a visit, to call on sb passare da qu (aux essere) to call on sb, to go/come and see sb; note: with a place, it simply means to pass through, to go/come via that place andare/venire a trovare qu (R1-2) to (go/come and) visit sb, to call on sb places visitare to visit (e.g. cities, museums etc.); note: visitare qu usu refers to doctors visiting/examining patients andare/venire a vedere to visit (places, monuments etc.); also to go/come and see (lit) fare un salto da qu (or a/in + place) (R1) fare una scappata da qu (or a/in + place) (R1) to drop in on sb, to dash to sb’s place/somewhere wal l internal external muro wall (in its lit meaning usu implying construction); also fig, wall, barrier (e.g. muro di critiche/silenzio), wall-like structure, esp as a barrier (e.g. muro di ghiaccio/roccia) parete (f) wall, usu internal or seen from the inside, both man made (e.g. in houses, boxes) and natural (in caves, body parts etc); also = mountainside (muro) divisorio (R2-3) tramezzo (R2-3) partition (wall) barriera barrier; also fig, barrier, obstacle, wall (also in football) muraglia large wall, usu fortified, e.g. la (grande) muraglia cinese = the Great Wall of China muraglione (m) very large wall, often built for retaining purposes muretto, muricciolo low (boundary/enclosure) wall 155 3 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” w i ndow (see also g las s ) in buildings in means of transportation finestra window finestrino (side) window portafinestra French window parabrezza windscreen (usu car) sportello office window, counter, teller lunotto (R2-3) rear window (car) vetrata large window, consisting of a number of glass panes inserted in a frame, esp stainedglass window (in churches etc.) oblò (R2-3) porthole, round window on ships vetrina shop window; also glass-fronted cupboard, glass showcase rosone (m R3) rose-window 156 Fields of meaning – “Synonyms” wor k , job general lavoro work (ALSO = piece of work), job, employment, occupation job, employment impiego occupazione job, position, post (usu “white job; employment collar”); employment; (unemployment = disoccupazione) also = use, posto job, position, post posto di lavoro = job (in statistics etc.), e.g. 100 posti di lavoro = 100 jobs job to do, task, duty commissione errand cómpito dovere task, duty; homework (usu pl) duty faccenda job, e.g. faccende domestiche/di casa = housework; also thing (to do), matter carica (R2-3) office, position (usu official and important) incarico (R2-3) task, assignment, charge; also (important) post, usu temporary funzione (R2-3) (often pl) function, position, duty incombenza (R3) (important) duty, task mansione (R3) (usu pl) duty, function servizio service prestazione (R2-3) (usu pl) services (often of professional people); also performance ufficio (R3) office job done, service, piece of work opera piece of work note: questa è opera tua = this is your work (= you must have done this) questo è compito tuo = this is your job (= this is what you have to do) labor fatica toil, labor, hard work; note: fare fatica (a fare qc) = to struggle (to do sth) mano (f) d’opera labor (gen, as a component of invoices etc.), e.g. il costo della mano d’opera è alto = labor costs are high trade, profession, occupation mestiere trade professione profession attività activity (gen), occupation, e.g. svolgere un’attività = to do something (as a job), to have an occupation 157 4 Complex verbal expressions This chapter deals with common Italian verbs or verbal expressions that do not have a direct equivalent in English (see also chapter 6, “Idioms, similes, and proverbs”). 4.1 Single English verbs corresponding to complex Italian expressions English verb Italian expression to agree (with sb on sth) essere d’accordo (con qu su qc) to annoy sb (usu) dare fastidio a qu to blame sb/sth dare la colpa a qu/qc to borrow prendere in prestito to lend dare in prestito/prestare note : chiedere in prestito = to ask to borrow to butt sb/sth dare una testata a qu/qc; (for horned animals) dare una cornata to compete (commercially) fare (la) concorrenza a qc/qu to drop sth (to let sth fall) to drop sth (to cause sth to fall) lasciare cadere qc fare cadere qc to feed sb dare da mangiare a qu (people or animals) note : for plants, fertilizzare – for things, rifornire (machines), alimentare (ﬁres etc.) to haggle (over sth) tirare sul prezzo (di qc) (R1–2) al s o contrattare (R2–3, used without object) to hurt sb I have a headache my feet are hurting fare male a qu mi fa male la testa/ho mal di testa mi fanno male i piedi 158 4.1 Single English verb, complex Italian expression English verb Italian expression to kick sb/sth dare un calcio a qu/qc (one kick) prendere a calci qu/qc (one or more kicks, usu with violence, anger etc.) note : calciare (R2–3) (usu with things as do ) is uncommon and mostly restricted to sports like football (calcio), e.g. calciare il pallone to listen to sb (= to listen to sb’s advice) dare retta a qu (R1–2) listen to me (= follow my advice) dammi retta to lock (a door etc.) chiudere a chiave (e.g. una porta) note : to lock sb/sth somewhere = rinchiudere qu/qc da qualche parte to miss sb/sth I miss you sentire la mancanza di qu/qc sento la tua mancanza (or mi manchi [from mancare]) to need sb/sth avere bisogno di qu/qc to nod to nod afﬁrmatively accennare, fare un cenno col capo/con la testa accennare, fare cenno di sı̀ col capo/con la testa to notice sb/sth, to attach importance to sb/sth not to notice sb/sth; to ignore sb/sth; not to worry about sb/sth I didn’t notice (it) don’t worry (about it)/ignore it! think about it! fare caso a qu/qc (R1–2) to punch sb/sth (with ﬁsts) dare un pugno a qu/qc to smack sb dare uno schiaffo a qu (one smack) prendere a schiafﬁ qc (one or more smacks, usu with violence, anger etc.) note : schiaffeggiare (R2–3) (= prendere a schiafﬁ) is less common sculacciare (R1–2) to smack a (child’s) bottom non fare caso a qu/qc (R1–2) non ci ho fatto caso (R1–2) non farci caso! (R1–2) facci caso! (R1) to starve (tr) far morire di fame qu (al s o lit = to starve sb to death); affamare is less common (intr) morire di fame (also ﬁg); avere una fame da lupo (ﬁg only) to trip sb fare lo sgambetto a qu, fare inciampare qu 159 4 Complex verbal expressions 4.2 Single Italian verbs corresponding to complex English expressions Italian verb English expression accendere, spegnere turn on/off, switch on/off but to turn on/off a tap = aprire/chiudere un rubinetto addormentarsi to go to sleep, to fall asleep allunare to land on the moon ammalarsi to become sick ammarare to land on water (esp the sea); to splash down apparecchiare/sparecchiare (la tavola) to set/to clear the table (for/after a meal) appisolarsi to nod off approﬁttare di qc/qu to take advantage of sth/sb note : in Italian, as in English, the use of this verb with a person as object usually has a negative sexual connotation (= to seduce, to rape) approfondire (un argomento) to study (a topic) more in depth degnarsi di + inf (ironic) to be bothered to do sth, e.g. non si è degnato di venire = he couldn’t be bothered coming distare da qc/qu to be far from sth/sb, e.g. quanto dista casa tua dal centro? = how far is your place from the town centre? guardarsi (bene) dal/dall’/dallo + inf to take (great) care not to do sth, e.g. si è guardato bene dal venire = he took great care/made a point not to come/of not coming limitarsi a + inf to do sth and no more: si è limitata a guardarlo = she only looked at him/it pernottare (R2–3) to spend the night (usu in relation to a location) spiccare to stand out valere to be worth (with an expression of value), to be valuable; to be valid it’s not fair! note : non vale! (R1) 160 4.3 Complex Italian expression, complex English expression 4.3 Complex Italian expressions corresponding to complex English expressions (cf. section 27.8) Italian expression English expression andare a male (intr) to go off (food, drinks) avere a che fare con qu to have sth to do with sb avere ragione/torto dare ragione a qu to be right/wrong to agree with sb, to say that sb is right, to prove sb right (of events) to judge sb wrong, to say that sb is wrong, to prove sb wrong (of events) dare torto a qu fare a meno di qu/qc non poter fare a meno di + inf to do without sb/sth not to be able to avoid doing sth fare causa a qu (R1–2), to take sb to court intentare un processo/una causa a/contro qu (R2–3) al s o quite common is denunciare qu to sue sb (R1–2) fare in modo che + subj fare in modo/vedere (R1–2) di + inf farò in modo che tu ci sia farò in modo/vedrò di esserci (cf. section 27.7) to see that farsi una colpa di qc to feel guilty/responsible for/over sth non fartene una colpa! = don’t feel guilty about it mettersi/schierarsi (R2–3) dalla parte di qu to take sb’s side tenere conto di qu/qc to take sb/sth into account tenere presente qc to bear sth in mind I shall see that you are there I shall see that I am there essere solito fare qc (R2–3) to be used to doing sth note : the use of solere (R3, defective) is uncommon and usu restricted to some persons of the imperfect and the present tense (indic) 161 4 Complex verbal expressions 4.4 Italian “impersonal” verbs The verbs in this section are often referred to as “impersonal,” since they are often used in the third person singular and appear to be lacking a subject. In fact, in those cases you will usually ﬁnd that they have a whole clause as subject. For the student, the main difﬁculty with these verbs lies in their construction. Characteristically, for the majority of them, the Italian indirect object will correspond to the subject in English and, when applicable, the Italian subject will correspond to the direct object of the commonly used English equivalent, e.g. mi (i o ) piace la pizza (s ) = I (s ) like p i z za (do ). In the following table, the personally constructed English equivalents have been indicated in italics in square brackets, beside a more literal translation of the Italian verbs, whenever possible. In the following table, only the meanings and uses relevant to the topic of this section have been taken into account. Different meanings and constructions may be possible, for some verbs, in different contexts. When used as below, all the Italian verbs are intransitive and take essere as auxiliary. andare a qu non mi va ti andrebbe un caffè? gli andava di uscire non mi andava che tu uscissi da sola to suit sb [to feel like] I don’t feel like it would you (feel) like a coffee? he felt like going out I didn’t like the idea of you going out on your own avanzare (a qu) avanzano 10 euro mi avanzano 10 euro ci è avanzato del pane to be left over [to have sth left over] There is ten euro left over I have ten euro left over we have some bread left over bastare (a qu) basta! basta cosı̀! (mi/ti/ . . .) bastano 50 centesimi non ti bastava vederlo? ci basta che tu ti sia pentito non le sono bastati i soldi non le bastavano i soldi al s o : basta che (R1–2) basta che lui lo chieda te lo do: basta che te ne vai (R1) / vada (R1–2) to be enough stop it/enough! that’s enough! 50 cents are enough (for me/you/ . . .) wasn’t it enough for you to see it? it is enough for us that you are sorry she has run out of money she didn’t have enough money provided that he only has to ask for it I’ll give it to you if you go away capitare (a qu) gli capitò un fatto strano but : se capiti da queste parti se ti capita di venire a Roma mi è capitato di sentirla ieri to happen a strange thing happened to him if you happen to be around here if you happen to come to Rome I happened to hear (from) her yesterday 162 4.4 Italian “impersonal” verbs convenire ci conviene farlo adesso conviene che tu lo dica/ti conviene dirlo to be better [to have to and similar] we’d better do it now it’s better for you to say it/you’d better say it/you should say it dispiacere mi dispiace lasciarti qui ci è dispiaciuto che tu ti sia offeso ti dispiace chiudere la porta? vi dispiace se me ne vado? [to be sorry, to mind] I am sorry to leave you here we were sorry that you took offence do you mind closing the door? do you mind if I go? importare non importa non m’importa/non me ne importa non importa che lui non ci sia/se lui non c’è (R1–2) t’importa che lui non ci sia/se lui non c’è (R1–2)? non c’importa di stancarci to be important, to matter [to care, to mind] it doesn’t matter I don’t care t’importa di lui? che t’importa? (R1) it doesn’t matter that he is not here/if he’s not here do you care/mind if he’s not here? we don’t mind getting tired/we don’t care if we get tired do you care about him? what do you care? note : without an indirect object this verb is mostly used in negative sentences: in afﬁrmative contexts essere importante tends to be preferred. mancare (a qu) to be lacking, to be missed (by sb) [to lack, to miss, to need] he misses his mother very much I’m missing ten euro/I need an extra ten euro she has three pages to go he’s missing a piece you’re lacking the energy there is no (or not enough) salt here this book is missing a page/there is a page missing from this book gli manca molto la mamma mi mancano dieci euro le mancano tre pagine per ﬁnire gli manca un pezzo vi manca l’energia qui ci manca il sale (R1–2) a questo libro manca una pagina/in questo libro ci manca una pagina (R1–2) mancare di qc (R2–3) to lack sth non manchi di nulla (R2–3, less you have everything common than qui non ti manca nulla) questo sugo manca di sale (R2–3, this sauce lacks salt less common than in questo sugo ci manca il sale [R1–2]) occorrere (a qu) vi occorre niente/qualcosa? non occorre che tu ci vada to be necessary, to be needed (by sb) [to need,to have to] do you need anything?/anything you need? it’s not necessary for you to go (there)/you don’t have to go (there) 163 4 Complex verbal expressions to be pleasing [to like] piacere questo ﬁlm mi piace I like this movie non ci piacciono i funghi we don’t like mushrooms non le piace uscire she doesn’t like going out non mi piace che tu rimanga qui I don’t like you remaining here riuscire non riesco a correre sei riuscito a parlarle? but non mi riesce di contattarlo il solitario ci è riuscito to succeed, to manage to, to be able to I can’t run did you manage to speak to her? I am not able to contact him we’ve succeeded in (ﬁnishing) our game of patience sembrare, parere (a qu) mi sembravi/parevi un altro pare/sembra che sia partito but non mi sembra che lei ci sia mi pare di no le è sembrato di vederlo le pare/sembra di averlo visto (lit) to seem, to look (like) [to think] you looked like someone else it looks like he’s left/he appears to have left I don’t think she is here I don’t think so she thinks she saw him she thinks she saw him (or has seen him) servire mi serve un cacciavite gli servivano più soldi (R1–2) to be needed [to need] I need a screwdriver he/they needed more money note : in the compound tenses servire tends to mean “to be useful,” “to use”, e.g.: ti sono serviti i miei appunti? = were my notes of any use to you?/did you ﬁnd my notes useful?/did you use my notes? toccare (a qu) mi è toccato rifarlo ci tocca pagare to be necessary [to have to] I’ve had to do it again we have to pay note : a chi tocca? tocca a me = whose turn is it? it’s my turn 4.5 Verbal expressions with la, ne, ci Even though for some of the expressions given here a literal meaning may still be possible in suitable contexts, most of them are generally used idiomatically, whereby la and ne do not refer speciﬁcally to anything or anybody, and ci has no connotation of place. note that the idiomatic use of many of the following tends to be restricted to speciﬁc tenses. 4.5.1 Idiomatic verbal expressions with la La is feminine singular and requires agreement where appropriate, e.g. non ce la siamo sentita di venire (= we didn’t feel like coming); lui non ce l’ha fatta (= he didn’t make it) 164 4.5 Verbal expressions with la, ne, ci averla/avercela (R1–2) con qu to be angry with sb berla/bersela (R1–2) to swallow (= to believe) cavarsela (R1–2) to scrape through; to be reasonably good (at sth), e.g. a tennis se la cava = s/he’s not too bad at tennis credersela (R1) to think highly of oneself darla a bere (R1–2)/intendere to lead sb to believe sth farcela (a + inf) to make it, e.g. non ce la faccio = I can’t do it; but non ce la faccio più = I am really tired; I can’t go on any more farla ﬁnita (R1) farla ﬁnita (R1–2) to stop (doing sth), e.g. falla ﬁnita! = stop it! to commit suicide farla/dirla grossa (R1–2) farla franca (R1–2) to do/say a very stupid thing to get away (with sth) farla lunga (R1) to go on and on in an argument or discussion, e.g. quanto la fai lunga! = you go on and on . . .! ﬁdarsela (R1) to feel up to sth ﬁlarsela/squagliarsela/svignarsela/ battersela (all R1) to run away, to ﬂee ﬁnirla/smetterla (di + inf) (both R1 –2) to stop (doing sth), e.g. smettetela! = stop it!; ﬁnitela di litigare! = stop arguing! intendersela (con qu) (R1–2) to have a secret understanding/affair (with sb) passarla bella/brutta (R1–2) passarsela (R1) to get through a bad experience to be (doing), e.g. come te la passi? how are you doing? piantarla (di + inf) (R1) to stop doing sth, e.g. piantala! = stop it! prendersela (con qu) to get cross (with sb) saperla lunga to know a thing or two scamparla (bella) (R1–2) to have a narrow escape sentirsela (di + inf) (R1–2) to feel up to sth/like sth tirarla per le lunghe (R1–2) to take too long a time over sth vedersela (con qu)(R1–2) to deal with sb, e.g. con te me la vedo più tardi = I’ll deal with you later; véditela tu! = you sort it out/see what you can do! to feel all is lost vedersela brutta 165 4 Complex verbal expressions 4.5.2 Idiomatic verbal expressions with ne note that ne is used with a locative value in andarsene, tornarsene, uscirsene and starsene (starsene da parte, starsene per conto proprio etc. seem to have an element of distance from something). In non poterne più and importarsene, ne has a more or less generic genitive value. 4.5.3 andarsene to go away non poterne più to have had enough (of sth/sb) importarsene note : inﬁschiarsene (R1∗ -1), fregarsene (R1∗ ), fottersene (R1∗ ) are much less polite alternatives to care (about sth/sb), esp negative or interrogative, e.g.: non me ne importa un ﬁco secco (R1) = I couldn’t care less chi se ne importa? (R1–2) = who cares? starsene to stay, to be tornarsene in qualche luogo to go back somewhere uscirsene to go out; al s o (R1–2) to say something unexpectedly, e.g.: se n’è uscito dicendo che . . . = he came out saying that . . . se n’è uscito con una parolaccia = he came out with a swear word volerne a qu (R2–3) to hold it against sb, e.g. non me ne volere = don’t hold it against me Idiomatic verbal expressions with ci In some of the following expressions, the originally locative ci is used with the value “for it,” “about it,” or “to it.” This indirect pronominal use of ci is quite common in many Italian dialects and regional varieties, where it is often extended to people (che ci hai fatto, a tuo fratello? [R1] = what did you do to your brother?) (cf. section 16.2). 166 andarci matto (R1) to be crazy for it averci (R1) to have, to own badarci to care about sth, e.g. non ci badare = don’t worry about it contarci to count on sth, e.g. ci contavo = I was counting on it crederci to believe sth, e.g. non ci credo = I don’t believe it 4.5 Verbal expressions with la, ne, ci entrarci to have to do with sth, e.g. che c’entra? = what’s it got to do with it? mancarci to be lacking (ﬁg and ironically), e.g. ci mancava solo questa! = (ironic) that’s all we needed!; ci manca (mancherebbe) soltanto che piova (piovesse)! = let’s only hope it doesn’t rain!; ci mancherebbe (altro)! = that would be the limit, of course, not at all; c’è mancato poco! = that was close!; ci manca poco = there is not long to go metterci to take (in time expressions), e.g. ci hai messo una vita! (R1) = it took you ages! (lit “a lifetime”) note : the literal meaning of this verb (= to put sth into sth else) is quite common, e.g. ci ho già messo il sale = I have already put salt in it; also ﬁg, e.g. ci devi mettere più energia = you must put more energy into it parlarci (R1–2) to speak to sb, e.g. con lui non ci parlo = I don’t (want to) speak to him pensarci to think about sth (or sb [R1]) provarci (R1–2) to try provarci con qu (R1) to make sexual advances to sb riuscirci to manage to do sth, e.g. non ci riesco = I can’t do it sentirci to be able to hear starci (R1–2) to agree to sth, to accept sth, e.g. ci sto = I’m in it al s o starci = entrarci, e.g. in cinque nell’ascensore non ci stiamo = (the) ﬁve of us can’t ﬁt in the lift/elevator note: in Southern Italy, starci usually means esserci, e.g. ci sta Ciro? = is Ciro there? tenerci (a qc) to care a lot about sth vederci to be able to see volerci to take (in order to do sth), e.g. non ci vuole molto = it doesn’t take much (time or effort or even money); che ci vuole? = what does it take (to do that)?, usu ironic for “that’s not difﬁcult!” 167 5 Affective sufﬁxes These sufﬁxes are usually listed, in Italian grammars, under the heading alterazione, and the words modiﬁed by them are called alterati. Among them we ﬁnd nouns, adjectives, a handful of adverbs, and also some verbs. The use of alterati is very common in spoken Italian (R1, R1–2). It is often characterized by affective overtones, which, in some cases, can neutralize and even reverse the face value of the alteration. Cattivaccio, for instance, can express fondness as well as disapproval (cf. English naughty); tardino, literally a little late, can be used ironically to mean very late. The basic value of the alteration associated with each sufﬁx, however, should not be overlooked. In fact, there are many instances where the modiﬁed term has acquired a life of its own, generating in turn some more or less lexicalized alterations (see section 2.3.2). carta (paper) > cartella (page, ﬁle, folder, briefcase, schoolbag) > cartellina (small cartella); > cartello (notice, placard, sign) > cartellone (bill, poster); > cartoccio (paper wrap, often in the shape of a cone) > cartoccetto, cartoccino (small cartoccio), > cartoccione (large cartoccio); > cartone (m) (cardboard) > cartoncino (light cardboard, card), > cartuccia (cartridge). On the other hand, some terms, in spite of their appearance, were never obtained through alteration. Bottino (booty) and bottone (button), for example, did not derive from botte (cask), botto (blow, shot, bang), or botta (blow, bump), but from French words. The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. 168 In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. 5.1 Diminutive sufﬁxes The sufﬁxes for nouns, adjectives and adverbs have been divided into two groups, diminutive and augmentative. Positive (fondness, admiration) or negative (disapproval, contempt) overtones can be found in both groups. The sufﬁxes for verbs are listed separately. Apart from the speciﬁc destination of some sufﬁxes and a tendency to avoid awkward repetitions (cuscinetto, but not cuscinino; lettino but not lettetto; astuccino, but not astucciuccio, and so on), there is no precise rule to determine which words can take which sufﬁxes: only experience can tell. The lists that follow are only an approximate guide to the intrinsic value of some sufﬁxes. It is possible to have two sufﬁxes in succession, e.g. tavolinetto (nice little table); tavolinuccio (insigniﬁcant little table); omaccione (big ugly man); casettina (nice little house); grassottello (plumpish). Altered adjectives follow the noun they modify. Only a handful of adverbs admit sufﬁxes. The most common are: adagio, bene, male, piano, forte, poco, tanto, presto, tardi. Altered adverbs are often preceded (in R1) by reinforcing, although ultimately redundant, adverbial expressions such as un po’, e.g. un po’ prestino. Similarly, some altered nouns are sometimes accompanied (in R1–2) by reinforcing adjectives such as grande and piccolo, e.g. un gran macchinone, un piccolo lettino. Sufﬁxes are given with their masculine singular ending, when applicable. 5.1 Diminutive sufﬁxes Sufﬁx Notes and examples -ino (with –(i)cino and -olino) The most common diminutive sufﬁxes. They can express cuteness and fondness, e.g. manina = (cute) little hand; cuoricino = (dear) little heart; topolino = (cute) little mouse (Topolino is Italian for Mickey Mouse). Some feminine nouns may become masculine when altered with -ino, e.g. pentola > pentolino (as well as pentolina) = small pot. With adjectives and adverbs they tend to have an attenuating value, e.g. magrolino = a little skinny; verdino = light green, greenish; benino = fairly well. note : nouns in -one/-ona are usu restricted to the sufﬁx -cino, e.g. scarpone (mountain boot) > scarponcino; poltrona > poltroncina. 169 5 Affective sufﬁxes 170 Sufﬁx Notes and examples -etto Very common sufﬁx, generally used with affectionate overtones, e.g. bacetto = nice little kiss; casetta, cute little house. It attenuates adjectives, e.g. piccoletto = a bit small. Apart from un pochetto (a little bit), with its variation un pochettino, it is not used with adverbs. -ello (with -(i)cello and -erello) Quite common diminutive sufﬁxes, similar in meaning to the ones above, but not used with adverbs, e.g. alberello = (delicate) little tree; venticello = nice gentle breeze; focherello = small ﬁre (note the regular disappearance of the “dittongo mobile” and preservation of the [k] sound of fuoco); cattivello = a bit naughty; pazzerello = a bit mad (in a nice way). -uccio (-uzzo) This diminutive sufﬁx can express a certain degree of endearment, as when used with proper nouns (e.g. Carluccio), or nouns like ziuccio = dear uncle, boccuccia = cute little mouth etc., but also contempt, e.g. avvocatuccio = little-known, incompetent lawyer. With adjectives it is attenuating, e.g. calduccio = (nice and) warm; deboluccio = a bit weak. -icciolo (-icciuolo) As with the previous sufﬁx, smallness as expressed through this sufﬁx can convey a sense of cuteness, e.g. festicciola = small, intimate party, porticciolo = (nice) little port, or a sense of insigniﬁcance, e.g. donnicciola = small insigniﬁcant woman. Not for adjectives or adverbs. -ùcolo This sufﬁx is used only with nouns and has pejorative overtones, e.g. poetucolo = worthless poet. -olo (-uolo) A rather neutral diminutive sufﬁx, e.g. montagnola = small mountain, mound; capannola = small hut. 5.1 Diminutive sufﬁxes Sufﬁx Notes and examples -otto A variation of -etto, this sufﬁx is used to indicate the young of some animals (e.g. aquilotto = eaglet), and it can add a note of likable clumsiness to the nouns with which it combines, e.g. contadinotto = a stout peasant. At times it may lose its diminutive character: a ragazzotto is not necessarily smaller than a ragazzo. Some feminine nouns can turn masculine when modiﬁed by this sufﬁx, e.g. candela > candelotto = short and thick candle. With adjectives it has an attenuating effect, e.g. piccolotto = somewhat small (usually of persons); vecchiotto = rather old. -acchiotto Mostly found in the words for young animals: orsacchiotto = young bear, teddy bear; lupacchiotto = young wolf. Also used with a moderating effect with a few adjectives, e.g. furbacchiotto = quite cunning. -iciàttolo This diminutive sufﬁx is only used with nouns and expresses contempt: ﬁumiciattolo = small and insigniﬁcant river; omiciattolo= small and insigniﬁcant man; mostriciattolo = insigniﬁcant ugly creature, small monster. -ónzolo Used with a few nouns, it has a pejorative connotation, e.g. mediconzolo = incompetent doctor; paperonzolo = clumsy gosling. -iccio For adjectives only. This basically attenuating sufﬁx adds a note of imperfection or approximation to the adjectives or adjectival past participles it alters, e.g. malaticcio = sickly; bruciaticcio = half burned; sudaticcio = rather sweaty. It sometimes corresponds to the English sufﬁx -ish, e.g. rossiccio = reddish. Its use has been extended to a few nouns, but with a tendency to lexicalization, e.g. terriccio = rich soil suitable for potting (from terra, with a change of gender). -igno For adjectives only. Less frequent than -iccio, this sufﬁx also expresses approximation, e.g. asprigno = sourish. 171 5 Affective sufﬁxes 5.2 Sufﬁx Notes and examples -ògnolo For adjectives only and similar in value to the previous, e.g. amarognolo = bitterish, this sufﬁx is especially used with colors, e.g. verdognolo = greenish; giallognolo = yellowish. -occio Used only with adjectives, it has an attenuating value and it is often used jokingly, e.g. belloccio = kind of good looking; grassoccio = plump(ish). Augmentative sufﬁxes Possibly because of an overlapping in meaning with the superlative, the use of these sufﬁxes with adjectives results in substantivization. To translate he is very bad, beside è cattivissimo/molto cattivo etc., we can use è un cattivone, but not è cattivone. Sufﬁx 172 Notes and examples -one The most common augmentative sufﬁx, it conveys the idea of bigness, e.g. ragazzone = big boy, librone = big book, or even greatness, e.g. professorone (R1) = eminent professor. It may change the gender of feminine nouns, e.g. bottiglia > bottiglione (as well as bottigliona) = big bottle; donna > donnone (as well as donnona) = big woman. Substantivized adjectives are reinforced by -one, e.g. pigrone = very lazy person, and so is also the adverb bene: benone = very well. note : nouns like chiacchierone (chatterbox) or mangione (big eater), being derived from verb stems, are not proper “alterati.” -accio (–azzo) This is the most common pejorative sufﬁx, e.g. libraccio = very bad book, ragazzaccio = very rude boy, coltellaccio = big (threatening) knife. -astro Quite common sufﬁx. With nouns it conveys contempt, e.g. poetastro = a bad poet; with adjectives, it expresses approximation, sometimes with a hint of dislike, e.g. biancastro = whitish, off-white; dolciastro = sweetish. 5.3 Sufﬁxes for verbs 5.3 Sufﬁx Notes and examples -acchione Less frequent and productive than the previous ones, this sufﬁx can be used with joking affection as well as in a pejorative sense, e.g. fratacchione = big jolly friar or big fat friar. Sufﬁxes for verbs These sufﬁxes are in general less productive than most of the sufﬁxes for nouns and adjectives. Some of them are found in only very few verbs. Sufﬁx Notes and examples -acchiare -icchiare -ucchiare These sufﬁxes generally indicate the irregular repetition of the action in a somewhat weakened form, e.g. sparacchiare = to shoot at irregular intervals and without much care; canticchiare = to sing softly, absent-mindedly, with pauses; mangiucchiare = to nibble. -ellare -arellare -erellare These sufﬁxes have a diminutive and iterative value, e.g. saltellare, saltarellare/ salterellare = to skip, to hop; giocherellare = to play absent-mindedly with sth, to ﬁddle with sth. -ettare -ottare These are quite similar in meaning to the previous sufﬁxes: e.g. ﬁschiettare = to whistle away (a tune) (usually softly and rather absent-mindedly); parlottare = to chat in a low voice. -ucolare This sufﬁx has a diminutive value and is only found in piagnucolare (from piagnere, a non-standard form of piangere) = to whine, to whinge. -uzzare Like some of the above, this sufﬁx has a diminutive and iterative connotation, e.g. tagliuzzare = to cut into (many) small bits. 173 6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs Idioms, similes, and proverbs are the spices of all natural languages. Italian offers a great choice of such colourful “ingredients.” In fact, since the popular tradition from which so many of these locutions originate is inextricably intertwined with the dialects, the average native Italian speaker will also use a whole range of idioms and proverbs with more or less accentuated dialectal overtones. The latter are typically at an R1 (or R1∗ ) level. Conversely, the use of idioms, similes, and proverbs in standard Italian – of which the lists below are but very small samples – is generally closer to R2 (and above). 6.1 Idioms The following idioms are sorted according to their cardinal word or group of words. The latter are underlined when not in initial position, for ease of consultation. With regard to all the expressions with avere, it should be pointed out that in colloquial Italian averci is much more common, e.g. c’ha [tʃ a] la faccia tosta. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 174 In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. 6.1 Idioms A Italian idiom English equivalent essere con/avere l’ acqua alla gola fare acqua (da tutte le parti) (lit and ﬁg) to be in deep water, to be in great difﬁculties (lit) to take in water (everywhere); (ﬁg, of argument) not to hold water (at all) mum’s the word to be in dire straits acqua in bocca! (R1) essere/trovarsi/navigare in cattive acque dormire/riposare sugli allori (R2–3) scoprire gli altarini (di qu) (R1) andare a ruba darsi delle (R1–2)/molte (R1–2)/un sacco di (R1) arie avere un asso nella manica lasciare/piantare in asso qu fare l’avvocato del diavolo B piantare baracca e burattini (R1–2) mettere il bastone tra le ruote chiudere il becco (R1) essere la bestia nera (di qu) passare una notte in bianco in bianco e nero restare/rimanere a bocca aperta (R1) tornare a bomba (R1–2) sentirsi cascare le braccia (R1) a bruciapelo to rest on one’s laurels to ﬁnd out sb’s secrets (not seriously) to go/sell like hot cakes to put on airs to have a trick up one’s sleeve to leave sb high and dry to play devil’s advocate to drop/to leave everything to put a spoke in the wheel to shut up to be sb’s bugbear to have a sleepless night black and white (ﬁlms etc.) but in black and white (in writing) = nero su bianco, e.g. mettiamo nero su bianco = let’s put it in writing to be left gaping, open-mouthed (in bewilderment, surprise, admiration) to get back to the point to lose hope point-blank; (ﬁg) suddenly, unexpectedly, e.g. fare una domanda a bruciapelo 175 6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs C Italian idiom English equivalent rimandare alle calende greche (R2–3) nascere con la camicia sudare sette camicie menare il can per l’aia (R2–3) tirato per i capelli spaccare un capello in quattro non avere né capo né coda salvare capra e cavoli (R1–2) in carne ed ossa (R1–2) mettere troppa carne al fuoco (R1–2) mettere il carro innanzi ai buoi avere/dare carta bianca to put sth off until doomsday a casaccio (R1) cavallo di battaglia (R2–3) avere una brutta cera essere al settimo cielo passarne/vederne di tutti i colori/ di cotte e di crude (R1–2) dare il colpo di grazia a qu dare un colpo al cerchio e uno alla botte fare colpo (su qu) (R1–2) come se nulla fosse fare il (porco [R1∗ -1]) comodo proprio (R1–2) essere in condizioni (di fare qc) fare i conti con qu (R1) avere un conto in sospeso con qu 176 to be born lucky to work really hard, to sweat blood to beat about the bush far-fetched to split hairs to have neither rhyme nor reason to have one’s cake and eat it in the ﬂesh, in person to bite off more than one can chew to put the cart before the horse to have/to give a free hand/carte blanche haphazardly, at random pièce de résistance, strong point, forte to look unwell to be in seventh heaven to go through thick and thin to ﬁnish sb off to run with the hare and hunt with the hounds to make an impression (on sb) as if nothing had happened to do as one pleases to be able (to do sth) to settle accounts with sb to have an account to settle with sb 6.1 Idioms Italian idiom English equivalent andare controcorrente to go against the current, to swim against the tide to be a cuckold; to be unfaithful to sb to speak very badly of sb avere le corna; mettere le corna a qu (R1) dire peste e corna di qu (R1) salvarsi in corner (R1) tirare le cuoia (R1) D F to have a narrow escape to kick the bucket avere un diavolo per capello mettere il dito sulla piaga (R1–2) doccia scozzese (R2–3) dormire della grossa (R1–2) to be furious to touch on a sore point avere la faccia tosta/di bronzo (R1) avere fegato; avere il fegato di fare qc (R1–2) essere ai ferri corti toccare ferro (R1)/fare le corna (R1)/fare gli scongiuri to have cheek, to be brazen-faced conciare per le feste (R1–2) in ﬁla indiana ﬁlarsela all’inglese (R2–3) dare del ﬁlo da torcere (a qu) essere il ﬁor ﬁore di qc (R2–3) avere fortuna (R2)/culo (R1∗ ), e.g.: che fortuna/culo (R1∗ )! fare un freddo cane (R1–2) molto/tutto fumo e poco/niente arrosto (R1–2) andare in fumo essere/trovarsi tra due fuochi a succession of good and bad news to sleep like a log to have guts; to have the guts to do sth to be at loggerheads to touch wood note fare le corna also indicates the insulting gesture accompanying the accusation of “cuckold” to reduce to a sorry state in single ﬁle to take French leave to make things hard (for sb) to be the cream of sth to be lucky what a ﬂuke! to be freezing cold (of weather) more appearance than substance, all appearance and no substance to go up in smoke to be caught in the crossﬁre, be between two ﬁres 177 6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs G Italian idiom English equivalent essere fuori di sé uscire/essere/andare fuori dai gàngheri (R1–2) fare il furbo, e.g.: non fate i furbi! to be beside oneself (usu negative) to lose one’s temper fare una gaffe [gaf] to put one’s foot in it, to make a faux pas to go to bed very early andare a letto con le galline (R1–2) una (brutta) gatta da pelare (R1–2) (esserci) quattro gatti (R1) e.g.: c’erano quattro gatti in gioco/in ballo (R1–2) un gioco da ragazzi (ﬁg) prendere in giro/per i fondelli (R1–2)/per il culo (R1∗ ) (qu) la goccia d’acqua che fa traboccare il vaso alzare il gómito a hard nut to crack very few people (to attend) there were very few people at stake a piece of cake (ﬁg) to pull sb’s leg, to make a fool of sb, to cheat sb the straw that broke the camel’s back, the last straw to drink (alcohol), to bend the elbow I essere/trovarsi tra l’incùdine e il martello to be between the devil and the deep blue sea L spezzare una lancia a favore di qu (R3) in linea d’aria in linea di massima non avere una lira (R1–2) dare alla luce (un bambino) (R2–3); vedere la luce (R3)/venire alla luce (R2–3) a lume di naso (R1–2) to plead sb’ s cause M 178 to try to be smart/clever don’t you try to be smart! allargarsi/espandersi a macchia d’olio as the crow ﬂies generally speaking not to have a bean/a penny/a cent to give birth; to be born, to be published at a guess to spread quickly in all directions 6.1 Idioms Italian idiom English equivalent mandare qu a farsi friggere (R1)/a farsi benedire (R1)/al diavolo (R1∗ -1)/a quel paese (R1)/affanculo (originally in central and Southern Italy for “a fare in culo,” very rude but very common expression) (R1∗ ) to send sb packing: to tell sb to push off/to go jump in the lake/to go to hell/to get lost/to fuck off (all these are idiomatic and not literal translations of the Italian) note : as direct insults, these expressions are used with andare, e.g.: va’ a farti friggere/a farti benedire/a quel paese (all R1∗ -1)/affanculo (R1∗ ) = push off/go jump in the lake/go to hell/get lost/fuck off to wolf down mangiare a quattro ganasce (R1) un altro paio di maniche (R1–2) essere in maniche di camicia lavarsene le mani (di qc) mangiarsi le mani (per qc) (R1) venire alle mani (R2–3) dare una mano a qu (R1–2) fuori mano (R1–2) metterci una mano sul fuoco (R1–2) fare marcia indietro (R1–2) da che mondo è mondo (R1–2) saltare la mosca al naso (a qu) (R1–2), e.g.: gli è saltata la mosca al naso rompere (spaccare [R1∗ -1]) il muso (R1)/la faccia (R1) a qu another kettle of ﬁsh to be in one’s shirt-sleeves to wash one’s hands of sth to regret (sth) to come to blows to give sb a hand out of the way, far, remote (of places) to have total trust in sth/sb to go into reverse, (ﬁg) to change one’s mind since time began to get cross he got cross to smash sb’s face (in) 179 6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs N O Italian idiom English equivalent ﬁccare il naso (in qc) (R1) non importare un bel nulla/ﬁco secco (R1–2)/cavolo (R1∗ –1) non esserci anima viva/un’anima (R1–2)/un cane (R1) e.g.: non c’era anima viva non sapere a che santo votarsi (R1–2)/che pesci pigliare (prendere) (R1–2) nuovo di zecca avere la testa tra le nuvole/vivere nelle nuvole (R1–2) cascare dalle nuvole to snoop around (in sth) not to matter two hoots/a damn saltare agli occhi (R1–2) a occhio e croce (R1–2) chiudere un occhio dare nell’ occhio (a qu) to be patently obvious more or less, roughly to turn a blind eye to be conspicuous, to attract the attention (of sb) in the twinkling of an eye not to sleep a wink to pay through the nose/to cost an arm and a leg to be all ears to pretend not to hear to be soaked to the skin in un batter d’occhio non chiudere occhio (R1–2) pagare/costare un occhio (della testa) (R1–2) essere tutt’orecchi fare orecchie da mercante essere bagnato ﬁno all’ osso/alle ossa (R1–2) P 180 cadere dalla padella nella brace dire pane al pane e vino al vino (R1–2) parla come mangi! (R1) parlare del più e del meno parlare turco/arabo/ ostrogoto (all R1) parlarsi addosso there to be not a living soul there was no one/not a living soul to be at one’s wits’ end, not to know where to turn, to be at a loss brand new to have one’s head in the clouds, to be up in the clouds, to be away with the fairies to be astonished, to come back to earth to jump out of the frying pan into the ﬁre to call a spade a spade speak simply and clearly! to chat about this and that to talk double-Dutch to talk too much and for oneself 6.1 Idioms Italian idiom English equivalent essere di parola prendere la parola (R2–3) mangiarsi le parole (R1) fare quattro passi (R1–2) essere pazzo/matto da legare (R1) non avere peli sulla lingua (R1–2) non stare più nella pelle (R1–2) avere la pelle d’oca; far venire la pelle d’oca a qu (R1) cercare il pelo nell’uovo per un pelo (R1), e.g.: (lui) ce l’ha fatta per un pelo per un pelo non è caduto to be reliable to take the ﬂoor to speak indistinctly to go for a stroll to be completely mad perdere la bùssola/la tramontana/le staffe pagare di persona fare un pesce d’aprile a qu pezzo grosso (R1–2) scendere in picchiata prendere due piccioni con una fava (R1–2) andare a picco; colare a picco non reggersi in piedi andare coi piedi di piombo (R1–2) indorare la pı̀llola (R2–3) piove che Dio la manda (R1)/ piove a catinelle (R1–2) essere il pomo della discordia not to mince words to be beside oneself (with joy or expectation) to get goose pimples/bumps; to make sb get goose pimples/bumps to be always picking holes in things just; nearly he made it by the skin of his teeth (afﬁrmative) he very nearly fell down (negative) to lose one’s temper to meet one’s responsibilities squarely to play an April’s Fool’s Day trick on sb big shot, important person to dive (of a plane) to kill two birds with one stone to sink (intr); to sink (both tr and intr) to be weak, not to stand up (lit of people etc., ﬁg of arguments etc.) to watch one’s step, to proceed very carefully to sugar/gild the pill, to make sth easier to swallow it’s raining cats and dogs/buckets to be the bone of contention 181 6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs Italian idiom English equivalent essere poveri in canna (R1–2)/ridotti sul lastrico (R2–3)/al verde (R1–2)/in bolletta (R1–2) mettere la pulce nell’orecchio a qu (R1–2) mettere i puntini sulle/sugli i (R1–2) di punto in bianco essere a un punto morto to be broke scatenare un putiferio/fare un casino (del diavolo/ della madonna) (R1∗ ) to dot one’s i’s and cross one’s t’s out of the blue to be at a standstill (of negotiations etc.) to cause a row Q a quattrocchi (R1) in private R dare ragione/torto a qu tirare i remi in barca mettere a repentaglio (R2–3) rimangiarsi una promessa/la parola data rispondere per le rime alla rinfusa rompere le scatole (R1)/le palle (R1∗ )/i coglioni (R1∗ ), or simply rompere (R1∗ -1) (a qu) mancare una rotella (a qu) (R1) uscire/passare/farcela per il rotto della cufﬁa (R1–2) to say that sb is right/wrong to back out of (some enterprise) to put in danger, to jeopardize to go back on a promise/on one’s word to answer back, to give tit for tat helter-skelter, higgledy-piggledy to annoy, to pester sb fare schifo (a qu) (R1∗ -1) to disgust (sb); to be awful; (ﬁg) to be bad (at sth = in qc or a qc [game, sport]) to be clever (ironic or sarcastic) aren’t you clever! (sarcastically) S scoprire l’acqua calda/ l’America (both R1), e.g.: hai scoperto l’acqua calda! ritornare in sé prendere sul serio 182 to insinuate sth, to hint at sth to have a screw loose to get off/to squeeze through/to make it by the skin of one’s teeth to regain consciousness, to come round to take seriously 6.1 Idioms Italian idiom English equivalent essere agli sgoccioli (R1–2) per/a quattro soldi (comprare/vendere) (R1–2) esserci sotto qualcosa, e.g.: qui c’é sotto qualcosa essere (stare)/tenere sulle spine fare la spola/la navetta gettare la spugna chiudere la stalla quando sono scappati i buoi non essere uno stinco di santo (R1) stare sullo stomaco (R1–2)/ sui coglioni (R1∗ )/sul cazzo (R1∗ ) a qu to be at the very end/about to ﬁnish for a song (to sell/to buy) (quattro soldi = very little money) there to be sth ﬁshy there’s something ﬁshy here to be/to keep on tenterhooks to shuttle/go back and forth to throw in the towel/sponge to lock the stable door after the horse has gone/bolted to be no saint to be utterly unbearable to sb T fare tabula rasa (R2–3) bruciare le tappe col passare del tempo fare il bello e il cattivo tempo (R1–2) tenere a bada qu tagliare la testa al toro to make a clean sweep to go fast (also ﬁg, e.g. in a career) as time goes/went by to wield absolute power, to do as one pleases to keep/hold sb in check/at bay to cut things/the matter short V fare le valigie (ﬁg R1–2) vedere tutto nero (R1–2) vedere tutto rosa (R1–2) to leave to be pessimistic to see life/everything through rose-tinted glasses to be in the mood to give the green light to have nine lives (like a cat) essere in vena (R1–2) dare via libera avere sette vite (come un gatto) avere voce in capitolo (R2–3) volere la botte piena e la moglie ubriaca (R1–2) Z darsi la zappa sui piedi (R1–2) to have a say (in the matter) to want to have one’s cake and eat it to damage/contradict oneself unwittingly; to shoot oneself in the foot 183 6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs 6.2 Similes based on adjectives Sometimes a metaphor can take the place of a simile: è un pezzo di pane instead of è buono come il pane. In some cases (not listed) the metaphor is preferred, e.g. è una lumaca “s/he is (as slow as) a snail.” For increased emphasis, the simile can be transformed into a comparative clause with più . . . di/che . . . , wherever indicated (cf. section 17.1). Italian expression English equivalent bagnato come un pulcino (R1–2) bello come il sole bianco come la (più bianco della) neve brutto come la fame/il demonio/la morte/il peccato (R1) buono come il pane (R1–2) chiaro come il sole cieco come una talpa contento come una pasqua (R1–2) duro come il sasso/l’acciaio facile come bere un bicchier d’acqua forte come (più forte di) un toro freddo come la neve/il ghiaccio grande/grosso come una casa (R1–2) grasso come un maiale (R1) liscio come l’olio soaking wet dazzlingly handsome as white as (whiter than) snow muto come un pesce nero come il carbone raro come una mosca bianca (or le mosche bianche) sano come un pesce solo come un cane sordo come una campana vecchio come il (più vecchio del) cucco (R1) (or vecchio come [più vecchio di] Matusalemme) veloce come il vento 184 as ugly as sin “a living saint,” goodness itself as clear as day(light)/crystal as blind as a bat as happy as a lark as hard as a rock/as tough as nails as easy as winking/ABC (of doing sth) as strong as an ox as cold as ice huge as fat as a pig very ﬂat (of water surface); (ﬁg) as smooth(ly) as possible close-mouthed, tight-lipped as black as soot/pitch extremely rare as sound as a bell, as ﬁt as a ﬁddle all alone as deaf as a post as old as (older than) the hills/Methuselah as swift as the wind 6.4 Other proverbial comparisons 6.3 Similes based on verbs Italian expression English equivalent bere come una spugna (R1–2) cantare come un usignolo dormire come un ghiro fumare come un turco (R1) girare come una tròttola (also ﬁg) mangiare come un lupo (R1–2) mangiare come un maiale (R1) to drink like a ﬁsh (usu alcohol) to sing like a canary to sleep like a log to smoke like a chimney to spin like a top to eat like a horse to eat like a pig (i.e. with bad table manners) to swim like a ﬁsh to talk like a book, to speak eloquently to cry buckets/ﬂoods of tears nuotare come un pesce (R1–2) parlare come un libro stampato (R1–2) piangere come una fontana (R1–2) piangere come una vite tagliata (R1–2) tremare come una foglia (R1–2) 6.4 to cry uncontrollably to tremble like a leaf Other proverbial comparisons Italian expression English equivalent capitare/essere come il cacio sui maccheroni (R1) è come parlare al muro/al vento (R1–2) essere come cane e gatto (R1–2) essere come il diavolo e l’acqua santa (R1–2) essere come il vaso di coccio tra i vasi di ferro (R2–3) to be the right thing/person at the right time it’s like talking to a brick wall/ the wall to be (always ﬁghting) like cat and dog to be like cat and dog essere/fare come il bue che dice cornuto all’asino (R1) essere/sentirsi come un pesce fuor d’acqua peggio che andar di notte (R1–2) stare come un pascià (R1–2) to be in a risky situation, in the company of much rougher comrades to be/to do like the pot that calls the kettle black to be/to feel like a ﬁsh out of water worse than ever (of situations) to be surrounded by comfort and luxury; to be in one’s element 185 6 Idioms, similes, and proverbs 6.5 Proverbs A great number of proverbs exist and are commonly used in Italian and in the Italian dialects. Their diffusion at all levels is such that in everyday use many of the following proverbs are simply “prompted,” that is, “suspended” after the ﬁrst few words (e.g. chi tardi arriva . . .), on the assumption that the listener will be able to ﬁll in the missing words (cf. English “where there’s a will . . .” and so on). Likewise, some of the components of these proverbs can be used separately though still preserving their proverbial meaning, e.g. è acqua passata (said of a past event that should not worry us anymore). The following is only a small sample of the most common Italian proverbs. (See also chapter 10.) A literal translation has been offered for those Italian proverbs without a more or less direct English equivalent. When no equivalent English proverb can be found, an explanation of the Italian saying is provided. Italian proverb English equivalent Aiutati che il ciel/Dio t’aiuta Batti il ferro ﬁnché è caldo A caval donato non si guarda in bocca Chi dorme non piglia pesci God helps those who help themselves Strike while the iron is hot Never look a gift horse in the mouth lit S/he who sleeps does not catch ﬁsh, i.e. The early bird catches the worm It’s not the cowl that makes the monk lit Better an egg today than a hen tomorrow, i.e. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush Don’t speak of rope in the house of the hanged L’abito non fa il mònaco Meglio un/l’uovo oggi che una/la gallina domani Non si parla di corda in casa dell’impiccato Occhio non vede cuore non duole Paese che vai usanza che trovi Quando il gatto non c’è i topi ballano Tra il dire e il fare c’é di mezzo il mare Una róndine non fa primavera A pagare e morire c’è sempre tempo Chi ben comincia è a metà dell’opra Chi cerca trova Chi non risica non rosica Chi rompe paga (e i cocci sono suoi) 186 lit Eye does not see, heart does not ache, i.e. Out of sight, out of mind lit The town you go to, the customs you ﬁnd, i.e. When in Rome, do as the Romans do When the cat’s away, the mice will play lit Between saying and doing there is the sea in the middle, i.e. Easier said than done One swallow doesn’t make a summer lit There is always time to pay and to die i.e. Payments and death can always wait Well begun is half done Seek and you shall ﬁnd lit S/he who does not risk, does not gnaw, i.e. Nothing ventured, nothing gained lit S/he who breaks must pay (and the broken pieces are hers/his), i.e. He who’s guilty must pay 6.5 Proverbs Italian proverb English equivalent Chi tardi arriva male alloggia lit S/he who is late will not ﬁnd good lodgings, i.e. First come ﬁrst served lit S/he who wants too much gets nothing, i.e. Grasp all lose all lit S/he who goes with the lame learns to limp, i.e. Bad company will teach you bad things lit S/he who goes slowly goes safely and far, i.e. Slow and steady wins the race While there’s life there’s hope lit The hasty cat made blind kittens, i.e. Acting in a hurry only leads to bad results or More haste less speed lit Shared evil, half joy, i.e. A problem shared is a problem halved Better alone than in bad company Better late than never lit Not all evil comes to do harm, i.e. Every cloud has a silver lining lit (With) too many roosters the morning never comes, i.e. Too many cooks spoil the broth He who laughs last laughs best Red sky at night shepherd’s delight, red sky in the morning shepherd’s warning lit Between two quarreling parties it’s the third that gains, i.e. The onlooker gets the best lit All tastes are tastes, i.e. There is no accounting for tastes lit A warned man is half saved, i.e. Forewarned is forearmed lit Practice is worth more than grammar, i.e. Practice is better than theory Chi troppo vuole nulla stringe Chi va con lo zoppo impara a zoppicare Chi va piano va sano e va lontano Finché c’è vita c’è speranza La gatta frettolosa fece i gattini ciechi Mal comune mezzo gaudio Meglio soli che male accompagnati Meglio tardi che mai Non tutto il male vien (or non tutti i mali vengono) per nuocere Troppi galli a cantar non fa mai giorno Ride bene chi ride (l’)ultimo Rosso di sera buon tempo si spera; rosso di mattina mal tempo s’avvicina Tra due litiganti il terzo gode Tutti i gusti sono gusti Uomo avvisato mezzo salvato Vale più la pratica che la grammatica 187 7 Personal names Apart from names of popes (e.g. John Paul II = Giovanni Paolo II), in modern/contemporary times, only the names of royalty tend to be translated into Italian. For instance, Queen Elizabeth, Prince Charles, Prince Philip, Princess Anne become, respectively, la regina Elisabetta, il principe Carlo, il principe Filippo, la principessa Anna. This “rule” does not seem to apply to anybody else, be they Presidents or Prime Ministers, famous or ordinary people. Consequently, Tony Blair, George Bush, or any Johnny Lambs will remain untranslated, rather than becoming Antonio Blair, Giorgio Bush or Gianni Lambs (not to mention Giorgio Cespuglio or Gianni Agnelli). The names of famous historical or literary characters of the past, on the other hand, have in many cases been Italianized, especially, but not only, ﬁrst names (e.g. Abramo Lincoln, Beniamino Franklin). This trend has waned in recent times. Latin names (personal as well as geographical) are usually Italianized. This “rule” applies to classical antiquity (all names, including Greek ones, had a Latin equivalent), and also, in more recent times, to a number of characters whose names were Latinized (e.g. Descartes > Cartesius > Cartesio), and to the popes (who always take Latin names). In the following small samples – in which more obvious names, such as Augusto, have not been included – some of the unusual stresses have been indicated. In normal circumstances the usual Italian conventions with regard to written stresses will apply. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. 188 7.2 The Bible 7.1 Achilles Aeneas Aeschylus Aesop Ajax Alexander Archimedes Ariadne Aristophanes Aristotle Artemis Boethius Caligula Cato Cicero Constantine Cyrus Diocletian Euclid Euripides Hannibal Hector Hercules Homer Iliad Odyssey Horace Achille Enea Eschilo Esòpo Aiace Alessandro Archimede Arianna Aristofane Aristotele Artèmide Boezio Caligola Catone Cicerone Costantino Ciro Diocleziano Euclide Euripide Annı̀bale Ettore Ercole Omèro Ilı̀ade (f ) Odissèa Orazio 7.2 7.2.1 Aaron Abel Abraham Adam Beelzebub Cain David Delilah Elijah The ancient world: Greece and Rome Julius Caesar Juno Jupiter/Jove Leto Livy Mark Antony Nero Oedipus Ovid Phidias Phoebus Plato Pompey Praxiteles Pythagoras Romulus Scipio Socrates Solon Suetonius Sulla Terence Venus Vergil/Virgil Xenophon Xerxes Giulio Cesare Giunone Giove Latona Tito Livio Marcantonio Nerone Edipo Ovidio Fidia Febo Platone Pompeo Prassitele Pitagora Romolo Scipione Socrate Solone Svetonio Silla Terenzio Venere Virgilio Senofonte Serse Esau Isaac Isaiah Jacob Jehovah Jeremiah Job Joshua Methuselah Esaù Isacco Isaı̀a Giacobbe Gèova Geremia Giobbe Giosuè Matusalemme The Bible Old Testament Aronne Abele Abramo Adamo Belzebù Caı̀no Davide Dàlila Elı̀a 189 7 Personal names Moses Nebuchadnezzar Noah Mosè Nabucodonosòr Noè 7.2.2 Andrew Bartholomew Belshazzar Caiphas Herod James Jesus Christ John (the Baptist) la Regina di Saba Sansone Sàul Mark Mary Mary Magdalene Matthew the Messiah Pontius Pilate Satan Saul (Paul) Simon Peter the Wise Men Zachaeus [note : Gospel Marco Maria Maria Maddalena Matteo il Messia Ponzio Pilato Sàtana Sàulo (Paolo) Simon Pietro i Re Magi Zaccheo Vangelo] New Testament Andrèa Bartolomèo Baldassarre Caifa Erode Giàcomo Gesù Cristo Giovanni (Battista) Giuseppe Giuda Lazzaro Luca Joseph Judas Lazarus Luke Queen of Sheba Samson Saul note : the feminine of Andrea is Andreina. Similarly, Nicòla (m = Nicholas) – Nicoletta (f ). Also, the name “Simon” on its own is Simone. 7.3 7.3.1 Francis/Roger Bacon Charlemagne Charles V René Descartes Don Quixote Francis I Franz Joseph Henry VIII Joan of Arc John Calvin John de Hawkwood John Lackland Louis 190 The Middle Ages to the twentieth century Non-Italian names Francesco/Ruggero Bacone Carlo Magno Carlo V (quinto) Cartesio Don Chisciotte Francesco I (primo) Francesco Giuseppe Enrico VIII (ottavo) Giovanna d’Arco Giovanni Calvino Giovanni Acuto Giovanni Senza Terra Luigi Hamlet Magellan Marie Antoinette Martin Luther Mary Stuart Mohammed Napoleon Nicolas Copernicus Otto Richard the Lionheart Romeo and Juliet Thomas More Queen Victoria William the Conqueror Amleto Magellano Maria Antonietta Martı̀n Lutèro Maria Stuarda Maometto Napoleone Nicòla Copernico Ottone Riccardo Cuor di Leone Giulietta e Romèo Tommaso Moro la regina Vittoria Guglielmo il Conquistatore 7.3 The Middle Ages to the twentieth century 7.3.2 Aldus Manutius Christopher Columbus Francis of Assisi Petrarch Italian names with a Latinized or Anglicized form in English Aldo Manuzio Cristoforo Colombo Francesco d’Assisi Petrarca Raphael Thomas Aquinas Titian Victor Emmanuel Raffaello Tommaso d’Aquino Tiziano Vittorio Emanuele 191 8 Geographical and astronomical names and related adjectives As with personal names, so with geographical names: the older the name (in the Latin or Italian tradition, that is), the more likely it is that it will have an Italianized version. This explains the great number of European locations in the following lists. Each continent, country, region, and city has been complemented, whenever possible, by the adjective that, used as a noun, denotes the corresponding inhabitant. The adjectives that do not fulﬁl this function have been put in brackets. Any special form used in compound adjectives (e.g. anglo-) has also been given. The geographical adjectives, even though the sufﬁxes -ese and -ano characterize many of them, show a variety of endings, and in some cases appear quite removed from the name of the place they refer to. This is usually due to their deriving directly from older (mostly Latin or Latinized) geographical denominations, e.g. londinese < Lat. londiniensem < Londinium (London). In everyday speech, if the particular adjective does not exist or is not known – some of those referring to less prominent places tend to be less commonly used − it is always possible to resort to the expression di (or del/dello/etc., according to the nature of the locality) + name of the place, e.g. quella signora è di Aosta; quella signora è della Valle d’Aosta. Gender and number of regions and countries has been indicated only in difﬁcult cases. In the list of countries and regions of the world, the symbol † indicates that in normal circumstances that particular name should not be used with the deﬁnite article. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 192 The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See 29. The usual Italian pronunciation of foreign words is given in phonetic spelling in square brackets whenever appropriate. 8.2 Italy: cities 8.1 Italy: administrative regions Region Adjective Region Adjective Abruzzo abruzzese, aprutino [R3] Molise (m) molisano Piemonte (m) piemontese Basilicata (Lucania) lucano calabrese (càlabro [R2–3] usu refers to ancient Calabria) Puglia Calabria pugliese (àpulo [R3] usu refers to ancient Apulia) Campania campano Sardegna sardo Emilia emiliano Sicilia Romagna romagnolo siciliano (sı̀culo [R2–3] usu refers to ancient Sicily) Friuli (m s) friulano Toscana toscano, tósco (R3) Venezia Giulia giuliano Trentino trentino Lazio laziale (latino usu refers to ancient Latium) Alto Adige altoatesino Umbria umbro Liguria lı̀gure Valle d’Aosta valdostano Lombardia lombardo Veneto veneto Marche (f pl) marchigiano note : laziale is often used to indicate a supporter or a player of the Lazio football team. When talking about the region (or one of its inhabitants), it is less confusing to use the expression del Lazio. 8.2 Italy: cities There follows a list of the capitals of all the provinces of Italy, their sigle, which are abbreviations used in car registration numbers (= targhe [automobilistiche]), addresses etc., and their corresponding adjectives. note that next to romano, torinese, milanese we also ﬁnd the adjectives romanista, torinista, milanista, which are exclusively used in relation to the corresponding football teams Roma, Torino and Milan. Both sets of adjectives can be used as nouns, e.g. un milanese (= a (male) citizen of (or person born in) Milan), un milanista (= a (male) supporter of AC Milan). 193 8 Geographical names The adjective ambrosiano (from Ambrogio, patron saint of Milan) is often used (in R2–3) as an alternative to milanese. The English name of the Italian town (if any) is given in brackets. Each of the two provinces of Massa-Carrara and Pesaro-Urbino has one sigla, respectively MS and PS, but two capitals. The corresponding adjectives have been given for both pairs. City Abbr. Adjective City Abbr. Adjective Agrigento Alessandria Ancona AG AL AN Enna EN ennese ferrarese ﬁorentino AO AR AP AT AV Ferrara Firenze (Florence) Foggia Forlı̀ Frosinone FE FI Aosta Arezzo Ascoli Piceno Asti Avellino agrigentino alessandrino anconetano, anconitano aostano aretino ascolano astigiano avellinese FG FO FR foggiano forlivese frusinate genovese BA BL BN BG BI BO BZ BS BR barese bellunese beneventano bergamasco biellese bolognese bolzanino, -ese bresciano brindisino Genova (Genoa) Gorizia Grosseto GE Bari Belluno Benevento Bèrgamo Biella Bologna Bolzano Brescia Brı̀ndisi GO GR goriziano grossetano Imperia Isernia IM IS imperiese isernino Càgliari Caltanissetta Campobasso Caserta Catania Catanzaro Chieti Como CA CL CB CE CT CZ CH CO AQ SP LT LE LC LI aquilano spezzino latinense leccese lecchese livornese LO LU lodigiano lucchese maceratese mantovano CS CR KR CN Macerata Mantova (Mantua) Massa Carrara Matera MC MN Cosenza Cremona Crotone Cùneo cagliaritano nisseno campobassano casertano catanese catanzarese teatino, chietino comasco, comacino (R3) cosentino cremonese crotonese cunee(n)se L’Aquila La Spezia Latina Lecce Lecco Livorno (Leghorn) Lodi Lucca MS massese carr(ar)ese materano 194 MT 8.2 Italy: cities City Abbr. Adjective City Abbr. Messina Milano (Milan) Modena ME MI messinese milanese Rimini Roma Rovigo MO modenese RN riminese ROMA romano RO rodigino, rovigotto Napoli (Naples) Novara Nuoro NA napoletano NO NU novarese nuorese Oristano OR oristanese Salerno Sassari Savona Siena Siracusa Sondrio SA SS SV SI SR SO salernitano sassarese savonese senese siracusano sondriese, sondriotto Tàranto Tèramo Terni Torino (Turin) Tràpani Trento (Trent) Treviso TA TE TR TO tarantino teramano ternano torinese TP TN TV Trieste TS trapanese trentino trevisano, trevigiano triestino Udine UD udinese Varese VA Venezia (Venice) Verbania Vercelli Verona Vibo Valentia Vicenza Viterbo VE varesino, varesotto veneziano VB VC VR VV VI VT verbanese vercellese veronese vibonese vicentino viterbese Padova (Padua) PD Palermo PA Parma PR Pavia Perugia Pesaro Urbino Pescara Piacenza Pisa Pistoia Pordenone Potenza Prato PV PG PS Ragusa Ravenna RG RA PE PC PI PT PN PZ PO Reggio RC Calabria Reggio Emilia RE Rieti RI padovano palermitano parmigiano, parmense pavese perugino pesarese urbinate pescarese piacentino pisano pistoiese pordenonese potentino pratese ragusano ravennate, ravegnano (less common) reggino reggiano reatino, rietino Adjective 195 8 Geographical names 8.3 Continents English name Italian name Italian adjective Africa Africa africano, afro- America North America America America del Nord, Nordamerica America del Sud, Sudamerica americano nordamericano South America sudamericano Antarctica Antàrtide (f ) (antàrtico) Asia Asia asiatico Europe Europa europeo, euro- Oceania Oceania oceaniano (R3) note : America is often used (in R1–2) meaning Stati Uniti, and americano (in R2) meaning statunitense. 8.4 Europe: countries and regions This table lists a number of European countries and regions that have an Italian name markedly different from the English, and/or an unusual adjective. 196 English name Italian name Italian adjective Albania Albanı̀a albanese, albano- Armenia Armenia armeno Austria Austria austriaco, austro- Bavaria Baviera bavarese Belgium Belgio belga (pl. belgi/ belghe) Bohemia Boemia boemo Bulgaria Bulgarı̀a bùlgaro Burgundy Borgogna borgognone Catalonia Catalogna catalano Cornwall Cornovaglia (còrnico) (R3) 8.4 Europe: countries and regions English name Italian name Italian adjective Corsica Corsica còrso Croatia Croazia croato Cyprus Cipro † (f ) cipriota Czech Republic Repubblica Ceca ceco Denmark Danimarca danese Estonia Estonia èstone Finland Finlandia ﬁnlandese, fı̀nnico (R2–3) France Francia francese, franco- Germany Germania tedesco Great Britain England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales United Kingdom Gran Bretagna Inghilterra Irlanda del Nord Scozia Galles (m) Regno Unito (R2–3) britannico inglese, anglonordirlandese scozzese gallese – Greece Grecia greco Greenland Groenlandia groenlandese Holland Olanda olandese Hungary Ungheria ungherese, ugro- Ireland Irlanda irlandese Iceland Islanda islandese Italy Italia italiano, ı̀talo- Kosovo Kosovo co(s)sovaro Lapland Lapponia làppone Latvia Lettonia lèttone Lithuania Lituania lituano Luxembourg Lussemburgo lussemburghese Macedonia Macedonia macèdone Moldova Moldavia moldavo Monaco Montecarlo † (f )/Principato di Mònaco monegasco 197 8 Geographical names English name Italian name Italian adjective Montenegro Montenegro montenegrino Norway Norvegia norvegese Poland Polonia polacco Portugal Portogallo portoghese Provence Provenza provenzale Rhodes Rodi † (f ) rodiota (R2–3), rodiense (R2–3), rodiese, ròdio (R3) Romania Romania romeno, rumeno Russia Russia russo San Marino San Marino † (f ) sanmarinese Savoy Savoia savoiardo Saxony Sassonia sàssone Scandinavia Scandinavia scandinàvo Serbia Serbia serbo Slovak Republic Slovacchia slovacco Slovenia Slovenia sloveno Soviet Union Unione Sovietica sovietico Spain Spagna spagnolo, ispano- Swabia Svevia svevo Sweden Svezia svedese Switzerland Svizzera svizzero Turkey Turchia turco Ukraine Ucràina ucràino Vatican City Città del Vaticano (vaticano) note : the terms Inghilterra/inglese (and anglo-) are often used (R1–2) with the meanings of Gran Bretagna/britannico. Similarly, Russia/russo are often used with the meaning of Unione Sovietica/sovietico. note al s o that, although rejected by purists, the pronunciation scandı̀navo is commonly used. 198 8.6 Asia: countries and regions 8.5 The Americas: countries and regions Many South American countries have the same name in Italian as in English, and a corresponding adjective formed along the lines of Colombia – colombiano. They have not been included in this list. English name Italian name Italian adjective Argentina Argentina argentino Brazil Brasile (m) brasiliano Canada Cànada/Canadà (m) canadese Chile Cile (m) cileno Ecuador Ecuador (m) ecuadoriano El Salvador (El) Salvador (m) salvadoregno (R2–3) Guatemala Guatemala (m) guatemalteco (R2–3) Honduras Honduras (m) honduregno (R2–3), honduriano Mexico Messico messicano Nicaragua Nicaragua (m) nicaraguegno (R2–3), nicaraguese Panama Panama † (f ) panamense Peru Perù (m) peruviano Puerto Rico Portorico portoricano Tierra del Fuego Terra del Fuoco – US(A) Stati Uniti (d’America) (m pl), America (R1–2) statunitense (R2–3), americano note : some of the States of the USA have a corresponding adjective in Italian: californiano, texano, georgiano, hawaiano [avajano/awajano]. 8.6 Asia: countries and regions This table lists some of the Asian countries that have an Italian name markedly different from the English, and/or an unusual adjective. Due to the origin of the geographical names ending in -stan (= territory [of a certain people]) a similar pattern characterizes most 199 8 Geographical names adjectives corresponding to regions ending in this way, e.g. Afganistan – afgano, Usbechistan – usbeco. A notable exception is Pakistan (whose formation is different), that gives the adjectives pachistano, pakistano. English name Italian name Italian adjective Afghanistan Afganistan (m) afgano Burma Birmania birmano Cambodia Cambogia cambogiano China Cina cinese, sino- Iraq Iraq (m) iracheno Israel Israele † (m) israeliano Japan Giappone (m) giapponese Java Giava † giavanese Jordan Giordania giordano Laos Laos (m) laotiano (R2–3) Lebanon Libano libanese Malaya Malesia malese Middle East Medio Oriente mediorientale Mongolia Mongolia mòngolo Palestine Palestina palestinese Philippines Filippine (f pl) ﬁlippino Saudi Arabia Arabia Saudita arabo, saudita, arabo- Thailand Tailandia tailandese Tibet Tı̀bet (m) tibetano Vietnam Vietnam (m) vietnamita Yemen Yemen (m) yemenita note : israelita (= Israelite) is not used to indicate an inhabitant of modern Israel. Also: Hebrew, Jew = ebreo (n); Hebrew (adj) = ebraico; Jewish = ebraico, ebreo (less common). 8.7 Africa: countries and regions This table lists some of the African countries and regions that have an Italian name markedly different from the English, and/or an unusual adjective. For a number of African countries that are not in the list, e.g. 200 8.8 Oceania: countries and regions Ghana, Niger etc., the corresponding adjectives don’t exist or are not commonly used. 8.8 English name Italian name Italian adjective Algeria Algerı̀a algerino Egypt Egitto egiziano Ethiopia Etiopia etı̀ope, (etiopico), etiopico- Kenia Kenia (m) keniano, keniota Libya Libia lı̀bico Mauritania Mauritania mauritano Morocco Marocco marocchino Somalia Somalia sòmalo South Africa Sudafrica (m)/Repubblica Sudafricana (R2–3) sudafricano note : Bushman = boscı̀mano Tunisia Tunisı̀a tunisino Oceania: countries and regions For some of the States of Australia there are Italian versions, which have been included in the list next to the original English name. Apart from Tasmania, all the States and the Territory are masculine in Italian, when used in their English form. note that even though Galles (=Wales) is masculine on its own, the Italian version of New South Wales is sometimes feminine (la Nuova Galles del Sud). English name Italian name Italian adjective New Zealand Nuova Zelanda neozelandese New Guinea Nuova Guinea – Western Australia Western Australia, Australia Occidentale westaustraliano [westaustraljano] South Australia South Australia, Australia Meridionale sudaustraliano 201 8 Geographical names 8.9 202 English name Italian name Italian adjective New South Wales New South Wales, Nuovo/-a Galles del Sud – Northern Territory Northern Territory, Territorio del Nord – Victoria Victoria (m) – note : vittoriano usu refers to Queen Victoria Historical or mythical places English name Italian name Italian adjective Aix-la-Chapelle Aquisgrana – Alexandria Alessandria (d’Egitto) alessandrino Antioch Antiochia antiocheno (R3) Atlantis Atlàntide (f ) – note : atlantico refers to the Atlantic Ocean Bethlehem Betlemme – Byzantium Bisanzio bizantino Carthage Cartàgine cartaginese, (pùnico) Constantinople Costantinopoli – Corinth Corinto corinzio Damascus Damasco damasceno (R3), damaschino Galilee Galilea galileo Gaul Gallia gallo, (gàllico) Iberia Iberia ibèro, (ibèrico), ı̀bero- Judaea Giudea giudeo, (giudàico) 8.10 Cities of the world English name Italian name Italian adjective Nazareth Nazaret nazareno Smyrna Smirne smirnèo (R3, ancient times), smirniota (R3, modern times) Thrace Tracia tracio Troy Troia troiano note : ‘Trojan horse’ is translated cavallo di Troia (not cavallo troiano) 8.10 Cities of the world English name Italian name Italian adjective Adelaide Adelaide [adelaide] – Algiers Algeri algerino Antwerp Anversa – Athens Atene ateniese Baltimore Baltimora – Barcelona Barcellona – Belgrade Belgrado belgradese Berlin berlino berlinese Bern Berna bernese Cadiz Càdice gaditano (R3) Cairo Il Cairo cairota (m pl -i, f pl -e) (R3) Cape Town Città del Capo – Cologne Colonia – Dublin Dublino dublinese Edinburgh Edimburgo – Frankfurt Francoforte – 203 8 Geographical names 204 English name Italian name Italian adjective Geneva Ginevra ginevrino Gibraltar Gibilterra – Hamburg Amburgo amburghese Havana L’Avana avanese Krakow Cracovia cracoviano Liege Liegi – Lisbon Lisbona lisbonese London Londra londinese Lyon Lione lionese Madrid Madrid madrileno Marseille Marsiglia marsigliese Mexico City Città del Messico – Moscow Mosca moscovita Munich Mònaco (di Baviera) monacense (R3) New York New York [njujɔ rk] (less frequently Nuova York) newyorkese [njujorkeze], nuovaiorchese/-kese Nice Nizza nizzardo note : the inhabitants of Nizza Monferrato (Piemonte) are called nicesi or nizzesi Nuremberg Norimberga – Paris Parigi parigino Peking/Beijing Pechino pechinese Philadelphia Filadelﬁa ﬁladelﬁese (R2–3) Piraeus Il Pireo – Prague Praga praghese Salzburg Salisburgo salisburghese São Paulo San Paolo – Seville Siviglia sivigliano Sophia Sòﬁa – 8.12 Mountains and volcanoes of the world English name Italian name Italian adjective St Petersburg San Pietroburgo – Stockholm Stoccolma – Strasbourg Strasburgo – The Hague L’Aia – Tunis Tunisi tunisino Vienna Vienna viennese Zaragoza Saragozza – 8.11 Rivers of the world The rivers in this table are masculine unless otherwise stated (cf. section 14.3). Amazon Danube Euphrates Ganges Indus Loire Nile Rhine Rio delle Amàzzoni Danubio Eufrate Gange Indo Loira (f ) Nilo Reno Rhone Seine St. Lawrence Tagus Thames Tiber Tigris Yellow River Ròdano Senna (f ) San Lorenzo Tago Tamigi Tévere Tigri Fiume Giallo note the adjectives tiberino, for the Tevere, and padano, for the Po river. 8.12 Mountains and volcanoes of the world Alps Apennines Appalachians Carpathians Caucasus Himalayas Kilimanjaro le Alpi gli Appennini gli Appalacchi i Carpazi il Càucaso l’Himalàia (m) il Kilimangiaro Matterhorn Mont Blanc Pyrenees Rocky Mountains Urals Vesuvius il (monte) Cervino il Monte Bianco i Pirenei le Montagne Rocciose gli Urali il Vesuvio 205 8 Geographical names 8.13 Planets, stars, and constellations With the exception of la Terra, the planets are masculine. Earth Terra Leo Leone (m) Jupiter Giove Libra Bilancia Mars Marte Pisces Pesci (m pl) Mercury Mercurio Sagittarius Sagittario Neptune Nettuno Scorpio Scorpione (m) Pluto Plutone Taurus Toro Saturn Saturno Virgo Vergine (f ) Uranus Urano Pole Star, North Star Stella Polare Venus Venere Southern Cross Croce del Sud Aquarius Acquario Aries Ariete (m) Orsa Maggiore, Gran Carro Cancer Cancro Ursa Major, Big Bear, Big Dipper (US) Capricorn Capricorno Orsa Minore, Piccolo Carro Gemini Gemelli (m pl) Ursa Minor, Little Bear, Little Dipper (US) 206 9 Abbreviations and acronyms The abbreviations and acronyms in use in Italian are many and ever changing. The following conventions apply generally in Italian. For all measurements (metric, scientiﬁc etc.) the abbreviations used in Italian follow international conventions. Words are usually truncated after a consonant or cluster of consonants, e.g. part.(icipio) pass.(ato). Days and months, on the other hand, are often found abbreviated after their third letter, e.g. gio for giovedı̀, ago for agosto. A shortened form is sometimes followed by the last letters of the word, e.g. Gent.mo for Gentilissimo. In acronyms, the plural is sometimes indicated in writing by doubling the initial letter, e.g. AA VV for Autori vari; in some truncated words, the last letter (consonant) may be found repeated, e.g. pagg. for pagine as opposed to pag. for pagina. The shortening of words is mainly a writing expedient and truncated words are mostly read in their full form: Sig. is always read “signor(e).” Acronyms, on the other hand, are pronounced and can be written as normal nouns whenever possible, e.g. UFO, which is read “ufo” and can be found written Ufo or ufo. In some cases, however, a letter by letter reading is unavoidable, e.g. BBC, pronounced “bi-bi-cı̀”. There are also some “hybrid” forms, such as CGIL (a trade union), pronounced “ci-gi-elle,” with “gi” incorporating “i,” or RAI TV, pronounced “rai ti-vù.” Note that among the acronyms we can count also those word-like abbreviations obtained by using more than just the ﬁrst letter of the words of the full denomination, e.g. (la/una) colf for collaboratrice familiare; (la) Cariplo [kariplo], for Cassa di Risparmio delle Provincie Lombarde. Other forms of common word-like abbreviations are obtained by contracting the (two) most meaningful words of the full name into one word, e.g. (la) Conﬁndustria [konﬁn’dustrja], for Confederazione Generale dell’Industria Italiana. In most cases acronyms take articles: deﬁnite, in the case of speciﬁc objects or organizations (e.g. la NATO, la BBC, il DNA); deﬁnite or indeﬁnite in the other cases (e.g. l’/un UFO, il/un CD). Acronyms usually maintain gender and number of the head noun of the full Italian expression, e.g.: la Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino > la FIAT. 207 9 Abbreviations and acronyms Among the very few exceptions we can count UPIM, usu feminine in spite of its original, but all-but-forgotten meaning, Unico Prezzo Italiano di Milano. For foreign acronyms, gender and number are usually those of the corresponding Italian expression, e.g.: “organization” = organizzazione (f s) > la FAO, la NATO; “States” = Stati (m pl) > gli USA The “word-like” acronyms that may be used in the plural tend to remain invariable, e.g. un Ufo, dieci Ufo. Tables of common Italian abbreviations and acronyms The following tables contain a small sample of the abbreviations and acronyms commonly used in Italian. Please note the following. The acronyms with a ‘spelling-like’ pronunciation, e.g. BBC, are preceded by an asterisk ∗ (for the pronunciation of letters see section 12.2.2). ‘Word-like’ acronyms, e.g. UFO, are preceded by the symbol ◦ . Their pronunciation is given in the form of Italian words (to be read according to Italian pronunciation conventions), in italics and within square brackets, in the second column of each table. All the other abbreviations are pronounced in their full form, as indicated in the second column of each table. 9.1 Titles and other frequently used abbreviations Note that, although they may be reported in lower case, all the abbreviated titles are very often used with a capital letter, e.g. Sig.ra, instead of sig.ra, as a (further) sign of respect. There is no Italian equivalent of Ms (cf 14.2). Italian meaning, pronunciation Abbreviation ∗ ∗ A... f avanti Cristo BC (Before Christ) AA. VV. Autori vari (by) various authors Sindrome di Immunodeﬁcienza Acquisita [aidiesse or àids] AIDS avvocato (+ name) lawyer Buono (Ordinario) del Tesoro [usu pl i bot] Treasury bond corrente anno current year AIDS f avv. BOT c.a. 208 Autostrada (+ number), e.g. A 25, M (UK), Motorway, Freeway pronounced a venticinque a.C. ◦ ◦ English counterpart m 9.1 Titles and other common abbreviations Abbreviation ◦ ∗ ◦ C.A.P. Italian meaning, pronunciation English counterpart m Codice di Avviamento Postale [cap] Post/Zip Code note : in addresses, the C.A.P. is written before the city, e.g. sig. Bianchi, via Verdi 8, 00100 Roma c.d.d.; c.v.d. come dovevasi dimostrare; come volevasi dimostrare Q.E.D. c.m. corrente mese current month, inst. C.P. Casella Postale PO Box c.so corso (main street, boulevard) c/c conto corrente current/cheque/check (US) account c/o presso c/o ca. circa c., ca. cap. capitolo ch., chapter CD (ROM) m Compact disc [ci dı̀ (rom)] CD (ROM) cfr. (Lat. confer) confronta cf. collaboratrice familiare [colf ] housemaid dopo Cristo AD (note : AD year = year d.C., e.g. AD 79 = 79 d.C.) acido deossiribonucleico DNA colf f d.C. ∗ DNA ◦ DOC Denominazione d’Origine Controllata [doc, adj, e.g. vino doc = vino a denominazione di origine controllata] Wine denomination and origin certiﬁed dott./ dott.ssa dottor/dottoressa (+ name) title given to anyone with a university degree E est E (East) ecc. eccetera etc. Egr. egregio distinguished (in letters, addresses) es.; p. es. esempio; per esempio ex., example; e.g. et al. (Lat. et alii) e altri et al. F.lli Fratelli (+ name) Bros. G.U. Gazzetta Ufﬁciale Ofﬁcial Government Bulletin m 209 9 Abbreviations and acronyms Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation English counterpart ibid. ibidem ibid. id. idem id. Ill.mo Illustrissimo most illustrious (in formal letters and addresses) ing. ingegner (+ name) engineer (used as title) Imposta sul Valore Aggiunto [iva] VAT, Value Added Tax (= approx. GST, Goods and Services Tax) ◦ IVA ∗ k.o. fuori combattimento K.O., knock(ed) out l.go largo type of “piazza” loc. cit. (Lat. loco citato) al passo citato loc. cit. N nord N (North) N.B. Nota Bene (please) note, NB N.d.A. nota dell’autore author’s note N.d.R. nota del redattore editor’s note N.d.T. nota del traduttore translator’s note ND nobil donna M(r)s . . . (in mail addresses) NH nobil uomo Mr . . . (in mail addresses) NN padre ignoto/genitori ignoti (only in the locution ﬁglio/-a di NN) No ; n. numero No., number NS Nostro Signore Our Lord ns. nostro/-a our(s) (usu = our letter) O (also W) ovest W (West) op. cit. (Lat., opere citato), opera citata op. cit. p. es. per esempio e.g., for example p., pag.; pp., pagg. pagina; pagine p., pp.; page, pages p.c. per conoscenza c.c., cc. (carbon copy), copy to ∗ ∗ P.I.L. m prodotto interno lordo GNP P.S. m postscriptum, poscritto P.S., postscript prossimo venturo prox., next (month) p.v.; pv/ 210 f 9.1 Titles and other common abbreviations Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation English counterpart p.za piazza Sq. R.I.P. riposi(no) in pace R.I.P. racc. raccomandata registered mail (letter) rag. ragionier (+ name) accountant, book keeper (title) s., seg.; ss. seguente; seguenti f.; ff. (following) s.; S. san, santo, sant’, santa St. S.A.R. Sua Altezza Reale H.R.H. s.l.m. sul livello del mare above sea level ∗ S.p.A. Società per Azioni joint-stock company ∗ S.r.l. Società a responsabilità limitata Ltd., limited liability company S.S. Strada Statale National Road S.S. Sua Santità H.H., His Holiness s.v. (Lat. sub voce) sotto la voce reference in dictionaries; s.v. S.V; SS.VV Signoria Vostra; Signorie Vostre formal “you” (s and pl) sc. (Lat. scilicet), vale a dire viz., sc. sig. signor (+ name) Mr sig.na signorina (+ name) Miss sig.ra signora (+ name) Mrs Soc. Società Company note : “. . .& Co.” corresponds to Italian . . . e C. [e compagni]. Spett. spettabile dear, lit respectable (in letters and addresses) SS. Santissimo Most Holy ss., SS. santi/sante SS, Saints T Tabaccheria Tobacconist (shop sign) Tomograﬁa Assiale Computerizzata [tac] CAT scan tel. telefono tel., ph. u.s. ultimo scorso ult., last (month) v. vedi see; v. v.le viale Av(e).; Blvd. vs. vostro/-a your(s), (usu = your letter) ◦ TAC f 211 9 Abbreviations and acronyms 9.2 Abbreviation ∗ International organizations Italian meaning, pronunciation English counterpart Ente Britannico di Radiodiffusione BBC BCE Banca Centrale Europea ECB CD Corpo Diplomatico CD BBC f ◦ CEE f Comunità Economica Europea [cèe] EEC ◦ CIA f Agenzia Centrale d’Informazione [cia] CIA Comitato Olimpico Internazionale IOC CIO ∗ FBI m Ufﬁcio Federale Investigativo [pronounced (l’) effebiài] FBI ◦ FIFA f Federazione Internazionale del Calcio [ﬁfa] FIFA FMI m Fondo Monetario Internazionale IMF ∗ IBM f Società Internazionale Macchine per Ufﬁci IBM ◦ NATO f Organizzazione del Trattato Nord Atlantico [nato] NATO ∗ OLP f Organizzazione per la Liberazione della Palestina PLO Organizzazione Mondiale della Sanità WHO OMS ◦ ONU f Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite [onu] UNO ◦ OPEC f Organizzazione dei Paesi esportatori di petrolio [òpec] OPEC ◦ RAF f Aviazione militare inglese [raf] RAF ◦ SME m Sistema Monetario Europeo [lo sme] EMS UE Unione Europea EU UEM Unione Economica e Monetaria EMU ◦ URSS Unione delle Repubbliche Socialiste Sovietiche [usu l’Unione Sovietica, or la Russia (R1–2), but also l’urs] USSR ◦ USA m Stati Uniti (d’America) [gli usa] USA ∗ WWF m Fondo Mondiale per la Natura [pron. vu vu èffe] WWF 212 9.3 Italian non-political organizations 9.3 Italian non-political organizations Some of the organizations mentioned in this list are today in a state of ﬂux. Changes in the ownership of part or all of their corporate structures may affect their denomination and, in some cases, their existence. Some non-ofﬁcial political organizations have been included in this list rather than the next one. Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation Explanatory notes ◦ ACLI f Associazioni Cattoliche dei Lavoratori Italiani [le acli] Italian Workers’ Catholic Associations ◦ AGIP f Azienda Generale Italiana Petroli [agip] State oil company Aeronautica Italiana Italian Air Force A.I. ◦ ANAS ∗ B.R. ◦ CARIPLO f f CC Azienda Nazionale Autonoma delle National roads board Strade [anas] Brigate rosse [le bierre] Red Brigades (terrorists) Cassa Risparmio Provincie Lombarde [càriplo] (Bank) Carabinieri (Military police) Conferenza Episcopale Italiana [cei] Italian bishops’ Conference Comunione e Liberazione [(no article) ci-èlle, i ci-ellı̀ni] (Catholic movement) ◦ CEI ∗ CL ∗ CNR m Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche National research council ◦ CONI m Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano [coni] Italian national Olympic committee CRI f Croce Rossa Italiana Italian Red Cross Esercito Italiano Italian Army E.I. f ◦ ENEL m/f Ente Nazionale Energia Elettrica [enel] State electric company ◦ ENI m/f Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi [eni] State company for hydrocarbons FF. AA. Forze Armate Armed forces FF. SS. Ferrovie dello Stato Italian railways FI . . . Federazione Italiana . . . Italian federation . . . (appears in many acronyms) 213 9 Abbreviations and acronyms Abbreviation ◦ Italian meaning, pronunciation Explanatory notes Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino [ﬁat] FIAT FIGC Federazione Italiana Gioco Calcio Italian football federation G.d.F. Guardia di Finanza Finance police FIAT f ◦ IRI m/f Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale [ı̀ri] (The “umbrella” for state-owned companies) ◦ ISTAT m Istituto Centrale di Statistica [ı̀stat] Central institute for statistics Marina Militare Italian Navy M.M. ∗ P.S. f Pubblica Sicurezza Police ◦ RAI (TV) f Radio-televisione Italiana [rai (ti (v)vù)] State television company ◦ STANDA f Società Tutti Articoli Nazionali (Chain of department stores) dell’Arredamento e Abbigliamento [standa] ◦ UPIM f Unico Prezzo Italiano di Milano (Chain of department stores) VV. UU. m Vigili Urbani Municipal trafﬁc police 9.4 Italian ofﬁcial political organizations, unions etc. In the last ﬁfty years, the fertile world of Italian politics, with its characteristically “hot” climate, has been particularly favorable to the sprouting of a great variety of parties and organizations. Many of them are often referred to in their abbreviated form, not only in writing, but also in speech. Of these, the following table lists the most frequently mentioned, including some that, although politically extinct or existing under different denominations, are still linguistically alive. It should be borne in mind that the winds of change of the last few years may well keep blowing into the immediate future. Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation Explanatory notes f Alleanza Nazionale [aenne (no article)] National Alliance CCD m Centro Cristiano Democratico [il cicidı̀, i democratici di centro] Christian Democratic Center CDU m Cristiani Democratici Uniti [il cidiù] Christian Democrats United ∗ AN ∗ ∗ 214 9.4 Italian political organizations, unions etc. Abbreviation Italian meaning, pronunciation Explanatory notes ∗ CGIL f Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro [la cigi-èlle] (Trade union) ◦ CISL f Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Lavoratori [la cisl] (Trade union) ∗ DC f Democrazia Cristiana [la diccı̀, i democristiani] Christian Democrats (extinct) ∗ DS Democratici di sinistra [diesse (no article)] Left Democrats ◦ MSI m Movimento Sociale Italiano [il mis, i missini] (Extreme right-wing party now extinct) ∗ PCI m Partito Comunista Italiano [il piccı̀, i comunisti] Communist Party (extinct) ◦ PLI m Partito Liberale Italiano [il pli, i liberali] Liberal Party ∗ PPI m Partito Popolare Italiano [il pippi-ı̀, i popolari] Italian Popular Party Partito Radicale [or i radicali] Radical Party PR ◦ PRI m Partito Repubblicano Italiano [il pri, i repubblicani] Republican Party ◦ PSDI m Partito Socialista Democratico Italiano [il psdi (note the article), i socialdemocratici] Socialist Democratic Party (extinct) ◦ PSI m Partito Socialista Italiano [il psi (note the article), i socialisti] Socialist Party (extinct as PSI, resurrected as PS [partito socialista]) ◦ PSIUP m Partito Socialista Italiano di Unità Popolare [il psiùp, i psiuppini (note the articles)] Socialist Party of Popular Unity (extinct) ∗ UDR f Unione Democratica per la Repubblica [l’udierre] Democratic Union for the Republic ◦ UIL f Unione Italiana del Lavoro [la uı̀l] (Trade union) Some of the more frequently used Italian abbreviations are formed by creating new words out of two from the full name. In many cases, the ﬁrst of the words involved is confederazione, which gives conf-, followed by the word that deﬁnes the organization. The resulting abbreviations are all pronounced and used as regular feminine nouns. The associations in this 215 9 Abbreviations and acronyms list are generally representing the employers/owners/lessors in various ﬁelds of the economy. Abbreviation Italian meaning Explanatory notes Coldiretti Confederazione nazionale coltivatori diretti National Small Farmers’ Federation Confagricoltura Confederazione Generale dell’Agricoltura Italiana Italian Farmers’ Association Confapi Confederazione Generale della Piccola Industria Italian Small Manufacturers’ Federation Confartigianato Confederazione Generale dell’Artigianato Italiano Italian Artisans’ Federation Confcommercio Confederazione Generale del Commercio Italian Traders’ Federation Confedilizia Confederazione Italiana della Proprietà Edilizia Italian House Owners’ Federation Conﬁndustria Confederazione Generale dell’Industria Italiana Italian Manufacturers’ Federation 216 10 Latin expressions and sayings Some of the most common Latin expressions in use in today’s Italian are listed in the following tables. (See also section 9.1 for Latin abbreviations.) note that, in the Italian tradition, Latin is pronounced according to the rules of modern Italian, except for the diphthongs “ae” and “oe,” read [ε ] – e.g. ex aequo [ε zε kwo/ε ksε kwo] – and the group “ti” followed by vowel, which is pronounced [tsj] – e.g. a fortiori, [a fortsjɔ ri]. In particular, “h” is always silent – e.g. ad hoc [ad ɔ k] - and “j” is pronounced [j] – e.g. Juventus [juvε ntus]. 10.1 Latin expressions For some of these expressions the boundary between Latin and Italian is somewhat blurred, at least in most speakers’ perception. In a case like nota bene, the argument in favour of an Italian reading is quite strong (to the point that this expression has not been included here as Latin); in others, such as grosso modo, the confusion arises from their widespread use and the existence of similar Italian words. The following expressions are used as adjectives and/or adverbs, unless otherwise indicated. An English explanation of the Italian use of each expression has been given. A common Italian alternative has also been provided whenever available. The symbol # indicates a similar use of the same expression in English, whereas the exclamation mark ! warns that there are differences between Italian and English in their use of the same (or similar) Latin expression. 217 10 Latin expressions and sayings # # Latin a fortiori a posteriori Register R3 R3 Italian a maggior ragione basato/basandosi sull’esperienza; dopo il fatto English even more so based on experience; after the event; with the beneﬁt of hindsight based on reason (not experience); before the event; without the support of facts #! ad hoc R2–3 # ad libitum #! alter ego cum grano salis #! deus ex machina ex abrupto ex aequo R3 R2–3 R3 (R3) basato/basandosi sulla ragione; prima del fatto but usu (R2) = senza dati di fatto (fatto) apposta/per l’occasione a piacere (m) sostituto perfetto con discernimento R2–3 (m) a person whose intervention resolves an intricate situation R3 R2 # ex cathedra R3 ex novo ex voto R2–3 R2–3 all’improvviso suddenly a pari merito, alla pari, e.g. equals secondi ex aequo said of authoritative statements, esp by the pope in matter of faith, e.g. parlare ex cathedra da capo all over again (m) said of objects donated to churches “per grazia ricevuta,” often in fulﬁlment of a vow gratuito, gratuitamente free of charge #! a priori # gratis (et amore Dei) grosso modo ! in extremis in nuce #! interim 218 all’incirca, più o meno all’ultimo momento e.g. salvarsi in extremis R3 R3 for the purpose at will another self with a grain of salt roughly, more or less at the last minute note the difference from the English use (= in an extreme case) in sostanza in substance (m) this term describes the period of vacancy of a particular ofﬁce, as well as the appointment to temporarily ﬁll it (accettare l’interim degli Interni = to accept a temporary appointment as Minister of Internal Affairs) 10.1 ! # # ! Latin ipso facto lapis lapsus mea culpa Register R3 modus vivendi mutatis mutandis non plus ultra persona non grata pro bono pacis quiproquo R2–3 (m) accomodamento English immediately pencil slip (of the pen/tongue) acknowledgment of one’s faults; “to acknowledge one’s faults” arrangement R2–3 fatti i dovuti cambiamenti with the necessary changes R3 (m) (il) massimo; e.g. è il non plus ultra (f ) persona non gradita the top, the best, the “ne plus ultra” unwanted person per quieto vivere for the sake of peace rara avis R3 R2–3 R2–3 ! sine qua non R2–3 ! statu quo (ante) ultra [ultra] (through French) Via Crucis # viceversa R2–3 Italian subito, immediatamente (m) matita (m) sbaglio, distrazione (m) ammissione di colpa; e.g. fare (il) mea culpa Latin expressions (m) equivoco misunderstanding note the difference from quid pro quo (not used in Italian) (f ) said of person (or thing) that’s exceptional for some good quality imprescindibile; essential e.g. una condizione sine note : used as a noun in qua non English (m) situazione di fatto status quo (n inv) estremista (usu in politics or sport) extremist (politics); fanatical supporter (sport) (f ) la Via della Croce; (ﬁg) calvario (adv) all’inverso (conj.) e invece Way of the Cross; (ﬁg) calvary the opposite way and instead 219 10 Latin expressions and sayings 10.2 Latin proverbs and mottoes A number of Latin sayings are quite common, in Italian, at the higher registers. beati monoculi in regno/terra caecorum carpe diem de gustibus non disputandum divide et impera errare humanum est (perseverare diabolicum) excusatio non petita accusatio manifesta gutta cavat lapidem homo homini lupus in vino veritas mens sana in corpore sano risus abundat in ore stultorum (scripta manent) verba volant summum ius, summa iniuria talis pater talis ﬁlius 220 R3 R2–3 R2–3 R2–3 R3 R3 R2–3 R2–3 R3 R3 R3 R2–3 In the land of the blind, happy those who have one eye seize the day don’t argue about tastes divide and rule to err is human (to persevere in error is diabolical) an unsolicited apology is an obvious self-accusation the droplet hollows out the stone man is wolf to his fellow man in wine (there is) truth a sound mind in a sound body laughter abounds in the mouths of fools (written words stay,) spoken words ﬂy the more law, the more injustice like father like son 11 Grammatical terms 11.1 Grammatical terms (termini grammaticali) The following is a list of common grammatical terms. Categories shared by adjectives and pronouns (e.g. possessivo) have only been listed once, under aggettivo. fonologia morfologia sintassi phonology morphology syntax accento (tònico) accento (graﬁco) tonico (adj) àtono (adj) parola tronca parola piana stress stress mark stressed (syllable) unstressed (syllable) word stressed on last syllable (e.g. città) word stressed on second-last syllable (e.g. ballétto) word stressed on third-last syllable (e.g. màcchina) word stressed on fourth-last syllable (e.g. telèfonano) word stressed on ﬁfth-last syllable (e.g. recàpitamelo) parola sdrùcciola parola bisdrùcciola parola trisdrùcciola The gender of nouns is given only where it is not predictable from the principles given in ch. 14. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. 221 11 Grammatical terms 222 aggettivo qualiﬁcativo (adj) dimostrativo (adj) possessivo (adj) indeﬁnito (adj) (grado) comparativo (grado) superlativo adjective qualifying demonstrative possessive indeﬁnite comparative superlative articolo determinativo (adj) indeterminativo (adj) article deﬁnite indeﬁnite avverbio adverb congiunzione conjunction genere (m) maschile (adj) femminile (adj) gender masculine feminine nome (m) comune (adj) proprio (adj) collettivo (adj) astratto (adj) concreto (adj) sostantivo noun common proper collective abstract concrete noun (the original form nome sostantivo is obsolete) numero singolare (adj) plurale (adj) number singular plural perı̀odo proposizione indipendente (adj) principale (adj) dipendente (adj) secondaria (adj) subordinata (adj) frase (f) sentence clause independent main dependent dependent dependent/subordinate sentence; phrase (e.g. frase preposizionale) preposizione semplice (adj) articolata (adj) preposition simple (e.g. di) articulated (e.g. della) pronome (m) personale (adj) relativo (adj) pronoun personal relative 11.1 Grammatical terms sillaba consonante (f) vocale (f) dittongo syllable consonant vowel diphthong soggetto complemento oggetto oggetto diretto oggetto indiretto subject direct object direct object indirect object sufﬁsso accrescitivo (adj) diminutivo (adj) vezzeggiativo (adj) peggiorativo (adj) sufﬁx augmentative diminutive of endearment pejorative verbo transitivo (adj) intransitivo (adj) riﬂessivo (adj) diàtesi attivo (adj) passivo (adj) modo ﬁnito (adj) indicativo congiuntivo condizionale (m) imperativo indeﬁnito (adj) inﬁnito participio gerundio verb transitive intransitive reﬂexive voice active passive mood ﬁnite indicative subjunctive conditional imperative non-ﬁnite inﬁnitive participle gerund tempo semplice (adj) presente tense simple present (e.g. amo etc.; ami etc.) future (e.g. amerò etc.) imperfect (e.g. amavo etc.; amassi etc.) simple past, past deﬁnite (e.g. amai etc.) compound present perfect, usu not translated (e.g. ho amato etc.) future perfect (e.g. avrò amato etc.) futuro imperfetto passato remoto composto (adj) passato prossimo futuro anteriore 223 11 Grammatical terms pluperfect, past perfect (e.g. avevo amato etc.) pluperfect, past perfect/anterior (e.g. ebbi amato etc.) past/perfect subjunctive (e.g. abbia amato etc.) pluperfect subjunctive (e.g. avessi amato etc.) past conditional (e.g. avrei amato etc.) person trapassato prossimo trapassato remoto congiuntivo passato congiuntivo trapassato condizionale passato persona 11.2 Punctuation marks (Segni di punteggiatura) The symbol @ in e-mail addresses is called chiòcciola (lit snail). The symbol # (hash) is called cancelletto (lit little gate). The symbol & (ampersand) is not common in Italian, but is called ‘e’ commerciale. note that punto e virgola is masculine as a whole: un/il punto e virgola. Italian accento acuto mark ´ accento grave ` apòstrofo asterisco due punti lineetta ’ parentesi (f inv) parentesi tonde parentesi quadre parentesi graffe puntini di sospensione puntini puntini (R1–2) punto 224 ∗ : — () [] {} ... . English acute accent (on closed e [e] and o [o]) grave accent (on a, i, u and on open e [ε] and o [ɔ ]) apostrophe asterisk colon dash (also used to separate direct speech) bracket round brackets square brackets double brackets, curly brackets suspension marks, dot dot dot full stop, period (US); point (numbers); dot (e-mail) 11.3 Other common terms and expressions Italian punto e virgola punto esclamativo punto interrogativo sbarra/barra inversa sbarretta trattino vı̀rgola virgolette (basse) mark ; ! ? \ / , ≪ virgolette (alte) “” virgolette singole ‘’ English semicolon exclamation mark question mark back slash slash hyphen comma quotation marks (used for direct speech) inverted commas (generally used to isolate and/or highlight one or more words; tra virgolette = in inverted commas) single inverted commas (used as the double inverted commas, but less frequently) 11.3 Other common terms and expressions Italian (lettera) maiùscola (lettera) minùscola in neretto, in grassetto in corsivo corsivo paràgrafo capoverso a capo andare a capo mark § English capital letter small letter bold italic italics paragraph (= subheading) beginning of a paragraph, paragraph (in a text) new paragraph to start a new paragraph 225 12 Numerals and telephone conventions 12.1 Numerals and mathematical conventions 12.1.1 Decimals In Italian, as a rule, the punto (point) separates thousands, the vı̀rgola (comma) decimals, e.g. 1.000.000 = un milione; 23,42 = ventitré virgola quarantadue/ventitré e quarantadue (centesimi). note that the English reading twenty-three point four two has no direct equivalent in Italian (ventitré virgola quattro due is not used). However, it should be pointed out that the use of the decimal point, if not practiced, is certainly widely understood in Italy, especially in the scientiﬁc world. For the sake of clarity, the Anglo-American conventions (i.e. decimal point) have been applied throughout this text, even in Italian contexts. 12.1.2 r r r r 12.1.3 Mathematical operations When doing operations, the following Italian expressions are worthy of notice: in sums (addizioni), in everyday casual speech “plus” can be simply e, and “equals” is omitted, e.g. 2 + 3 = 5 due e tre cinque (R1–2), rather than due più tre è uguale a (R2–3)/fa cinque. Cf. the idiom in quattro e quattr’otto (“in the twinkling of an eye”). in divisions (divisioni), “divided by” becomes diviso, e.g. 8 : 2 = 4 otto diviso due è uguale a (R2–3)/fa quattro in ratios (proporzioni), English “is to” becomes Italian sta a, e.g. 4 : 6 = 6 : 9 quattro sta a sei come sei sta a nove in raising to a power (elevazione a potenza), “squared” is translated al quadrato, “cubed” al cubo, and, generally, “to the nth power” becomes all’ennesima (potenza), e.g. 33 tre al cubo/alla terza (potenza) Ordinal numbers The usual notation is [Arabic numeral]o , which is acceptable also for the feminine and the plural, where strictly speaking a/i/e should be used. It is nonetheless advisable to use the agreement, esp in the singular, e.g. Carlo 226 12.2 Telephone conventions a fa la 4 (classe) elementare (“Carlo is in 4th grade”). As an alternative to the Arabic notation, in some cases Italian can simply use the corresponding Roman numeral (without o/a/i/e and usu after the noun), e.g. Carlo fa la IV elementare. This is common practice with kings, queens, popes, emperors, e.g. Luigi XIV (quattordicesimo), and often centuries; e.g. il secolo XIV (or il 14o secolo) = the fourteenth century. Following the French, some of the kings Louis of France are sometimes mentioned (in R3) with a cardinal, rather than ordinal, number, e.g. Luigi tredici/quattordici/quindici/sedici. 12.2 Telephone conventions 12.2.1 Telephone numbers In recent years, area codes have become, in Italy, an integral part of telephone numbers and must always be dialed including the initial zero, even when ringing from abroad. Verbally, the area code is often given digit by digit, whereas the numbers that follow are said in pairs or one by one (with pauses after every three/two digits). One way of reading the number 06 9876543 could therefore be zero sei; nove otto sette, sessantacinque (or sei cinque), quarantatré (or quattro tre). 12.2.2 r r Telephone alphabet In order to avoid confusion, when spelling names or words, especially but not only on the telephone, a conventional “telephone alphabet” is used. Every Italian letter is assigned the name of a town or city. The non-Italian letters (j, k, w, x, y) have one foreign word each, though in most cases their distinctive names are clear enough. The ‘telephone’ alphabet can be used to: specify a letter, e.g. A come Ancona (cf. English ‘A for/as in apple’) spell a word, e.g. Padova, Empoli, Roma, Torino, Hotel spells “Perth.” With the exception of k (usu m, possibly to avoid confusion with cappa (f = cloak; hood [in ﬁreplaces etc.]), the letters of the alphabet are usu considered feminine (see chapter 14 “Gender”). A Italian a Ancona British Andrew American Abel B bi Bologna Benjamin Baker C ci Como Charlie Charlie D di Domodossola David Dog E e Empoli Edward Easy F effe Firenze Frederick Fox 227 12 Numerals and telephone conventions 228 G Italian gi Genova British George American George H acca Hotel Harry How I i Imola Isaac Item J i lunga Jersey Jack Jig K cappa Kursaal King King L elle Livorno Lucy Love M emme Milano Mary Mike N enne Napoli Nellie Nan O o Otranto Oliver Oboe P pi Padova Peter Peter Q cu Quarto Queenie Queen R erre Roma Robert Roger S esse Savona Sugar Sugar T ti Torino Tommy Tare U u Udine Uncle Uncle V vi/vu Venezia Victor Victor W vu doppia/doppia vu (less common vi doppia/doppia vi) In acronyms, w is pron vu, e.g. BMW [bi ε mme vu]; www [vu vu vu] Washington William William X ics xeres Xmas X Y i greca or ipsilon yacht or York Yellow Yoke Z zeta [dzε ta] Zara Zebra Zebra 13 Measurement The metric system is universally used in Italy. With the notable exception of the internationally adopted miglio marino/nautico (nautical mile) and the nodo (knot = 1 nautical mile an hour), the existence of Italian translations for most imperial (or American) terms (such as pòllice for “inch”) does not necessarily entail knowledge of the corresponding value by the native Italian speaker. In order to avoid confusion, it is therefore advisable, when translating imperial or American measurements from English, to turn them into or give an indication of their metric equivalents. The following tables of conversion include both precise and rounded-up values. While the ﬁrst set might of course be necessary in some circumstances (e.g. in the ﬁelds of science and technology), in most everyday situations the approximate equivalences will be quite adequate. A measurement of “4 in.” will therefore be translated into (circa) 10 centimetri (rather than 10,156 centimetri), and so on. All words ending in -grammo are stressed on the second-last syllable (e.g. centigràmmo), whereas all the words with -metro and -litro are stressed on the third-last syllable (e.g. centı̀metro, centı̀litro), although it is not uncommon to hear millilı̀tro instead of millı̀litro. Note that the preﬁx kilo- is often spelt chilo- in Italian, even though the letter k is regularly used in the abbreviations. For the sake of simplicity, the numbers have been written according to Anglo-American conventions. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. 229 13 Measurement 13.1 Length (Lunghezza) Standard conversion table 1 inch un pollice = 2.539 cm 1 foot un piede = 30.480 cm 1 cm = 0.3937 in 1 yard una iarda = 91.440 cm 1 m = 3.2808 ft 1 fathom un braccio = 1.8288 m 1 m = 1.093 yd 1 mile un miglio terrestre = 1.6093 km 1 nautical mile un miglio marino = 1.853 km 1 league una lega = 5.559 km 1 km = 0.6214 mi Approximate equivalences 10 cm 50 cm 1m 100 m 10 km 100 km ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ 4 in 1 21 ft 1 yd (3 ft) 100 yds 6 miles 60 miles Examples Height Speed una bambina di/alta novanta centimetri = a child 3 feet tall un uomo di/alto un metro e ottanta = a man 6 feet tall una montagna alta 4000 metri = a mountain 13,000 feet high cento chilometri all’ora = 60 miles an hour Expressions of length, width, height, depth, thickness lunghezza larghezza 230 questo ponte ha una lunghezza di tre chilometri (R2–3) questo ponte è di tre chilometri (di lunghezza); è un ponte di tre chilometri (di lunghezza) questo ponte è lungo tre chilometri; è un ponte lungo tre chilometri questo ponte è tre chilometri (R1) questa strada ha una larghezza di dieci metri (R2–3) questa strada è di dieci metri di larghezza; è una strada di dieci metri di larghezza questa strada è larga dieci metri; è una strada larga dieci metri 13.2 altezza profondità spessore Weight quest’albero ha un’altezza di sei metri (R2–3) quest’albero è di sei metri (di altezza); è un albero di sei metri quest’albero è alto sei metri; è un albero alto sei metri note : l’aereo è a mille metri di altezza/altitudine (R2–3); l’aereo è a un’altezza (R1–2)/ una quota/un’altitudine (R2–3) di mille metri questo lago ha una profondità di venti metri (R2–3) questo lago è profondo venti metri; è un lago profondo venti metri note ; qui l’acqua è alta (R1–2)/profonda (R2–3) tre metri qui la neve è alta un metro/qui c’è un metro di neve questa tavola ha uno spessore di tre centimetri questa tavola è di tre centimetri di spessore; è una tavola di tre centimetri di spessore questa tavola è spessa tre centimetri; è una tavola spessa tre centimetri note : in all the above expressions, the speciﬁcations di lunghezza, di larghezza, di altezza, di spessore can be left out when contextually obvious. 13.2 Weight (Peso) The units chilogrammo (kg) and ettogrammo (hg) are very common in everyday life and are usually shortened, respectively, to chilo and etto (pl chili, etti), e.g. mi dà due etti e mezzo di prosciutto, per piacere? (“could you please give me 250g [half a pound] of Parma ham?”). As regards heavier weights, the quintale (q = 100 kg) is very popular, even though with a recent ruling the EU has “outlawed” such use in ofﬁcial contexts, in favour of the tonnellata (t = 1000 kg) Standard conversion table (Avoirdupois) 1 oz un’oncia = 28.349 g 1 lb una libbra = 453.592 g 1 g = 0.03527 oz 1 stone = 6.3507 kg 1 kg = 2.20462 lbs 1 cwt (UK) = 50.802 kg 1 cwt (US) = 45.359 kg 1 t = 0.9842 tons 1 ton una tonnellata inglese = 1016.047 kg 1 t = 1.1023 tn.sh 1 short ton una tonnellata americana = 907.185 kg (1 metric ton/1 tonne) 231 13 Measurement Approximate equivalences 100 g (un etto) 1 kg 4 2 12 hg ≈ 4 oz (due etti e mezzo) 250 g } ≈ 1 2 lb 1 kg 2 ≈ 1 1b 1 kg ≈ 2 lb 6 kg ≈ 1 stone 100 kg (un quintale) ≈ 16 stones; 220 lb Examples un etto di burro = 4 oz of butter una donna di sessanta chili = a 10-stone woman un uomo di un quintale = a 16-stone man; a 220-pound man 13.3 Area (Area or superﬁcie [f R2–3]) Standard conversion table 1 sq in un pollice quadrato = 6.45159 cm2 1 sq ft un piede quadrato = 929.028 cm2 1 sq yd una iarda quadrata = 0.8361 m2 1 m2 = 10.7639 sq ft 1 sq mile un miglio quadrato = 2.59 km2 259 ha un acro = 4046.8 m2 = 0.40468 ha 1 km2 = 0.3861 sq miles 1 acre 1 cm2 = 0.1550 sq in 10,000 m2 = 1 ha = 2.4711 acres (un èttaro) Approximate equivalences 2 6 cm ≈ 1 sq in 1 ha (un èttaro) ≈ 2 1 m2 ≈ 1 sq yd 50 ha ≈ 125 acres 2 1,000 m ≈ 1 4 acre 250 ha (= 2 1 2 1 2 acres km2 ) ≈ 1 sq mile Examples un’azienda agricola di quaranta ettari = a 100-acre farm 100 ettari (= 1 km2 ) di foresta = 250 acres of forest 232 13.5 Capacity (liquid) 13.4 Volume (Volume [m]) Standard conversion table 1 cubic inch un pollice cubico/cubo = 16.387 cm3 1 cubic foot un piede cubico/cubo = 0.02832 m3 1 cubic yard una iarda cubica/cuba = 0.76455 m3 1 m3 = 35.314 cu ft (un metro cubo) 13.5 Capacity (liquid) (Capacità) Standard conversion table 1 gill (UK) = 0.142051 (US) = 0.11831 1 pint una pinta (UK) = 0.568231 (US) = 0.47321 1 l = 1.7598 pt (UK) (un litro) = 2.1134 pt (US) 1 quart un quarto (UK) = 1.136461 (US) = 0.94641 1 imperial gallon un gallone inglese (UK) = 4.545961 1 gallon un gallone americano (US) = 3.78531 1 barrel un barile (UK) = 1.6365 h1 (US) = 1.1922 h1 Approximate equivalences 1 litro ≈ 2 pints 24 litri ≈ 5 gallons (UK) 4 litri ≈ 1 gallon 24 litri ≈ 6 gallons (US) Examples la mia macchina fa (più di) 17 chilometri con un litro (R1–2) my car does 50 (miles) to the gallon (UK)/40 (miles) to the gallon (US) 9 chilometri con un litro (R1–2) mezzo litro di birra 25 to the gallon (UK)/21 to the gallon (US) a pint of beer 233 13 Measurement 13.6 Currency (Valùta or moneta corrente) From the uniﬁcation of Italy until 2002, the Italian currency was the lira (£ or LIT). The use of centèsimi (= cents, lit hundredths) disappeared after the Second World War with inﬂation. At the beginning of 2002 the lira and 11 other European currencies were replaced by the euro [ε uro] (m inv). Euros come in coins of (monete da) 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 cents (centesimi) and 1 and 2 euros (euro), as well as notes of (banconote/biglietti da) 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500 euro. Ofﬁcially, 1 euro is worth 1936.27 old lire: when switching from the old currency to the new, a factor of 2000 therefore gives a good approximation, e.g.: 5 centesimi ≈ 100 lire; 10 euro ≈ 20 000 lire; 500 euro ≈ 1 million lire. 13.7 Temperature (Temperatura) Conversion formulae and tables (gradi centı̀gradi/Celsius (R3) – gradi Fahreneit): ◦ F= 9◦ C 5 + 32 ◦ C= 5 ◦ ( F 9 – 32) General ◦ 234 F ◦ C Body temperature ◦ F ◦ C ◦ F ◦ C −4 −20 86 30 105.8 41.0 0 −17.8 95 35 104.9 40.5 5 −15 104 40 104.0 40.0 14 −10 113 45 103.1 39.5 23 −5 122 50 102.2 39.0 32 0 131 55 101.3 38.5 41 5 140 60 100.4 38.0 50 10 158 70 99.5 37.5 59 15 176 80 98.6 37.0 68 20 194 90 97.7 36.5 77 25 212 100 96.8 36.0 13.8 Time 13.8 Time (Tempo) The 24-hour system is used for ofﬁcial business (timetables, television programmes etc.). Similarly, the use of quindici, trenta, quarantacinque, cinquanta, cinquantacinque (implying minuti) instead of, respectively, un quarto, mezzo/mezza (R1–2), tre quarti/meno un quarto, meno dieci, meno cinque smacks of bureaucratic ofﬁcialdom. In everyday informal speech the twelve-hour system is used, if necessary with the speciﬁcations di/della mattina or del mattino (usu 2am–11am), di/del pomeriggio (usu 2pm–6pm), di/della sera (usu 5pm–11pm), di/della notte (usu 1am–2am). The use of these speciﬁcations may vary according to the season: for instance, the pomeriggio tends to be longer in the summer. “Midday” (12pm) is mezzogiorno, “midnight” (12am) is mezzanotte. 235 THE CLAUSE – combining words 14 Gender All Italian nouns are either masculine or feminine. 14.1 Gender and sex 14.1.1 Persons Nouns referring to persons of the male sex tend to be masculine, nouns referring to persons of the female sex tend to be feminine. There are, however, a number of exceptions. It should be remembered that agreement of adjectives and past participles with nouns is generally based on grammatical gender, not natural sex. Masculine nouns with possible female referents r r r Most are job titles for which a feminine form is not in use. They are nouns relating to: professions, e.g. medico doctor, ingegnere engineer, falegname carpenter positions or ranks within an organization or a team, e.g. consigliere board member, sergente sergeant, portiere goalkeeper note also soprano, mezzosoprano, contralto, which in the singular are sometimes used in the feminine (la soprano etc.) when referring to actual female singers rather than to voice ranges. Feminine nouns with possible male referents r Notable among the most common are: guardia guard, sentinella sentry, rècluta recruit, vittima victim, guida guide, spia spy, canaglia rascal In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. 239 14 Gender r r 14.1.2 note that in uncertain or (potentially) mixed contexts, masculine is the “default” gender in Italian, e.g.: Quanti ﬁgli hai? How many children/boys do you have? Quanti fratelli ha Carlo? How many siblings/brothers does Carlo have? Ambiguity can be avoided by for example referring to ﬁgli maschi as opposed to ﬁglie femmine in the ﬁrst instance, to fratelli e sorelle in the second. Animals (see also ‘Noises of animals’ in chapter 3) The great majority of animals are commonly referred to by using a “default” term. This applies, in both singular and plural, when the sex of the animal is not an issue or is unknown, especially when there are no obvious differences between the male and the female of the species. These nouns can be masculine, e.g. gatto, cane, topo, elefante, leopardo, or feminine, e.g. volpe, lepre (usu f ), balena, pecora, pantera. note the possible differences between Italian and English where, in R1, a cat may be sometimes generically referred to as a “she”, and a fox or a hare as a “he.” It is also possible to specify the sex of an animal. Often there are distinct masculine and feminine forms to indicate the male and the female of the species (see section 14.2). If no speciﬁc form exists, the generic term denoting the animal may be followed, in R2–3, by “maschio” or “femmina,” which in this case are invariable. The grammatical gender of the whole expression is that of the original term, e.g. un rinoceronte maschio/femmina, molti rinoceronti maschio/femmina; una volpe maschio/femmina, molte volpi maschio/femmina. In scientiﬁc contexts (R3) it is also possible to refer to ‘the male/female of the particular species’, e.g. il maschio/la femmina del rinoceronte. In some cases a sufﬁx may allow, in R1, to specify the sex of certain animals, e.g. scoiattolino/scoiattolina. 14.2 Formation of masculine/feminine pairs Nouns referring to people or animals often have different forms to distinguish between males and females. Some pairs of nouns are quite unrelated in form, but in most cases the only difference between the masculine and their feminine counterpart is in the ending, with some characteristic patterns of correspondence. Due to the ever increasing presence of women at all levels in society, including ﬁelds that have traditionally been the exclusive domain of men, the issue of gender in language has acquired sociopolitical implications. In linguistic terms, this has led to some confusion in the use of titles related to jobs, professions, positions, ranks, etc. With most professions and 240 14.2 Formation of masculine/feminine pairs positions, the tendency is to leave the title in the masculine, especially in formal contexts, e.g. Lia Bo, Professore di Fisica Nucleare, or l’Ambasciatore d’Italia, signora Bo, etc. A female minister in government may be la ministra or il ministro, but the latter is much more common. In some cases, beside a grammatically feminine form, an analytic expression has been coined, e.g. donna poliziotto (beside poliziotta), donna pilota (beside pilota f ). The feminine of some titles can also traditionally mean “wife of the title holder” (cf English “queen”), e.g. ambasciatrice or presidentessa, and/or might have joking or mocking connotations, e.g. sindachessa, medichessa. Adjectives and participles tend to agree with the natural sex of the person if the person is named, regardless of any other words referring to the person (cf. section 16.1), e.g.: L’avvocato Giulia Bongiorno, uno dei legali di Giulio Andreotti, è crollata sulla sedia. The lawyer Giulia Bongiorno, one of Giulio Andreotti’s legal advisers, collapsed onto her chair. It is common to use the deﬁnite article when referring to prominent women, but not men, by their surname, e.g. la Maraini. With men this practice is usually reserved for artistic and cultural ﬁgures of recognized fame, e.g. il Leopardi. The use of the deﬁnite article with given names is common in the North, especially with feminine names, e.g. la Chiara. Use of the article with masculine names, e.g. il Giuseppe, is R1. The practice of including both genders in generic cases by giving both ending of adjectives etc. (cf. English he/she etc.) is not widely followed, e.g. Ogni collega che è interessato/a; lo/la studente; lo/la studente/-essa. The title signore is used for all adult men, married or single. The form signorino is considered old-fashioned and is used jocularly to refer to young boys. The titles signora and signorina are used for women of all ages. There is no Italian equivalent of Ms (cf. section 9.1). 14.2.1 Unrelated m–f nouns Some rather common pairs belong to this category: Persons maschio–femmina; uomo–donna; marito–moglie; padre–madre; papà/babbo–mamma; fratello–sorella; frate–suora; genero–nuora; celibe–nubile (both R2–3), single man–woman, and, to a certain extent, scapolo–zitella bachelor–spinster Animals (in square brackets the castrated male, when applicable) fuco/pecchione–ape; montone/ariete/[castrato]–pecora; porco/verro (R3)–scrofa; toro/[bue/bove]–mucca/vacca. 241 14 Gender 14.2.2 Related m–f nouns – anomalous m–f correspondence Persons dio–dea; re–regina; eroe–eroina; zar–zarina; stregone–strega witch-doctor – witch; abate–badessa abbot–abbess; doge–dogaressa Animals (in square brackets the castrated male, when applicable) cane–cagna; gallo/[cappone]–gallina 14.2.3 Related nouns – patterns of m–f correspondence Endings m f Notes -a -a in most cases (see also section 14.4 and section 15.1 for pl) pediatra; pianista; ipocrita; atleta; eremita; idiota; collega -essa only a handful of notable cases duca–duchessa; poeta–poetessa; profeta–profetessa; papa–papessa -a most nouns in -ere cameriere–cameriera note : in some cases the feminine indicates an object most nouns in -one caffettiere café proprietor–caffettiera coffee-maker padrone–padrona; pasticcione–pasticciona bungler marchese–marchesa; signore–signora; pastore–pastora; impostore–impostora –e very few cases in -ese, -ore (including -tore) 242 Examples -e most nouns in -ese, -ante, -ente, and others milanese; comandante; cantante; insegnante; agente; dirigente; cliente; testimone; nipote; consorte (R3) spouse -essa very few cases in -ante mercante–mercantessa including one animal elefante–elefantessa two notable cases in -ente studente–studentessa; presidente–presidentessa (or presidente, R2–3) few notable case in -ore, including two in -tore professore–professoressa dottore–dottoressa; fattore–fattoressa (note : fattrice = brood cow/mare) 14.3 Gender associated with types of noun Endings m f Notes Examples a few notable cases in -one barone–baronessa including some animals leone–leonessa; pavone–pavonessa (or pavona) peacock other notable cases principe–principessa; generale–generalessa; oste–ostessa inn-keeper; sacerdote–sacerdotessa attore–attrice; senatore–senatrice; traditore–traditrice (or traditora) -tore -trice very common -(s)sore -ditrice usu avoided, very few nouns possessore–posseditrice; actually used trasgressore–trasgreditrice; difensore–difenditrice -o -a very common, also animals bambino–bambina; gatto–gatta -essa few nouns diacono–diaconessa; avvocato–avvocatessa (avvocata for saints); orco–orchessa oger; soldato–soldatessa; druido–druidessa sometimes mocking in tone deputato–deputatessa (instead of deputata) member of parliament; medico–medichessa; ﬁlosofo–ﬁlosofessa (instead of ﬁlosofa); diavolo–diavolessa 14.3 Gender associated with types of noun In many cases the noun or name belonging to the categories sampled in the tables below simply reﬂects the gender of the “generic” noun that identiﬁes the category itself, e.g. masculine in the case of oceano, mare, ﬁume, aeroplano, colore, orologio, etc., and feminine in the case of città, isola, nave, lettera, etc. In fact, many geographic names are usu accompanied by their generic deﬁnition, e.g. il lago Maggiore, il Mare del Nord, il Monte Bianco, though this is not the case for the geographic names in the table, which can all be used without the corresponding noun, e.g. il (ﬁume) Tevere, il (lago di) Garda. 243 14 Gender Mostly masculine Type of noun Examples Geographic oceans, seas lakes rivers Atlantico, Mediterraneo Garda, Trasimeno, Titicaca Tevere, Po, Nilo, Tamigi Thames, Danubio, Mississipi mountains (not chains); Cervino Matterhorn, Everest; volcanoes Vesuvio, Etna Time days; months; years Transportation lorries, trucks aeroplanes Food and drink cheeses wines Other colors languages, dialects metals; elements musical notes numbers, marks other parts of speech used as nouns trees watches Mostly feminine Type of noun Geographic cities islands 244 (Some) exceptions la Manica the Channel – Dora, Senna Seine, Loira, Neva, Moldava, Vistola Maiella, Marmolada lunedı̀; gennaio; il 2000 only domenica un (camion) Mercedes un jumbo, il Concorde, lo Spitﬁre, un Boeing 747 – – il gorgonzola, il pecorino, il parmigiano, lo stilton, il camembert, il gruviera (m inv, but also f ) il barolo, uno chardonnay, il barbera (usu m, but also f ) mozzarella, scamorza, caciotta, ricotta, fontina, robiola, provola il rosa, il blu l’italiano, il milanese il bronzo, l’acciaio; l’idrogeno il do, il la, un si il sette, un trenta il tu, il sı̀, il perché, il bere, il nulla, i se, i ma, un non so che il melo, l’olivo, l’abete ﬁr tree, il pino, l’eucalipto – – ghisa cast iron – – malvası̀a, vernaccia, albana un Rolex, uno Swatch quercia, palma, tamerice, vite grapevine, iacaranda, sequoia, acacia, robinia – Examples (Some) exceptions Milano, Napoli, Londra, Berlino, New York (cf. the old-fashioned Nuova York) il Cairo, il Pireo Piraeus note : with some cities, the masculine indicates a local football club, e.g. il Napoli il Madagascar, il Borneo Sicilia, Capri, Giava, Cipro 14.4 Mostly feminine Type of noun Examples Transportation cars (Some) exceptions some cars may be referred to in the masculine (R1), e.g. Carlo s’è fatto il Mercedes Carlo got himself a Merc la Pinta, la Michelangelo, la the exceptions possibly imply Queen Elizabeth, l’Enterprise masculine nouns, such as transatlantico, e.g. il Titanic, il Rex, il Lusitania una Ferrari, una Ford, una Mercedes ships Other abstract qualities bellezza, bruttezza, bontà, cattiveria cameras companies (see also chapter 9) fruit una Polaroid, una Nikon la Telecom Italia, la Lancia, la Ford, la IBM mela, pera, banana, pesca, susina plum, nettarina, uva, mora blackberry letters of Roman alphabet (also m, but less common) school years sciences Gender associated with noun ending qualities ending in -ore, e.g. grigiore grayness, candore whiteness, innocence, splendore radiance, beauty – – many exceptions: lampone raspberry, ﬁco; many citrus fruits, e.g. arancio (more common than arancia), limone, pompelmo grapefruit, mandarino; many exotic fruits, e.g. dàttero date, ananas pineapple, mango, kiwi (inv) la C, una M un K (usu); al s o : Greek letters usu masculine, e.g. pi greco (␲) la prima ﬁrst year of (primary) can be m when accompanied school, la terza media eighth year by ginnasio or liceo, e.g. il quarto ginnasio la matematica, la ﬁsica il diritto law 14.4 Gender associated with noun ending The indications given in this section are based on singular endings (for plural formation see section 15.1) and do not necessarily apply to proper names, or to compound (see section 14.5) or sufﬁxed nouns. 245 14 Gender Unstressed vowel (including monosyllabic words) -a r r r r r -e 246 generally feminine, with the following notable exceptions (besides those in section 14.3): pianeta, colèra, gorilla, duca, papa, boia executioner, dèspota (R2–3), pirata (usu m), stratega (also f ), poliglotta (R2–3 also f ), camerata comrade (usu fascist, also f ) many nouns ending in -ma, mostly of Greek derivation, e.g. problema, tema, dramma, programma, linfoma, clima, sistema, panorama; among the exceptions: asma, gomma, ﬁamma, arma, rima, norma, forma, calma, crema, somma, ﬁrma, tarma, trama, lacrima some nouns imported from other languages, e.g. pigiama, mantra (inv), lama (inv) or derived from verbal forms, e.g. vaglia (inv) money order, or pronouns, e.g. nulla (inv), or proper names, e.g. barabba (inv) rogue some (R1/R1∗ ) nouns of dialectal origin, e.g. pirla (R1∗ Milan, inv) prick, ghisa (R1 Milan, inv) trafﬁc warden some nouns with the following endings are masculine when referring to males: -arca meaning ‘leader’, e.g. patriarca (only m), monarca (only m), oligarca; such nouns are seldom feminine, with the exception of matriarca (only f ) -iatra meaning “doctor”, e.g. pediatra, psichiatra -ista many nouns, e.g. artista, giornalista, ottimista -asta e.g. ginnasta, cineasta, pederasta (only m) -eta e.g. atleta, analfabeta illiterate, asceta, anacoreta (R3) anchorite; note : poeta and profeta are only m (see section 14.2.3) -ita e.g. semita, eremita, vietnamita, all derived from adjectives and usu indicating belonging or afﬁliation to peoples, religions, cults, etc.; note : parassita is feminine only when referring to women -ota e.g. patriota, pilota, cipriota, idiota, similar meanings but fewer nouns than the above category -nauta very few nouns, e.g. astronauta -euta very few nouns, e.g. terapeuta -cida e.g. omicida killer; chemicals with this ending are only masculine, e.g. erbicida, germicida masculine or feminine, but the following subcategories are worthy of notice: -ere masculine, whether persons (usu “doers”), e.g. cassiere, or things, e.g. carcere jail; exceptions are polvere, cenere -ore masculine, whether persons (usu “doers”), e.g. attore, scrittore, pittore, or things, e.g. colore, dolore; exception: fólgore (f ) ﬂash of lightning -trı̀ce feminine, usu “doers,” e.g. attrice, scrittrice, pittrice -sione/-zione generally feminine, e.g. confusione, emozione (note that this does not necessarily apply to compound nouns, e.g. capostazione [m] station-master, or possible “alterati”, e.g. negozione [m] big shop) 14.4 -i -o r r r r -u Gender associated with noun ending mostly masculine: many imports, e.g. samurai, sci, and compounds (see section 14.5), e.g. saliscendi, millepiedi, portabagagli; beside the rather technical cisti (f R2–3) cyst, colecisti (f R3) cholecyst and endiadi (f R3) hendyadis, a most notable exception is the whole category of nouns ending in -si mostly feminine, e.g. crisi, tesi, with very few exceptions, e.g. brindisi (m) toast mostly masculine, with the following notable exceptions: mano, dinamo, virago (R3, pl viragini); eco (less common m s; only m pl) soprano, contralto, mezzosoprano (sometimes f, usu m s, only m pl) elliptic expressions, e.g. squillo from ragazza squillo call-girl abbreviated forms of feminine nouns, e.g. radio, auto, moto, foto note : the abbreviated form of videocassetta (f ) is video (m), which is also the abbreviation for videoregistratore (m) videorecorder masculine, very few nouns altogether, many of them monosyllabic, mostly imported from other languages, e.g. urdu, gnu; exception: gru (f ) crane Stressed vowel -à generally feminine, e.g. onestà, città, with few exceptions, e.g. scià shah, baccalà stockﬁsh, lillà lilac, papà, podestà, taffetà -è generally masculine; very few nouns (often from French), e.g. caffè, bidè, gilè waistcoat, vest; some exceptions, e.g. koinè (f R3) -é masculine; besides perché used as a noun, a handful of French derived nouns, e.g. scimpanzé (often pronounced with -è), varieté variety show; only exception pansé (f ) pansy (also pronounced with –è) -ı̀ mostly masculine; very few nouns, e.g. supplı̀ rice croquette, tassı̀, colibrı̀; notable exception: pipı̀ (f ) wee-wee -ò masculine; few nouns (many of which are adaptations from French), e.g. paltò coat, comò chest of drawers, pedalò pedal boat, rondò, falò bonﬁre -ó no nouns -ù mostly masculine (often from other languages), e.g. bambù, cucù, caucciù; important exceptions are the Latin-derived gioventù, schiavitù slavery, servitù servitude, servants, virtù, tribù, and the modern tivù/ tivvù TV Consonant (including -y) Generally masculine (mostly nouns from other languages), e.g. bar, camion, virus. Among the common feminine nouns in this group (beside those listed in the tables above) are e-mail (usu f ), viacard type of motorway credit card, glasnost, (bottiglia) molotov Molotov cocktail, vamp. note : Internet is usu m (and without article). 247 14 Gender 14.5 Gender of compound nouns 14.5.1 Verb + noun Most compound nouns belong to this category, their typical (singular) form being a second person singular imperative followed by a noun in the singular or plural. They are mostly masculine, as shown in detail below. Persons As with non-compound nouns, the gender of V + N compound nouns referring to persons may reﬂect the sex of the referent. In the great majority of cases this will only show in a change of article, the actual noun being invariable, e.g.: un/una perdigiorno idler, un/una voltagabbana turncoat, un/una rubacuori charmer, un/una raccattapalle ball boy/girl In some cases, especially with nouns relating to activities traditionally carried out by men, the feminine is not used in practice, but it is still possible in theory, e.g.: un/(una?) taglialegna woodcutter, uno/(una?) spazzacamino chimney-sweeper, un/(una?) guardalinee linesman, linesperson Animals Very few V + N nouns refer to animals. They appear to be masculine, without a form for the female. As usual in these cases, their feminine is formed by adding femmina, e.g.: un beccaﬁco/un beccaﬁco femmina garden warbler, un succiacapre/un succiacapre femmina nightjar, goatsucker Objects etc. For the great majority of the other cases, V + N compound nouns are masculine, e.g.: il caricabatteria battery charger, il fermacarte paper-weight, il passatempo pastime, il battipanni carpet-beater Notable exceptions are some nouns referring to some domestic appliances, e.g.: la lavabiancheria (less common than lavatrice) washing machine, la lavapiatti/la lavastoviglie dishwasher - some nouns referring to ships, e.g. la portaerei aircraft-carrier, la portaelicotteri helicopter-carrier note : rompighiaccio ice-breaker is usually masculine - and a few more where a feminine noun (indicated in brackets) might be implied, e.g.: la (macchinetta) mangiasoldi slot-machine, lit money-eater (m/f when referring to persons), la (pistola) scacciacani (also m) blank pistol 248 14.5 14.5.2 Gender of compound nouns Noun + noun Persons There is a good number of N + N compound nouns referring to persons, many of them of the kind capo + noun. They usually reﬂect the sex of the person they refer to. The change of gender usually shows only in the article, since the second noun is in most cases gender-invariable, e.g. il/la capofamiglia head of the family, il/la capoufﬁcio head clerk. There are a few cases where the second noun, and therefore the compound noun, has a distinct feminine form, e.g.: il caporedattore/la caporedattrice editor-in-chief, il capocuoco/la capocuoca head-cook, il sordomuto/la sordomuta deaf-mute, and a few cases where, as seen elsewhere, the masculine is still the only gender in use, for traditional or historical reasons, e.g. il capocomico manager of a theatre company, il capomastro master builder. Animals There are not many common animal nouns in this category. Their gender tends to reﬂect the gender of the head noun, which in the majority of the cases appears to be masculine, e.g.: il pescecane shark, il pescespada swordﬁsh, il gattopardo serval, ocelot, il toporagno shrew. Among the very few feminine nouns, la volpoca R3, sheld-fowl, whereas grillotalpa mole cricket can be masculine (more common in the singular) or feminine (esp in the more common plural grillotalpe). In all cases there seem to be no distinct forms for the opposite sex: “a female shark” will therefore be un pescecane femmina. Objects etc. In most cases, the gender of all the other N + N compounds tends to reﬂect the gender of the noun perceived as the “head” of the expression corresponding to the compound noun. While practically irrelevant in the case of compounds formed by nouns of the same gender, e.g.: autostrada (f ) motorway, cassapanca (f ) box seat, cinemateatro (m) cinema-theater, capolavoro (m) masterpiece, this becomes important in the case of “m + f” or “f + m” nouns, e.g.: agopuntura (= puntura [f ] con aghi) feminine acupuncture bagnoschiuma (= schiuma [f ] per il bagno) feminine bubblebath capolinea (= capo [m] della linea) masculine terminus fondovalle (= fondo [m] della valle) masculine bottom of the valley pallacanestro (= palla [f ] a canestro) feminine basket-ball pallavolo (= palla [f ] a volo) feminine volley-ball acquascooter (= scooter [m] acquatico) masculine jetski cartamodello (= modello [m] di carta) masculine paper pattern 249 14 Gender There is a number of cases that do not seem to follow this pattern, or whose “head noun” is not easily identiﬁable, e.g.: il centrodestra/-sinistra center-right/left), il mappamondo (globe), il crocevia crossroads. 14.5.3 Noun + adjective/adjective + noun Only compounds where the noun is the head of the phrase and is therefore modiﬁed by the adjective are considered here. Compounds like terrapieno embankment (lit full of earth) are not included, whereas those like terracotta (lit cooked earth) are. Persons There is a tendency to reﬂect the gender of the person the noun refers to. This can be done through the article, e.g.: un/una quattrocchi (R1) four-eyes, un/una pellerossa lit redskin or, in A + N cases, when the noun allows it, morphologically, e.g.: granduca/graduchessa, gentiluomo/gentildonna Some compounds are still only used in the masculine, e.g. un piedipiatti (R1) ﬂatfoot, although nothing, except custom, seems to prevent their use in the feminine. On the other hand, la buonanima the dear departed is feminine even when referring to males. Animals These are not common and usually describe a physical characteristic of the animal in question. The gender of the compound is usually the same as the noun component, e.g. il pettirosso robin, lit red breast, but there are a number of cases where this does not apply, e.g. la capinera blackcap, lit black head. The plural noun compounds millepiedi and centopiedi are both masculine. Apart from il/la purosangue thoroughbred, which distinguishes between male and female, the other N + A/A + N nouns referring to animals must use the maschio/femmina addition. Objects etc. For the majority of the remaining N + A/A + N compounds the gender tends to be the same as that of the noun component, e.g.: il granturco maize, corn, la cartapesta papier-mâché, il mezzogiorno, la mezzanotte. 14.5.4 Other compounds These include V + V, A + A, and compounds with adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, more than two components, etc. 250 14.5 Gender of compound nouns Persons On the whole, the gender of the compound will reﬂect the sex of the person it refers to, e.g. il/la fuorilegge outlaw, il/la nullatenente propertyless (person), il/la senzatetto homeless person, il/la tuttofare jack of all trades/maid of all work. Whenever the ﬁnal element of the compound makes it possible, the gender will show in the ending, e.g. bianconero/-a Juventus supporter, maleducato/-a impolite person. However, some words maintain the original gender of the head noun regardless of the sex of the referent, e.g. la controﬁgura double (in acting). Animals The number of animal denominations in this category is too small to allow the identiﬁcation of patterns of any kind. Objects etc. Compounds that do not have a noun component or that do have a verb component tend to be masculine, e.g.: il saltimbocca kind of meat dish, il bagnasciuga shoreline, il toccasana cure-all, il parapiglia hubbub, il nontiscordardimé forget-me-not, il chiaroscuro, il pianoforte, il benservito testimonial; among the exceptions, la lavasciuga washer-dryer, la tagliacuce cutting-sewing machine, il/la sempreverde evergreen (also adj), la caldarrosta roast chestnut, which implies castagna. In all other compound nouns the gender tends to be the same as that of the noun, if this is the head of the phrase, e.g.: capodanno (= capo [m] dell’anno) masculine manodopera (mano [f ] d’opera) feminine controcanto (= canto [m] contro) masculine controproposta (= proposta [f ] contro) feminine soprannome (= nome [m] in più) masculine soprattassa (= tassa [f ] in più) feminine sottoprodotto (= prodotto [m] derivato) masculine sottoveste (= veste [f ] sottostante) feminine retrogusto (= gusto [m] che segue) masculine retromarcia (marcia [f ] indietro) feminine When the noun is not the head of the phrase, the gender of the compound tends to be masculine, even if the noun component is feminine, e.g.: dopobarba (= dopo la rasatura della barba) masculine dopoguerra (= dopo la guerra) masculine doposcuola (= dopo la scuola) masculine entroterra (= dentro la terra) masculine fuoripista (= fuori dalla pista) masculine fuoristrada (= fuori dalla strada) masculine oltretomba (= oltre la tomba) masculine sottobottiglia (= sotto la bottiglia) masculine 251 14 Gender sottogola (= sotto la gola) masculine sottopancia (= sotto la pancia) masculine sottoscala (= sotto la scala) masculine note the difference between il retroscena (= dietro la scena), masculine, backstage activity, and la retroscena (= la scena dietro), feminine, backstage. Among the compound nouns that do not follow this pattern: retrobottega (backshop) and retrocucina (scullery) can be both masculine or feminine, probably because they allow two interpretations. controluce can be masculine (esp with regard to photos etc. taken contro la luce), or feminine (when the stress is on the type of lighting, luce contro) fuoriserie is feminine, probably because it implies automobile or macchina or vettura. 14.6 Homonyms distinguished by gender The following is a sample of Italian homonyms distinguished, at least in the singular, by their gender. Masculine Feminine boa caccia camerata capitale cappa (inv) boa constrictor; feather boa (inv) ﬁghter plane; destroyer male fascist comrade capital (econ.) (inv) the letter “k” ﬁnale ﬁne end, ending; ﬁnale end = goal, purpose, outcome; note : lieto ﬁne = happy ending; il ﬁne settimana = the week-end only in il fonte battesimale = the christening font front (military, political, weather) (inv) third letter of the Greek alphabet Genesis (book of the Bible) (inv) color garnet; supporter or player of the Torino football team morale buoy hunt dormitory; female fascist comrade capital (city) cloak, cape, e.g. cappa e spada = cloak and dagger; hood (as in ﬁreplaces etc.); al s o , less common, the letter “k” ﬁnal (sport, competitions) end = conclusion fonte fronte gamma genesi (R3) granata morale 252 fountain, source (also ﬁg) forehead, brow range, spectrum; gamut, scale genesis broom; grenade morals, morality; moral (of a story etc.) 14.7 moto noce pianeta radio rosa via volante Nouns with both masculine and feminine plurals Masculine Feminine motion; movement; physical exercise, e.g. fare un po’ di moto = to take some exercise; uprising (R2–3) walnut tree, wood planet radius (bone) (R3); radium (inv) color pink (inv) start, starting signal, e.g. dare il via = to give the starting signal steering wheel (inv) short for motocicletta = motorbike walnut chasuble (R3) (inv) radio, wireless rose road, street, path; way ﬂying squad 14.7 Nouns with both masculine and feminine plurals A small number of masculine nouns in -o boast two plural forms, a regular form in -i and an “exceptional” feminine form in -a, a relic of the plural ending of the original Latin neuter noun. Between the two forms there is, at times, a difference in meaning, as shown in the sample below. Note that in some cases, the -a ending indicates a “set” [e.g. le lenzuola = top and bottom sheets of a bed] as opposed to a collection of separate items [e.g. quattro lenzuoli di misura diversa = four sheets of different sizes]. In these cases, the form in -i is more likely to be associated with extended or ﬁgurative meanings of the word. braccio (arm) braccia bracci human arms; units of length ﬁg, generally of things, e.g. i bracci di una croce = the limbs of a cross; i bracci di un penitenziario = the wings of a penitentiary budello (only ﬁg, dark and narrow passage; hose, pipe) budella intestines (also budelle [R1]) budelli (ﬁg) dark and narrow passages; hoses, pipes calcagno (heel) calcagna calcagni heels (ﬁg): e.g. avere qu alle calcagna = to have sb at one’s heels heels (lit) cervello (brain, brains) cervella (R3) brains (= cerebral matter, cf. the idiom farsi saltare le cervella = to blow one’s brains out) cervelli brainy people, geniuses 253 14 Gender ciglio (eyelash; edge of a road, a ravine, a ditch and similar) ciglia eyelashes; (= sopracciglia) eyebrows cigli edges (of roads, ravines, ditches, and similar) corno (horn) corna horns (of animals, in sets) corni horns (musical instruments, and ﬁg, e.g. i corni di un dilemma) cuoio (leather) cuoia only in idioms like tirare le cuoia (R1–2) = to kick the bucket cuoi leathers, hides (lit) dito (ﬁnger) dita ﬁngers (in sets) diti (less frequent) ﬁngers (considered separately) ﬁlo (thread) ﬁla threads (taken collectively, only in some expressions, e.g. le ﬁla di una congiura = the threads of a plot) ﬁli threads (lit, e.g. ﬁli di cotone = cotton threads; ﬁli elettrici = electric wires; ﬁli d’erba = blades of grass) fondamento (foundation) fondamenta foundations (lit, e.g. le fondamenta di una casa) fondamenti foundations (ﬁg = fundamental principles, e.g. i fondamenti di una teoria) fuso (spindle; time zone) fusa only in fare le fusa = to purr (like a cat) fusi spindles; time zones gesto (gesture) gesta exploits, feats, glorious deeds gesti gestures ginocchio (knee) ginocchia knees, esp in sets, e.g. sedersi sulle ginocchia [less common sui ginocchi] di qu = to sit on sb’s knees ginocchi knees, esp not as a set, e.g. mi fanno male i ginocchi grido/urlo (cry, scream) grida/urla cries, screams (of people) gridi/urli cries, screams (esp of animals) labbro (lip) labbra lips (lit) 254 14.7 labbri Nouns with both masculine and feminine plurals lips (ﬁg, e.g. i labbri di una ferita = the lips of a wound) lenzuolo (bed sheet) lenzuola sheets (gen, esp in sets) lenzuoli sheets (considered separately) membro (limb; member) membra (R2–3) limbs (e.g. le membra superiori = the upper limbs, the arms) membri muro (wall) mura muri osso (bone) ossa ossi members (e.g. i membri del Parlamento) walls (as a set, esp the fortiﬁed walls of a city or a fortress) walls (considered separately, the walls of a house) bones (in sets, e.g. le ossa della mano = the bones of the hand, and also in some idioms, e.g. essere pelle e ossa = to be skin and bone) bones (considered separately, esp of butchered animals) Though obviously not belonging to the same category, we include here rèni (m) kidneys, the regular plural form of rène (m) (kidney) (often pronounced réne, réni) réni (f ) loins, (lower) back, from Lat. renes, plural of ren (kidney) 255 15 Number 15.1 Formation of plurals The following description covers the most productive categories of nouns (and adjectives) in Italian. However, there are many exceptions and the student should check with a good dictionary if in doubt. Regular plurals Singular Plural -a (f) -e la casa > le case -a (m) -i il problema > i problemi -e (m/f) -i l’insegnante > gli/le insegnanti -o (m) -i il libro > i libri -o (f) -i la mano > le mani, l’eco > gli echi Nouns with c or g in the ﬁnal syllable The stress is often a guide to forming the plural, though there are many exceptions. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. 256 15.1 Formation of plurals Singular Plural -ca, -ga (f) -che, -ghe la bottega > le botteghe -ca, -ga (m) -chi, -ghi il patriarca > i patriarchi -co, -go (m) -chi, -ghi when stress on penultimate syllable: il cuoco > i cuochi but amici, nemici, greci, porci, etc. -ci, -gi when stress on third-to-last syllable: il medico > i medici but incarichi, vàlichi, pròfughi, etc. -logi, -fagi names of persons: il politologo > i politòlogi, l’antropofago > gli antropòfagi -loghi, -faghi names of things: il dialogo > i diàloghi il sarcofago > i sarcòfaghi -cie, -gie when stress on the i: la bugia > le bugie -cie, -gie when stress on the preceding syllable and a vowel comes before the c or g: la camicia > le camicie -logo, -fago -cia, -gia -ce, -ge when stress on the preceding syllable and (less common -cie, -gie) a consonant comes before the c or g: la provincia > le province Nouns in -io When the stress is on the i, the plural is -ii. When the stress is on the preceding syllable, the plural is -i, e.g.: lo zio > gli zii; il bacio > i baci but il tempio > i templi Nouns in -ista, -cida, and -iatra These have one singular form and two plural forms, e.g.: il giornalista > i giornalisti, la giornalista > le giornaliste il suicida > i suicidi, la suicida > le suicide lo psichiatra > gli psichiatri, la psichiatra > le psichiatre Invariable nouns and adjectives r r those ending in an accented vowel, e.g.: la città > le città, il caffé > i caffè, la virtù > le virtù monosyllables: il re > i re 257 15 Number r r r r r r foreign words (adding s is now rather old-fashioned or used for effect): il ﬁlm > i ﬁlm, la star > le star words which are abbreviations of other words or acronyms (cf. chapter 9), e.g.: il cinema > i cinema; la lampo (= la chiusura lampo) > le lampo; l’ufo > gli ufo nouns ending in i or ie: la crisi > le crisi, il brindisi > i brindisi, la serie > le serie (but la moglie > le mogli, la superﬁcie > le superﬁci or superﬁcie) certain masculine nouns ending in a: il gorilla > i gorilla, il sosia > i sosia proper names are usually invariable: i Conversano the Conversano family, or Mr and Mrs Conversano; i signori Conversano Mr and Mrs Conversano note : in R3 a given name may be used in the plural to refer to paintings produced by that person, e.g.: due splendidi Tiziani two splendid paintings by Titian and Le tre Marie is the name of restaurants and bakeries in several Italian cities letters of alphabet: una emme > due emme Common exceptions l’ala > le ali; l’arma > le armi; il bue > i buoi; il dio > gli dei See section 14.7 for nouns that change gender in the plural. 15.2 Plural of compound nouns The plural of compound nouns formed from other nouns and/or adjectives generally follows the above rules, when the compound is felt to be a word in its own right, e.g.: l’autostrada > le autostrade il pescecane > i pescecani l’altoparlante > gli altoparlanti but il purosangue > i purosangue, la mezzaluna > le mezzelune In higher registers, both elements may sometimes be pluralized, e.g.: il pomodoro > i pomodori, pomidoro or pomidori (R3); la cassaforte > le cassaforti, casseforti (R3). Nouns beginning with capo- follow the normal rules, except when capo- means “person in charge of something.” In this case, masculine nouns pluralize only the capo part of the word, and feminine nouns are invariable, e.g.: il capolavoro > i capolavori (al s o capoluoghi, capoversi, etc.) il capopartito > i capipartito (al s o capistazione, capigruppo, capiscuola, etc.) la capopartito > le capopartito, le caposquadra, etc. 258 15.3 Italian plurals, English singulars When one noun follows another, acting as an adjective, it does not change in the plural, e.g.: la conferenza stampa > le conferenze stampa cf. la (chiusura) lampo > le lampo Compound nouns formed with a verb as ﬁrst element (they are usually masculine) form their plural according to what the second element is. Those formed with a masculine singular noun or with -mano form a regular plural, and others are invariable: Masculine singular “Mano” Feminine singular Plural Verb il passaporto > i passaporti il parafulmine > i parafulmini l’asciugamano > gli asciugamani lo scioglilingua > gli scioglilingua il portacenere > i portacenere il cavatappi > i cavatappi il guastafeste > i guastafeste il dormiveglia > i dormiveglia 15.3 Italian plurals which correspond to English singulars i bagagli dare un sacco di botte a qu i capelli i compiti essere in buone condizioni in contanti le conoscenze (also in sg) i dati (il dato dare le dimissioni Buone Feste le mie forze le forze dell’ordine i funerali (R3) al s o il funerale le informazioni (una informazione le intemperie (R3) con gli interessi le mie letture luggage, baggage to give sb a hiding hair homework to be in good condition in cash knowledge data (used both as sing and pl in English) datum (in science)) to tender one’s resignation Merry Christmas (and Happy New Year) my strength the police force funeral information an item of information) bad weather with interest (ﬁnancial), abundantly (gen) my reading 259 15 Number i mezzi pubblici le munizioni le nozze (R2–3) le posate le Poste (R1–2) fare dei progressi i reumatismi (R3) le ricerche (una ricerca i riﬁuti le sciocchezze (una sciocchezza i soldi gli spaghetti sono pronti a mie spese, a spese di gli spiccioli le stoviglie (R3) le tenebre (R3) i vestiti nelle vicinanze di i viveri public transport ammunition wedding, nuptials cutlery Post Ofﬁce, postal service to make progress rheumatism research a research project) rubbish nonsense a silly thing, piece of nonsense) money the spaghetti is ready at my expense, at the expense of loose change crockery darkness clothing, clothes in the vicinity of food, provisions 15.4 Italian singulars which correspond to English plurals l’archivio l’avena la bilancia il formicolı́o la gente la merce il morbillo il pantalone (R3, fashion) il pigiama la pinza, al s o pl la scala la statistica la tattica l’uva un chicco d’uva = a grape archives oats (weighing) scales pins and needles people goods measles trousers pyjamas pincers stairs set of statistics; statistics as a subject tactics grapes note la ﬁsica (physics), la linguistica (linguistics), la politica (politics) etc., whose English forms appear to be plural but are grammatically singular. 260 15.5 Number concord 15.5 Number concord Collective nouns More formal usage requires agreement with the singular collective noun, but in informal usage the plural noun causes the verb to go into the plural, e.g.: Una folla di uomini, donne e bambini era (R2–3) / erano (R1–2) sulla strada. All’interno c’era (R2–3) / c’erano (R1–2) una decina di persone. La maggior parte dei deputati era (R2–3) / erano (R1–2) d’accordo con la proposta. However, if the noun following the collective noun is in the singular, the verb is in the singular, e.g.: La maggior parte della popolazione era d’accordo con la proposta. Some words, when used in a collective way, have lost their literal meaning and usually take a plural verb (the singular is R2–3), e.g.: C’erano un sacco di tifosi alla stazione. Per fare ciò sono necessari un mucchio di soldi. Some singular nouns that refer to groups of people may take a singular or plural verb in English, but always take a singular verb in Italian, e.g. comitato, famiglia, polizia, squadra: Il comitato era contrario alla proposta. The committee was/were opposed to the proposal. Essere Essere is used in the plural if there is a plural noun on either side of it, and it also agrees with a ﬁrst or second person element if there is one, e.g.: Il problema sono gli studenti. I rappresentanti siete voi. La presidente sei tu. Chi è stato? - Sono stato/stata io. Either/or, neither/nor o . . . o takes a verb in the singular (less commonly in the plural) if the two items mentioned are singular, otherwise in the plural, e.g.: O l’uno o l’altro mi va bene. Secondo me, vinceranno o gli italiani o i tedeschi. né . . . né takes a verb in the plural (but may be in the singular if the subject follows), e.g.: Né Matteo né Chiara vanno alla festa. Non siamo andati né io né mia moglie. Non è arrivato né il capo né il suo vice. 261 16 Pronouns There are two forms of personal pronouns in Italian: unstressed (or “conjunctive” or “clitic”) and stressed (or “disjunctive” or “free”). Subject pronouns are stressed only; object pronouns have two forms: stressed and unstressed. Stressed pronouns are used for emphasis or contrast, or to remove ambiguity. Thus subject pronouns, which are always stressed, are usually not used except for these reasons. They are much more common in informal conversation than in writing. Stressed object pronouns are used like nouns, e.g. they follow verbs and are always separate from them. 16.1 First- and second-person pronouns Note these combinations of subject pronouns: tu ed io; io e te (R1–2) The following forms are dialectal in origin and are found in R1: subject pronouns: te (Center) subject and object pronouns: mi, ti, noialtri, voialtri (Northern) When mi, ti, ci, vi are direct objects, a following past participle tends not to agree except in more formal usage, e.g.: Ciao Maria! Non ti ho visto alla festa! (Non ti ho vista, R2–3) With Lei, when used as a second-person pronoun, participles and adjectives tend to agree with the sex of the person in question (cf. section 14.2), but in formal registers participles (but less so adjectives) may agree with the gender of the pronoun, e.g.: R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 262 16.2 Third-person pronouns Ah, dottor Rossi, non L’ho visto ieri sera alla riunione! (L’ho vista, R3) 16.2 Third-person pronouns Stressed forms The most commonly used stressed forms are lui, lei, loro. Other forms are still used in more formal registers, especially written: egli (R2–3)/ ella (R3) refer to persons; essa, essi and esse (R2–3) refer to persons, animals, or things; esso (R3) refers only to animals or things. All of these pronouns can be used as stressed object forms, except egli and esso. However, there is some uncertainty about the appropriate use of these forms, and in informal speech it is common to use a demonstrative (quello etc.) to refer to things. Direct object (unstressed) The unstressed direct object forms are lo, la, li, le. Lo also functions as a kind of neutral pronoun in referring to an entire clause and is often not translated in English, e.g.: La nostra squadra vincerà sicuramente. – Chi lo dice? – Non lo so. Our team will win for sure. – Says who? – I don’t know. With the verb essere and similar verbs, lo replaces a complement of the verb (noun, adjective – of either gender or number – or phrase), e.g.: Lei è una persona interessante, lo è sempre stata. She is an interesting person, she always has been. Alcune di queste persone sono nate povere, altre lo sono diventate per qualche disgrazia. Some of these people were born poor, others became (poor) through some misfortune. Per dire no alla guerra siamo in piazza oggi come lo siamo stati l’anno scorso. To say no to war we are in the streets today like we were last year. La is used in many idioms: see section 4.5.1. Indirect object (unstressed) The indirect object forms are gli and le (singular) and gli (plural) as well as ci and ne. Gli is preferred to stressed loro in informal usage and, increasingly, in more formal registers as well. Gli is also used in place of feminine singular le in informal usage, especially in Central Italy, but this is considered ungrammatical. Ci Ci is traditionally used for reference to animals or things (as well as being ﬁrst person plural). It is often used in R1 in place of gli or le for reference 263 16 Pronouns to people, as a way of simplifying the range of pronouns in use and also because most dialects use one form for all indirect object reference to persons, animals, and things. This usage is considered incorrect in Italian, with the exception of certain uses where ci does not correspond to a phrase with a but to some other preposition, e.g.: Non ci puoi contare [ci = su di lui] You can’t rely on him. On the other hand, gli and le are being used more and more for reference to animals and also things, and it may be that ci is being restricted to its adverbial uses (e.g. non ci sono mai stato, where ci = in quel luogo). Non ci capisco niente [ci = di ciò]. I can’t understand anything (of it). Non ci faccio niente [ci = con ciò]. I can’t do anything with it. Ci is universally used in the expressions ce l’ho, non ce l’ho, etc., and in R1–2 is often used with avere meaning “to possess,” e.g.: C’ho una fame! (R1–2) I’m so hungry! It also combines with a number of common verbs to change the meaning, sometimes considerably (cf. section 4.5.3), e.g.: volerci metterci entrarci vederci sentirci to be necessary to take (a period of time) to be relevant to be able to see to be able to hear Ne Ne is used for reference to persons, animals, things, and also to a previous sentence. It corresponds to a phrase introduced by di or da (see also section 4.5.2), e.g.: Chiara è partita l’anno scorso e non ne ho avuto più notizie. Chiara left last year and I have not had any news of her. Siamo arrivati a Roma la mattina e ne siamo partiti la sera. We arrived in Rome in the morning and left (from there) in the evening. Mi assicurava che parlava con il direttore domani, ma ne dubito. He assured me he would talk to the manager tomorrow, but I doubt it (lit of it). Ne is also used with a partitive meaning and is often untranslated in English. In this case it may require agreement with a past participle in a compound tense. Usage varies widely, though in general agreement occurs when there is no object following the verb, e.g.: Hai comprato delle banane? – Sı̀, ne ho comprate. Did you buy any bananas? – Yes, I bought some. 264 16.3 Order of object pronouns and when the verb is followed by a numeral or indeﬁnite pronoun of quantity, e.g.: Hai comprato dei limoni? – Sı̀, ne ho comprati tre. Did you buy any lemons? – Yes, I bought three. Hai comprato delle mele? – Sı̀, ne ho comprate molte / ne ho comprata una. Did you buy any apples? – Yes, I bought many / I bought one. When the verb is followed by a noun, the participle usually agrees with the noun or, less commonly, with ne, e.g.: Hai comprato delle arance? – Sı̀, ne ho comprato un chilo. Did you buy any oranges? – Yes, I bought a kilo. Hai comprato delle pesche? – Sı̀, ne ho comprati (or comprate) due chili. Did you buy any peaches? – Yes, I bought two kilos. Similarly, when the verb is reﬂexive, the participle agrees with the following noun or, less commonly, with ne or, even less commonly, the subject, e.g.: Elena ha comprato delle pere? Sı̀, se ne è comprati (or comprate or comprata) due chili. Did Elena buy any pears? – Yes, she bought herself two chilos (of them). 16.3 Order of object pronouns The order of unstressed pronouns relative to each other is governed by this table: mi gli le (dative) vi ti ci si (reﬂexive) lo la li le si (impersonal) ne A second principle is: indirect object r direct object While many combinations of unstressed pronouns are possible in theory, only certain types tend to occur in practice. These are: an indirect object followed by lo, la, li, le or ne. The following changes occur: mi, ti, si (reﬂexive only), ci, vi become me, te, se, ce, ve; and gli and le both become glie- and attach to the following pronoun, e.g.: te lo chiedo I’m asking you (for it) / I’m requesting it of you ce ne parlava she was speaking about it to us glielo chiedo I’ll ask him (for it) / I’ll ask her (for it) / I’ll ask them (for it) gliene parlava she was speaking about it to us 265 16 Pronouns r r r r ci (or vi R2–3) with a direct object pronoun or ne. Note the varying position of ci: mi ci porti? will you take me there? non ti ci vedo I can’t see you there / in that situation ce lo troverai domani you will ﬁnd him there tomorrow ce ne sono tanti / ve ne sono tanti (R2–3) there are lots of them reﬂexive si with a direct object (following) or indirect object (preceding), e.g.: se lo mangia tutto lui he eats it all himself gli si avvicina she goes up to him impersonal si with a direct or indirect object or ne. Note the position of impersonal si compared to reﬂexive si: La pasta? La si prepara in cinque minuti. The pasta? It is / can be prepared in ﬁve minutes. La pasta? Se la prepara in cinque minuti. The pasta? He prepares it for himself in ﬁve minutes. se ne parla one talks about it or he talks to himself about it mi si dice che . . . I am told that . . . groups of more than two pronouns are possible in theory, but in practice the only such groups usually include a pair of indirect + object pronouns plus impersonal si, e.g.: glielo si dice it is said to him/her/them gli se ne parla (less common, gliene si parla) one talks to him/her/them about it 16.4 Pronouns and verb Before ﬁnite verbs: Ti parlo per il tuo bene. I’m speaking to you for your good. After and attached to non-ﬁnite forms – gerund, inﬁnitive, and participle used alone – and ecco: vedendoti in quello stato / avendoti visto in quello stato on seeing you / having seen you in that state per ﬁnirla / per averla ﬁnita to ﬁnish it / through having ﬁnished it vistolo / arrivatoci / una lettera riferentesi al caso (R3) having seen it / having arrived there / a letter referring to the case 266 16.4 Pronouns and verb eccomi / eccotelo here I am / here it is for you (here you are). Note that loro follows all verbs forms and is never attached, e.g.: vedo loro / parlo loro / per capir(e) loro note the following crystallized forms which now only appear in notices and formal communications: Vendesi, Afﬁttasi, Cercasi; Vendonsi (or Vendesi) appartamenti For sale, For rent, Wanted; Apartments for sale With ﬁrst and second person imperatives, the pronouns are attached to the verb in the afﬁrmative, e.g.: Parlami / Ditemi cosa volete / Diciamoglielo! In the negative, the pronoun usually follows the verb but in R1–2 may precede it, e.g.: Non preoccuparti or Non ti preoccupare Non parlatene or Non ne parlate Non scoraggiamoci or Non ci scoraggiamo! With third person imperatives, since these are subjunctives, the pronouns always precede the verb, e.g.: Si accomodi / Non si disturbi / Mi dica! In a verb + gerund construction, the pronouns usually precede the ﬁnite verb, but may follow and attach to the gerund, e.g.: Lo sto ﬁnendo in questo momento or Sto ﬁnendolo in questo momento. In a modal verb (dovere, potere, sapere, volere) + inﬁnitive construction, the pronouns may either precede the ﬁnite verb or follow and attach to the inﬁnitive (they may not come between ﬁnite verb and inﬁnitive). In formal registers the pronouns tend to attach to the inﬁnitive, but in informal conversation the choice is free. Note that if the modal is emphasized, the pronouns attach to the inﬁnitive. If there are two pronouns, they must not be split, except with impersonal sı̀, e.g.: Ci dobbiamo alzare presto or Dobbiamo alzarci presto Te ne voglio parlare or Voglio parlartene Lo devo poter fare or Devo poterlo fare or Devo poter farlo Si può farlo or Lo si può fare. With other verbs that take a following inﬁnitive, the pronoun follows the inﬁnitive, but with some verbs it may precede the ﬁnite verb in informal registers, e.g.: Non riesco a leggerlo Vado a prendertelo or Te lo vado a prendere Stiamo cercando di orientarci or Ci stiamo cercando di orientare. When the inﬁnitive is a reﬂexive verb, the position of the pronoun affects the choice of auxiliary: essere if it precedes the verb, avere if it follows the inﬁnitive (cf section 22.6), e.g.: Ci siamo dovuti alzare presto or Abbiamo dovuto alzarci presto Si è cominciata a preoccupare or Ha cominciato a preoccuparsi. 267 16 Pronouns With verbs of perception, the pronoun always goes with the main verb if it is the subject of the inﬁnitive, but can be in either position if it is the object, e.g.: L’ho sentito cantare. I heard him singing or I heard it being sung. Ho sentito cantarlo. I heard it being sung. Non voglio sentirlo cantare or Non lo voglio sentir cantare. I can’t hear him singing or I can’t hear it being sung. Therefore with verbs of perception two pronouns may be split, e.g.: Ti ho sentito cantarlo. I heard you singing it. Ho sentito cantartelo. I heard it being sung to you. Te l’ho sentito cantare. I heard you singing it or I heard it being sung to you. With certain verbs only one position is possible. With causative fare and lasciare, the pronoun precedes the main verb, e.g.: Li hai fatti cadere? Did you let them fall / drop them? Gli hai fatto perdere l’entusiasmo. You made them lose enthusiasm. and with sembrare and parere, the pronoun is attached to the inﬁnitive, e.g.: Sembra capirlo. Pareva svegliarsi. 16.5 Pronouns of address In modern Italian, the following pronouns are used for addressing another person or persons: Singular: tu, Lei, voi, Ella (R3) (Lei and its derived forms La, Le are often written today without the capital letter; Ella always has the capital; voi is sometimes written with a capital, especially in commercial Italian where it refers to the organization being addressed rather than a speciﬁc individual.) Plural: voi, Loro (Loro is always written with the capital letter, voi never.) The Italian expression for to use tu/voi/Lei is dare del tu/voi/Lei. The most important distinction is between tu and Lei when speaking to one person. Usage is changing rapidly and varies according to personal background and taste, but some general rules can be given. The use of tu in place of Lei is spreading. 268 16.5 r r r r r r r r r r r r Pronouns of address Tu is used universally in the following situations: speaking to children, animals, God, and saints (though some traditional prayers to Mary use voi); to express intimate or familiar relationships, e.g. between relatives of the same generation, to younger relatives, between friends; to express solidarity or some common bond between individuals, either age, social class, occupation, activity, etc. Thus tu is very widely used among young people, in all situations; between workmates and colleagues; to priests; talkback radio, magazine columns which answer letters from readers; instructions and questions from computers and other machines to humans (the inﬁnitive is also used). Lei is used: to express courtesy to strangers in formal situations, e.g. those serving the public in shops and ofﬁces; to students at university (while tu is used throughout school); to express respect to older persons and those in positions of authority or respect, e.g. university professors (nowadays this often depends on the personality of the professor), priests; people with whom one has a relationship which, however cordial and long-standing, is not intimately personal or familiar. Voi, used to one person, is disappearing but still survives especially in the Center and the mainland South. It is used as a mark of respect to persons with whom one is, nevertheless, on familiar or intimate terms, e.g. older relatives, priests, shopkeepers in one’s village or suburb. Ella is used only on extremely formal, public occasions. Adjectives and participles tend to be in the feminine. Pronoun usage in most cases is reciprocal, i.e. both interlocutors use the same pronoun. The only usual exceptions to this involve a clear difference in social status and age. Tu is usually associated with the use of a person’s given name, and Lei with use of a person’s title and/or last name. However there are many possible combinations of tu/Lei with ﬁrst name/last name/title, expressing multiple dimensions of social relationships, e.g.: colleagues who do not know each other particularly well may use tu but call each other by their surname; a woman who employs a cleaning lady may call the cleaning lady by her ﬁrst name while the cleaning lady calls her Signora + ﬁrst name, and they may both use Lei; journalists and politicians may be on ﬁrst-name terms and use tu privately, but when in the media they may use Lei to each other while the politician may use the journalist’s last name and the journalist may use the politician’s title or last name or both. In the plural, voi is used in almost all situations today, even when the persons being addressed would receive Lei individually. Loro has a somewhat antiquated feel. 269 17 Comparison 17.1 Comparison of inequality (more/less/fewer than) Usage varies somewhat in the use of di and che. 17.1.1 Nouns and pronouns If two nouns or pronouns are compared and one of them comes before the verb, di is used. This usually means that both items are subjects of a verb, expressed or implied, e.g.: Le riviste sono più/meno care dei giornali. Magazines are more/less expensive than newspapers. Mio fratello ha due anni più/meno di me. My brother is two years older/younger than I/me. Le nuove banconote sono più/meno belle di quelle vecchie. The new banknotes are more/less beautiful than the old ones. If the two nouns or pronouns being compared both come after the verb, che is used (though di may also be found in this position). This usually means that both items are objects of a verb. Compare the following pairs of sentences: Mangio più pasta che riso. La pasta la mangio più del riso. I eat more pasta than rice. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 270 17.1 Comparison of inequality Il vino mi piace più della birra. Mi piace più il vino che la birra. I like wine more than beer. Il tiramisù è stato più apprezzato della torta. E’ stato più apprezzato il tiramisù che la torta. The tiramisù was appreciated more than the cake. When più goes with the second item being compared, di is more usual than che, e.g.: Mangio la pasta più del riso. Mi piace il vino più della birra. Più della torta è stato apprezzato il tiramisù. Note the following two sentences. The ﬁrst compares one item with another in terms of some characteristic they have in common (both items are “subjects”). The second compares two characteristics of one item (both characteristics are “objects”): La biblioteca ha più libri della libreria. The library has more books than the bookshop. La biblioteca ha più libri che riviste. The library has more books than magazines. Note also the use of di and che in the following pair of sentences (in the ﬁrst sentence, the two items being compared are subjects and in the second they are objects): Matteo li conosce meglio di Chiara. (= Matteo li conosce meglio di quanto non li conosca Chiara.) Matteo knows them better than Chiara (does). Matteo li conosce meglio che Chiara. (= Matteo li conosce meglio di quanto lui non conosca Chiara.) Matteo knows them better than (he knows) Chiara. When the nouns are preceded by a preposition, che is always used, e.g.: In Italia ho visto più chiese che in Spagna. Ho passato più tempo in Italia che in Francia. 17.1.2 Other parts of speech When the comparison involves any other part of speech but nouns and pronouns, che is used, e.g.: Lui è meno arrabbiato che dispiaciuto. He is less angry than hurt. Meglio nudi che in pelliccia. Better naked than wearing fur. Meglio tardi che mai. Better late than never. C’è più gioia nel dare che nel ricevere. It is more blessed to give than to receive. Fumare è più dannoso che bere. Smoking is more harmful than drinking. 271 17 Comparison note if inﬁnitives are preceded by articles and are thus treated as nouns, they behave as nouns, e.g.: Il fumare è più dannoso del bere. Note the use of più che at the beginning of a clause in the following: Più che un semplice documentario, il ﬁlm si presenta come un racconto fantastico. Rather than just a documentary, the ﬁlm comes across as a tale of fantasy. In R3 non may be used after che, e.g.: Parlò più per necessità che non per disposizione naturale. He spoke more out of necessity than because of natural disposition. Note these expressions: L’ho visto più di tre volte. I’ve seen it more than three times. Più chiaro di cosı̀ non si può. It couldn’t be clearer that that. Più che altro non voglio fare brutta ﬁgura. More than anything I don’t want to look silly. Oggi ho lavorato meno di ieri. Today I have worked less than yesterday. Ti amo più che mai. I love you more than ever. 17.1.3 Alternatives to di/che Both di and che can sometimes be replaced by rispetto a, nei confronti di, etc.: Rispetto al fratello, è molto più indipendente. Compared to her brother, she is much more independent. 17.2 Comparison of equality Comparing nouns: tanto/altrettanto (R2–3) . . . quanto . . . Questo paese non ha tante case quante l’altro. This village doesn’t have as many houses as the other. Questo paese ha tanti palazzi quante chiese. This village has as many palaces as churches. I palazzi sono tanti quante sono le chiese. There are as many palaces as there are churches. Note the use of partitive ne in the following: Ci sono tanti tipi di pizza quanti ce ne sono di formaggio. There are as many types of pizza as there are of cheese. Comparing adjectives: tanto . . . quanto (che, R1–2) . . .; cosı̀ . . . come . . .; altrettanto . . . quanto (che, R1–2) . . .; the ﬁrst element is often not used. 272 17.4 Superlatives Questo ragazzo mi sembra (tanto) intelligente quanto suo fratello. Questo ragazzo mi sembra (cosı̀) intelligente come suo fratello. This boy seems to me as intelligent as his brother. Questo stile è altrettanto conosciuto in Italia quanto (che, R1–2) all’estero. This style is as well-known in Italy as abroad. (E’) bianco come la neve. (It’s) as white as snow. 17.3 Comparison involving a clause When the second element of a comparison is a clause, the following constructions are used: di quello che / di come + indicative (subjunctive less common) di quanto non + subjunctive (R2–3) di quanto + indicative (less common) che non + subjunctive (R3) E’ più alto di quello che pensavo. E’ più alto di quanto non pensassi (R2–3)/di quanto pensavo. E’ più alto che non pensassi (R3). He’s taller than I thought. Note the use of partitive ne in the following: Ha perso più azioni di quante ne ha acquisite. He lost more shares than he acquired. When two clauses are directly correlated: più . . . (e) più . . .; meno . . . (e) meno . . . Più la sento parlare (e) più sono convinto che ha ragione. The more I hear her talk, the more I am convinced she is right. Più siamo, meglio è. The more the merrier. Quanto più le vicende sono gravi, tanto più c’è bisogno di soluzioni originali (R2–3). The more serious the events, the greater the need for original solutions. 17.4 Superlatives “Relative” superlatives are identical in form to comparatives. When they are used with a noun, the deﬁnite article is not used with the adjective in modern Italian. However, when the noun is understood, or when the superlative is an adverb (and thus no noun is involved), the article is used, e.g.: Ha comprato il gelato più grande possibile. She bought the biggest possible ice-cream. 273 17 Comparison Un uomo, il più anziano di tutti, ci venne incontro. A man, the oldest of them all, came towards us. Risponderò il più presto possibile. I will answer as soon as possible. After a superlative, the preposition di is used, but if the noun is plural tra/fra may also be used, e.g.: E’ il più grande del mondo. It’s the biggest in the world. Lei era la più preparata di/fra tutti. She was the best prepared of them all / among them all. The following construction is R2–3 and does not strictly express the idea of superlative but simply emphasizes the quality of the item in question. In the negative it is decidedly ironic: Abbiamo assistito a uno spettacolo dei più strani. We witnessed a most strange show. Non è stata un’idea delle più brillanti. It wasn’t one of the most brilliant ideas (= It was not a good idea at all). “Absolute” superlatives are formed by adding -issimo to adjectives, adverbs or, in a few cases, nouns, e.g.: caldissimo, amatissimo; prestissimo, sicurissimamente; ingambissimo (R1–2, = molto in gamba); il campionissimo, augurissimi. Such adjectives are used as normal adjectives, usually after the noun, e.g.: Ha comprato un gelato grandissimo. She bought a very big ice-cream. 17.5 Irregular comparatives and superlatives r r 274 A number of adjectives form their absolute superlative in irregular ways which derive from Latin, e.g. celebre – celeberrimo. Such forms are characteristic of R3. A number of common adjectives have both regular and irregular forms of the comparative and superlative: più buono or migliore; buonissimo or ottimo più cattivo or peggiore; cattivissimo or pessimo più grande or maggiore; il più grande or il maggiore or il massimo più piccolo or minore; il più piccolo or il minore or il minimo The pairs of forms are generally interchangeable, except for the following: ﬁgurative meanings occur more often with the irregular forms un fratello maggiore, un fratello più grande an older brother, an older/taller brother più buono: of persons means “good-natured,” of things it means good to eat or drink, e.g.: Questo ragazzo è il più buono della classe. This boy is the best-natured in the class. E’ il più buon prosciutto crudo che abbia mai mangiato in vita mia. 17.5 Irregular comparatives and superlatives It’s the best Parma ham I have ever eaten in my life. In R1–2 meglio is often used instead of migliore. This usage should not be imitated, e.g.: Per le notizie economiche, questo giornale è meglio di quello. For economic news, this newspaper is better than that one. Other irregular comparatives, of Latin origin, are often used with a generic, “independent” meaning and retain their comparative meaning only in R3. They are anteriore, esteriore, inferiore, interiore, posteriore, superiore, ulteriore, e.g.: Dormiva sul sedile posteriore della macchina. He was asleep in the back seat of the car. La data sull’assegno è posteriore a quella effettiva (R3). The date on the cheque is after/later than the actual one. Some of these irregular comparatives also have irregular superlative forms, some of which retain a superlative meaning, e.g. estremo, inﬁmo, sommo/supremo, ultimo, while others have lost it, e.g. intimo. But these and many other words which, strictly speaking, cannot be modiﬁed can acquire the superlative ending, especially in informal registers (cf. colloquial English expressions like “very unique”), e.g.: ultimissimo “absolutely last”; ﬁnalissima “grand ﬁnal.” 275 18 Word order Word order is ﬂexible in Italian, more ﬂexible in many ways than in English. Changes in word order are not random but reﬂect differences in meaning or emphasis. These may at times be subtle, but are important to the message being communicated. In general, Italian uses word order for stylistic effects, where English often relies on effects of the voice (in writing, these are shown by italics and other conventions). One important principle is that new or important information is normally placed at the end of the sentence in Italian, and other elements will be arranged accordingly. 18.1 Subject and verb (i) The subject usually comes before the verb: Il mio computer ha un guasto. My computer has a fault. There is often nothing in front of the verb in Italian. With transitive verbs and other verbs that take avere, this is because the subject can be omitted if it is clear from the verb ending or the context: Ho visto Luigi ieri. Sta meglio dell’ultima volta che l’ho visto. I saw Luigi yesterday. He is better than the last time I saw him. Subjects often come after the verb. This is common in the following cases: if the subject is emphasized: Rispondo io! I’ll get it (i.e. the telephone)! R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 276 18.2 (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Subject, verb, and object Qui comando io. I’m the boss around here. Hanno vinto i candidati alternativi. The alternative candidates have won. if the subject is long, especially if the verb is short and/or generic in meaning: E’ stata una nottata movimentata, come sa chi ci ha seguito (from a TV news broadcast). It has been a busy night, as those who have been watching us know. with verbs that take essere, if the verb presents a new fact or state of affairs: E’ successo qualcosa. Something has happened. Sono aumentate le tasse su tutti i beni di consumo. Taxes on all consumer goods have gone up. Sono state identiﬁcate le persone responsabili. The people responsible have been identiﬁed. Si sono veriﬁcati incidenti preoccupanti. Worrying incidents have occurred. with verbs such as piacere, mancare, bastare, etc., without a direct object (cf. section 4.4): Mi piacciono tutte le opere di Verdi. I like all Verdi’s operas. Ci manca la tua voce. We miss the sound of your voice. Mi fanno male i piedi. My feet hurt. with non-ﬁnite verbal constructions: stando cosı̀ le cose things being as they are/were arrivati gli ultimi ospiti once the last guests had arrived visti i documenti after the documents have/had been viewed Note that several set expressions with non-ﬁnite verbs place the subject ﬁrst, e.g.: tempo permettendo weather permitting tutto sommato all things considered. 18.2 Subject, verb, and object (i) With verbs that take an object, various word orders are possible. Moving the object to the left (i.e. the beginning of sentence or clause) Object and subject can be inverted. This has the double effect of introducing the object as the “topic” of the sentence, and giving special 277 18 Word order (ii) 278 prominence to whatever is put at the end of the sentence (usually the subject). This inversion is very common in speech, since it allows speakers to emphasize whichever elements of the sentence they wish. In R3, the inversion can be done without any other changes to the sentence. Preoccupazioni puristiche – nel senso ottocentesco del termine – la Crusca non ebbe (M. Cortelazzo). The Crusca Academy did not have puristic concerns in the nineteenth-century sense of the term. In R1 and R2, objects that are moved “to the left” are usually recapitulated by a pronoun, e.g.: Gli spaghetti li ha fatti mia nonna. My grandmother made the spaghetti. This is very much like saying Gli spaghetti sono stati fatti da mia nonna. or E’ mia nonna che ha fatto gli spaghetti. Consider also these examples: La legge non l’ho fatta io (Manzoni). It wasn’t me that made the law. Don Fabrizio quella sensazione la conosceva da sempre (Tomasi di Lampedusa). Don Fabrizio had always known that sensation. A me non mi piace (R1–2). I don’t like it. In R1 an indirect object is sometimes moved to the left without its preposition. The repeating pronoun makes the meaning clear. This is usually considered ungrammatical, e.g.: Quel signore, Dio gli ha toccato il cuore (Manzoni, direct speech in I Promessi Sposi) = A quel signore, Dio (gli) ha toccato il cuore. That man, God has touched his heart/God has touched that man’s heart. Chi ha, gli sarà dato (C. Pavese) = A chi ha, (gli) sarà dato. To him that has, shall be given. Chiara, non le ho mica detto niente (R1). I didn’t say anything to Chiara. The following construction is R1 and usually considered ungrammatical: Mangiare, mangio poco. As for eating, I don’t eat much. Moving the object to the right (i.e. to the end of the sentence or clause) An object can also be “moved to the right.” The “repeating” pronoun actually comes ﬁrst, which has the effect of isolating the object at the end of the sentence. Often a pause before the object makes it seem almost an afterthought to remind the listener of the topic at hand (which the speaker assumes was common knowledge to start with). The emphasis is on what precedes this moved object, often the verb. This construction has a feeling 18.3 (iii) Verbs, objects, and adverbs of informality about it and conveys some familiarity between speaker and listener. It is conﬁned to speech and should be used with care. Lo vuole un caffé? Do you want a coffee? Lo porto domani, il dolce. As for the sweet, I’ll bring it tomorrow. Non bisogna farla chiacchierare la gente (G. Verga). You mustn’t make people gossip. Cleft sentences The English equivalent is It is x who is doing y. The Italian construction is very widely used in speech and there are important differences between the English and Italian constructions. E’ Matteo che ha tirato la coda al gatto. E’ stato Matteo a tirare la coda al gatto. It was Matteo who pulled the cat’s tail. Sono io che te lo dico = Sono io a dirtelo. It’s me telling you/I’m the one who’s telling you. Sei tu che devi chiedere scusa. You’re the one/It’s you who has to apologise. E’ lı̀ che voglio arrivare. That’s where I want to get to. E’ per questo che non mi piace. That’s why I don’t like it. Quand’è che parti per il Canada? When is it that you are leaving for Canada? 18.3 Verbs, objects, and adverbs As a rule the adverb immediately follows the verb in Italian. To give it particular prominence it may be moved to other positions in the sentence, especially before the verb. Note the shift in emphasis between the two clauses in the following sentence: Lei gli prese innocentemente la mano, Candide innocentemente baciò la mano di lei (Sciascia). Long, modiﬁed or ‘heavy’ adverbs may, as in English, follow the object, e.g.: Lei parla bene l’italiano. She speaks Italian well. Lei parla molto bene l’italiano (normal order) or Lei parla l’italiano molto bene (greater emphasis). She speaks Italian very well. Lei parla l’italiano con grande sicurezza. She speaks Italian with great conﬁdence. The adverb anche comes immediately before the item it refers to. Note the effect of the change of position in the following: 279 18 Word order Anche Eugenio scrive poesie in italiano (as well as some other person). Eugenio anche scrive poesie in italiano (as well as reading them). Eugenio scrive anche poesie in italiano (as well as novels). Eugenio scrive poesie anche in italiano (as well as English poems). 18.4 Noun and adjective All adjectives in Italian can, in theory, come before or after a noun. However, the difference in position always carries a difference in meaning. In many cases this is a subtle nuance of emphasis or style associated with a particular register, but in others the difference is between distinct concepts and would require different words in English. The basic position for adjectives is after the noun. Here they perform their essential function – to describe something and restrict the meaning of the noun. When adjectives come before nouns, they acquire a more rhetorical ﬂavour and may express metaphorical meanings. One adjective An adjective after a noun adds information that helps to identify the noun in question, often by contrasting it with other possible or potential nouns. An adjective before a noun gives additional information of a subjective nature about the noun: it tells us something about the noun that the speaker wants us to know but which is not crucial for identifying the noun in question, e.g.: un racconto triste a story whose most salient characteristic (for the speaker) is that it is sad un triste racconto a story that happens to be sad (among other possible attributes). All adjectives follow the noun if they have some other element depending on them, e.g.: un racconto triste da ricordare a story [that is] sad to recall Connotations of a following position Some adjectives are almost always distinctive. They express nationality, color, religious or political afﬁliation etc., e.g.: un cittadino canadese, il vino rosso, un paese musulmano, il deputato radicale These adjectives sometimes lose any “distinctive” force and precede the noun. Il Manzoni cattolico refers to Alessandro Manzoni after his conversion to Catholicism, as opposed to his earlier, anticlerical period. To say il cattolico Manzoni is to assume the reader knows that Manzoni was a Catholic and alludes to this fact as part of a particular interpretation. 280 18.4 Noun and adjective Connotations of a preceding position (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) When the adjective is an “expected” attribute, e.g.: con enormi difﬁcoltà with enormous difﬁculty This is often used for stylistic effect, e.g.: Capo Vaticano: suggestivo promontorio da dove si gode la magniﬁca vista dell’intero panorama della costa tirrenica calabrese (travel brochure) When adjective and noun make a familiar or set phrase, e.g.: cari saluti kind regards (at the end of a letter) un leggero aumento nel costo della vita a slight increase in the cost of living Certain adjectives usually come before the noun. These adjectives are very common and express generic value judgments: bello, brutto, buono, cattivo They may come before the noun even when superlative, but must follow the noun when modiﬁed by an adverb, e.g.: una bella festa una bellissima festa or una festa bellissima una festa molto bella una festa piuttosto bella Adjectives usually precede inﬁnitives used as nouns, e.g.: il suo lento spostarsi its slow movement un continuo sentirsi debole a continual feeling of weakness Change of meaning with change of position A certain number of adjectives have different meanings before and after nouns. In line with what has been said above, when these adjectives come after a noun they express their more usual, literal and simpler meaning. When they come before a noun, they express metaphorical and more nuanced meanings. alto pressione alta alta pressione barbaro i soldati barbari i barbari soldati (R3) un uomo buono un buon uomo un ristorante caro una cara trattoria una notizia certa una certa notizia buono caro certo high pressure (of blood) high pressure (of atmosphere or gas) the Barbarian soldiers the barbaric soldiers a good-natured man a decent chap, a good guy an expensive restaurant a lovely trattoria a reliable piece of news a certain piece of news 281 18 Word order distinto diverso dolce grande numeroso nuovo povero proprio puro santo semplice solo stesso unico vario vecchio vero 282 persone distinte distinte persone idee distinte distinte idee colori diversi diversi colori l’acqua dolce del lago la dolce acqua del lago (R3) un uomo grande un grande uomo famiglie numerose numerose famiglie Mi sono comprato una macchina nuova Mi sono comprato una nuova macchina un ragazzo povero povero ragazzo! il mio povero nonno un nome proprio il proprio nome il vino puro la pura verità quella donna santa quella santa donna! Non preoccuparti: è una domanda semplice Non preoccuparti: è una semplice domanda per donne sole per sole donne il ragazzo stesso lo stesso ragazzo un unico volume è un libro unico ragioni molto varie varie persone un amico vecchio un vecchio amico Questa è una commedia vera. Questa è una vera commedia! distinguished persons various persons distinct ideas various ideas different colors several colors fresh water (not salty) the sweet water of the lake a large man a great man large families many families (the car is brand new) (the car may be old but it replaces my previous one) a poor child poor (= unfortunate) child! my late grandfather a proper noun one’s own name unadulterated wine only the truth that holy woman that blessed woman! (a simple question) (just a question) for single or unaccompanied women for women only the boy himself the same boy one single volume it’s a unique book very varied reasons various/several persons a friend who is old a friend of long standing This is a factual play. This is a real comedy! 18.5 Numerals and altro More than one adjective A noun can be modiﬁed by a number of adjectives in two ways. If each adjective adds separate information, they are separated by commas and the word e. If the adjectives are descriptive or subjective as mentioned above, they may come before the noun, e.g.: un programma lungo, noioso e scemo a stupid, boring, long program una rapida e positiva soluzione a quick, positive solution If each new adjective adds further restriction by modifying what comes before it, they are added without punctuation, e.g.: la sfera mobile celeste the celestial mobile sphere la Comunità economica europea (= CEE ) the European Economic Community (= EEC) un impatto emotivo terribile a terrible emotional impact Adjectives are added to the right. (In English they are added to the left.) However, if the series gets long, a new adjective, that would have gone at the end of the list, can be added before the noun, e.g.: un’università pubblica italiana an Italian public university un’università pubblica italiana famosa OR una famosa università pubblica italiana a famous Italian public university 18.5 Numerals and altro i primi due anni, gli ultimi due anni the ﬁrst two years, the last two years i due primi anni, i due ultimi anni the two initial years, the two ﬁnal years molti altri ragazzi, pochi altri ragazzi many other young people, a few other young people altri due ragazzi two more young people Dammi un altro dieci-venti minuti! (R1) Give me another ten or twenty minutes! 283 19 Negation 19.1 No No is used to answer questions, both alone and in certain phrases: Avrai il tempo per uscire stasera? -No, non credo. -Credo di no / Temo di no / Spero di no / Mi sembra di no / Direi di no I don’t think so / I am afraid not / I hope not / I don’t think so / I would say not Perché no? Why not? No is also used in sentences to sum up a negative alternative: Ma vuoi venire o no? But do you want to come or not? Dimmi se ti piace o no (Note the R1–2 alternative: Dimmi se ti piace o meno). Tell me if you like it or not. If no applies to one particular word, it usually follows that word, e.g.: Tommaso è d’accordo, ma Elena no. Tommaso agrees, but Elena doesn’t. Andrei volentieri al Luna Park, ma con te no (cf. ma non con te) I would gladly go to the Amusement Park, but not with you. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 284 19.2 Non Avete tutti ricevuto l’invito? Io no. Have you all received the invitation? – I haven’t. Sono tutti eligibili, studenti e no. All are eligible, students and non-students. A common, but less correct, alternative is to use non: Sono tutti d’accordo, politici e non. All are in agreement, politicians and non-politicians (or politicians and others). 19.2 Non An Italian sentence is negated by placing non before a verb or auxiliary (and any associated pronouns), e.g.: Non l’ho fatto io. I didn’t do it. Non te lo voglio dire / Non voglio dirtelo. I don’t want to tell you. The “scope” of negation can be limited by placing non in front of individual elements, e.g.: Non tutti sono d’accordo. Not everyone is in agreement. Consider these pairs: Non sono disposto a farlo (= I won’t do it) Sono disposto a non farlo (= I may do it, but may not) Non posso farlo (= I am not able to do it) Posso non farlo (= I can avoid doing it) Non posso crederti. I cannot believe you Non posso non crederti. I cannot but believe you. With verbs of opinion and intention, moving the non does not signiﬁcantly change the basic meaning, e.g.: Non vorrei che tu ti preoccupassi. Vorrei che tu non ti preoccupassi. I wouldn’t want you to worry. A whole sentence may be negated by non è che or non che (R2–3). These expressions usually negate an idea which has been referred to, explicitly or implicitly, in the context, and usually lead to a different or opposing idea being put forward, e.g.: Non che lui sia cattivo, ma è molto nervoso. It’s not that he’s nasty, but he is very touchy. -Mi hanno detto che Matteo lavora in un ristorante. -No, non è che lavora in un ristorante, fa il barista nel centro. -They told me Matteo works in a restaurant. -No, it’s not that he works in a restaurant, he is a barman in the city. 285 19 Negation In informal usage, non è che is sometimes used simply to negate a whole sentence in a somewhat softer way than non, with the subjunctive (R2–3) or the indicative (R1–2). Compare: Non è molto bello. He’s not very handsome. Non è che lui sia/è molto bello. He’s not really very handsome. 19.3 Negative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs These are nessuno, niente/nulla, alcuno (R3), mai, più, affatto, mica, manco, punto, neanche/neppure/nemmeno, né, né . . . né . . . , non . . . che. A negative sentence in Italian must always have one negative item before the verb, even if there are one or more negative words after it. Usually the negative words listed above follow the verb, e.g.: Non vedo nessuno. I can’t see anyone/I see no one. Non capisco niente/nulla. I don’t understand anything/I understand nothing. Non vi è alcuna ragione per crederlo (R3). There is no reason to believe it. Non sono mai stato né a Forlı̀ né a Cefalù. In R1 this would be Non sono mai stato a Forlı̀ e neanche a Cefalù. I have never been either to Forlı̀ or to Cefalù. Non abito più in quella casa. I no longer live in that house/I don’t live in that house any more. Non c’era più vino. There was no more wine. Non ci tornerò mai più. I’ll never go back there again. Non è affatto vero. Non è mica vero (R1). It’s not true at all. Non ho manco capito (R1). Non ho punto capito. I haven’t understood at all. Non ho parlato con lei: non l’ho neanche vista/neppure vista/nemmeno vista. I haven’t spoken to her: I haven’t even seen her. Non l’ho visto né desidero vederlo (R3) (= e non desidero vederlo). I have not seen him nor do I wish to see him. Non desidero che partire (R3). (In R1–2 this would be Voglio solo partire). I desire nothing but to depart/I only want to depart. 286 19.3 Negative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs These negative words may also precede the verb. With nessuno, niente and né . . . né. . . . , they may come ﬁrst if they are subject of the verb but come after the verb for emphasis, e.g.: Nessuno ha parlato (= Non ha parlato nessuno). No one spoke. Niente è successo (= Non è successo niente). Nothing happened. Né io né mia moglie ci siamo andati (= Non ci siamo andati né io né mia moglie). Neither my wife nor I went there. Mai may precede the verb for emphasis in R2–3, e.g.: Mai avrei creduto che fosse possibile una tale crudeltà Never would I have believed that such cruelty was possible. Mai che abbia un pensiero gentile (cf. section 30.2.8). He never has a kind thought. It normally comes ﬁrst in R1 in Sicily: Lui disse che mai aveva pensato che . . . (Sciascia) = Lui disse che non aveva mai pensato che . . . Non . . . punto is Tuscan: Non ho punto (or punta) voglia di uscire. I have no desire to go out. Manco is most common is the South, mica in the North. In R1 they may be used without a preceding non: E’ manco vero (or Manco vero). E’ mica vero (or Mica vero). It’s not true or Not true. There are many other reinforcing negatives, usually conﬁned to speech, e.g.: non ci capisco un’acca, un ﬁco secco (R2), un cavolo (R1), un cazzo (R1∗ ) I can’t understand a thing, fuck all Certain negative words can be used elliptically in conversation, e.g.: Che cosa hai fatto ieri sera? – Niente di particolare. What did you do last night? – Nothing special. Mille grazie! – (Di) niente. Many thanks – It was nothing. Dammi le chiavi! – Mai (stronger is Mai e poi mai). Give me the keys! – Never. Ora o mai più. It’s now or never. La conosci la sorella di Mario? – Mai vista. Do you know Mario’s sister? – Never seen her. Certain negative words can be used without non to have a positive meaning (this is in fact their historically older meaning), e.g.: Ha chiamato nessuno? Has anyone called? Vado a fare la spesa, hai bisogno di niente? I’m going shopping, do you need anything? 287 19 Negation Hai mai sentito parlare delle Arpie? Have you ever heard of the Harpies? Se ti ricorderai mai di me, scrivimi. If you ever remember me, write to me. Hai più incontrato mia cugina? Did you meet my cousin again? Note these R1 uses of niente: Non è vero niente (= non è affatto vero). It’s not true at all. Non ho niente voglia di uscire. I have no desire to go out. Oggi niente ravioli. No ravioli today. Senza counts as a negative word in that it can be followed by one or more negative items, e.g.: Se ne è andato senza dire niente a nessuno. He left without saying anything to anyone. 19.4 Apparent negatives Some exclamations and certain types of subordinate clause require non although their meaning is positive. The “pleonastic” non may be omitted in more informal speech. Che cosa non hanno fatto gli amici per aiutarlo! What didn’t his friends do to help him! Chissà che non sia ﬁnalmente guarito! Let’s hope he is cured at last! Io rimango qui ﬁnché non mi dirai la verità. I am staying here until you tell me the truth. Farò come ho detto, a meno che non ci siano buone ragioni per cambiare progetto. I will do as I said, unless there are good reasons for changing plans. E’ più alta di quanto non pensassi. She’s taller than I thought. Il Presidente intervenne per timore che la situazione non peggiorasse (R3). The President intervened for fear that the situation might deteriorate. 19.5 Negation of single words Many words can be negated by adding a preﬁx. Here is a list illustrating the most common preﬁxes. It is difﬁcult to predict which preﬁx will be used with a particular word – use a dictionary! 288 19.6 Other negative expressions comodo/scomodo, abile/disabile, felice/infelice, logico/illogico, morale/immorale, reale/irreale, normale/anormale, alcolico/analcolico, nobile/ignobile Non is used with nouns in R3, especially in bureaucratic language: non appartenenza; patto di non aggressione non-belonging; non-aggression pact Adjectives can be negated with varying degrees of intensity by using non, poco, niente (R1): un cuore non corrotto an uncorrupted heart un’idea poco originale an unoriginal idea (a not very original idea) un lavoro niente redditizio (R1, esp North) a not at all well-paid job. 19.6 Other negative expressions Italian has a number of set expressions which include non: Non ha detto parola. She did not say a word. Non ha aperto bocca. He did not open his mouth (did not say a word). Non ha chiuso occhio. She did not sleep a wink. 289 20 Periphrases Italian has a number of verbal constructions with inﬁnitive or gerund, where the main verb has lost its original meaning and has become a marker of the aspect of the verb in the inﬁnitive or gerund. 20.1 (i) Stare + gerund Usually only present and imperfect (less common with future and conditional). It is known as the “progressive” periphrasis because it emphasizes the ongoing nature of an action in a particular moment of time. However, it is much more limited in its uses than the English progressive tenses. In many situations where English uses a progressive present or imperfect, it is just as common in Italian to use a simple tense. Thus, although this Italian construction is becoming more widely used in Italy, it should not be overused by the learner, since it is only used to make the action more vivid, actual, or relevant to the situation at hand. Compare: Che fa Elena? Parla al telefono. What is Elena doing? She is talking on the telephone. Non interrompermi: non vedi che sto parlando al telefono? Don’t interrupt me; can’t you see I am talking on the phone? These uses of the English progressive can not be translated by stare + gerund: verbs expressing a state of affairs (sta essendo is ungrammatical): Rosaria abita/vive a Napoli. Rosaria is living in Naples. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 290 20.3 (ii) (iii) (iv) Andare + gerund If used with a different meaning, the periphrasis may be possible, e.g.: Chiara sta vivendo un brutto momento. Chiara is going through a hard time. continuous actions with “for” or “since”: Studio il pianoforte da dieci anni/da quando avevo otto anni. I’ve been studying the piano for ten years/ since I was eight. Aspettava da un’ora quando ﬁnalmente sono arrivati. He had been waiting for an hour when they ﬁnally showed up. the future: Parto domani. I’m leaving tomorrow. the passive: La bandiera viene abbassata in questo momento. The ﬂag is being lowered at this moment. Stare + gerund may be used to express gradual processes of change: Il tuo italiano sta migliorando giorno per giorno. Your Italian is improving day by day. Stare + gerund may be used to express actions continuing or repeated over a period of time. This usage is colloquial and is most common in parts of the South: In questi tempi sto lavorando molto. I’m working a lot these days. 20.2 Stare a + inﬁnitive, essere dietro a + inﬁnitive All tenses. These constructions are very similar in meaning to stare + gerund. Stare a is R1–2 and is most common in the South, while essere dietro a is R1 and is most common in the North. They may be used to render the English progressive in tenses not allowed by stare + gerund. They are not normally used with verbs of motion. Tommaso ha lavorato a casa per due ore. Tommaso è stato (dietro) a lavorare a casa per due ore. but not Tommaso è stato lavorando a casa per due ore. Tommaso was working at home for two hours. note this idiomatic variation: Non stare lı̀ a preoccuparti/disturbarti/alzarti. Don’t bother worrying/disturbing yourself/getting up. 20.3 Andare + gerund All tenses. Only higher registers. This expresses a continuing action or series of actions during a period of time, especially where the action has a cumulative effect, e.g.: Il governo va raccogliendo consensi per il progetto di legge. The government is gathering support for the bill. 291 20 Periphrases La sala si andava riempiendo di gente. The room was ﬁlling with people. Negli anni 60 il partito è andato rafforzando i legami con i sindacati. In the 1960s the party (gradually) strengthened its links with the unions. Sometimes andare expresses actual movement and the gerund should be thought of as performing its normal function. Compare: Va chiedendo le stesse cose a tutti. He keeps asking everyone the same things. Va chiedendo soldi in tutte le case del paese. He is going to all the houses in the village asking for money. 20.4 Venire + gerund All tenses. This is very similar to andare + gerund, but even more elevated in style. Often venire preserves some notion of movement, either physically towards the speaker or ﬁguratively towards some end point or person beneﬁting from the action, e.g.: La barca si veniva avvicinando alla riva. The boat was coming towards the shore (implies the speaker is on the shore). Cf. La barca si andava avvicinando alla riva. The boat was approaching the shore (moving either towards or away from the speaker). In quei mesi, si veniva creando una situazione di instabilità generale (R3). In those months, a situation of general instability was coming into being. 292 21 Verbs of movement English and Italian express manner and direction of movement in different ways. English tends to use a verb to express manner and a preposition to express direction. In Italian, the verb normally expresses direction, while manner is expressed by an adverbial phrase or a gerund. For example: She ran manne r E’ uscita direction dalla out of direction stanza the room d i cor sa /corre corre ndo manne r Italian: Verb: direction Phrase: manner E’ tornata in bicicletta. E’ tornato, zoppicando, in cucina. Ha attraversato il ﬁume nuotando/a nuoto. Ha attraversato la campagna a piedi. Ha salito le scale di corsa. Ha sceso le scale in punta di piedi. E’ entrata di colpo/in fretta. Si è portato al muro strisciando (per terra). English: Verb: manner Preposition or phrase: direction She cycled/biked back. He hobbled back to the kitchen. She swam across the river. He walked through the countryside. She ran up the stairs. He tiptoed down the stairs. She burst in. He crawled to the wall. Common direction verbs in Italian (cf. chapter 22) are: entrare, uscire, salire, scendere, andare, venire, arrivare, partire, tornare Italian has a number of manner verbs which can indicate only the movement itself. Such movement, towards a destination, is expressed by a 293 21 Verbs of movement generic direction verb plus an adverbial phrase or a gerund. English often uses one and the same verb in both cases, e.g.: Ha camminato in centro per un’ora. He walked in the city center for an hour. E’ andato in centro a piedi in un’ora. He walked to the city center in an hour. Sei venuto/andato/etc. a piedi o in macchina? Did you walk or drive? The following table contains common manner verbs, with some adverbial phrases typically used to express the same movement when a destination is speciﬁed. These manner verbs, though intransitive, imply deliberate action by the subject and therefore all take the auxiliary avere (cf. section 22.1). Manner verbs Manner phrases strisciare strisciando, carponi andare etc. in bicicletta guidare in macchina etc. saltellare (cf. saltare, saltellando section 22.4) to go on horseback cavalcare a cavallo to limp zoppicare zoppicando to march marciare marciando to sail navigare, in barca/nave veleggiare to ski sciare con gli sci to stroll passeggiare passeggiando to swim nuotare a nuoto to travel viaggiare (andare) to walk camminare a piedi to crawl to cycle to drive to hop/skip These manner verbs may be used with certain prepositions, such as attraverso, ﬁno a, lungo, which express the general direction of the movement rather than a deliberate destination, e.g.: Hanno passeggiato attraverso i campi. They strolled through the ﬁelds (i.e. not strictly from one side to the other). Ho camminato ﬁno al centro. I went for a walk as far as the city center. Abbiamo guidato lungo la costa. We drove along the coast. 294 22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses The choice between avere and essere is not straightforward in Italian. All transitive verbs take avere. All reﬂexive verbs (cf section 24), and verbs in the passive (cf. section 23), take essere. The problem lies with intransitive verbs. Some take avere, some take essere, and some can take either. In general, avere is used with verbs whose subject is involved in performing an act more or less deliberately, whereas essere is used where the subject of the verb is seen not so much as performing an action as undergoing an event or being affected by the event. 22.1 Verbs that always take avere Verbs of “manner of motion” (see chapter 21) take avere, e.g.: camminare to walk passeggiare to stroll galleggiare to ﬂoat sciare to ski marciare to march vagare to wander navigare to navigate viaggiare to travel nuotare to swim These include verbs formed by adding a sufﬁx (cf. section 5.3) to verbs which (may) take essere, e.g.: gironzolare to stroll about saltellare to hop, skip vivacchiare to get by R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 295 22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses 22.2 Verbs that always take essere Note that where a verb takes essere, verbs derived from it will usually also take essere, even where the meaning is quite different, e.g. venire – avvenire, to happen; intervenire, to intervene or speak in a debate; svenire, to faint; etc. All verbs in this section take essere if the preﬁx riis added to them. A number of verbs in this list are often used today with avere instead of essere, especially in informal registers. They are marked with an asterisk (∗ ). Verbs expressing change of location afﬁorare andare approdare (∗ ) arrivare balzare cadere al s o decadere, scadere cascare circolare (∗ ) crollare deﬂuire deragliare (∗ ) entrare espatriare (R2–3) fuoriuscire (R3) giungere immigrare inciampare (∗ ) indietreggiare (∗ ) insorgere (R2–3) to surface to go to dock (by boat) to arrive to jump to fall to decay, to expire (i.e. fall due) to fall to circulate to collapse to ﬂow down to derail to enter to expatriate to come out to reach to immigrate to trip over to move backwards to rise up migrare partire rimbalzare (∗ ) sbucare scappare sdrucciolare (∗ ) sgorgare slittare (∗ ) sopraggiungere sorgere tramontare trapelare tornare uscire al s o riuscire venire al s o avvenire intervenire pervenire provenire svenire to migrate to depart to bounce to pop out to escape to slide to pour forth to slip to arrive, turn up to rise to set (of the sun) to leak (lit and ﬁg) to return to go out to succeed to come to happen to intervene to arrive to originate to faint Verbs expressing change of condition ammufﬁre appassire arrossire avvampare (R2–3) crepare (R1–2) decrescere degenerare (∗ ) deperire (R2–3) 296 to grow mouldy to wilt to blush to ﬂare up to die to diminish to degenerate to waste away divampare (R2–3) diventare divenire (R2–3) emergere esondare (∗ ) R(2–3) evolvere ﬁorire franare impallidire to ﬂare up to become to become to emerge to overﬂow (river etc.) to evolve to ﬂower, ﬂourish to crumble to grow pale 22.2 impazzire imputridire (R2–3) marcire morire nascere perire (R3) sbocciare sbottare to go mad to go rotten to rot to die to be born to perish to blossom to burst out scaturire (R2–3) schiattare (R1–2) scoppiare sﬁorire sfociare (∗ )(R2–3) smottare straripare (∗ ) subentrare (a qu) Verbs that always take essere to gush, (ﬁg) to ensue to die to explode to wither to ﬂow out to slide (e.g. landslide) to overﬂow (river etc.) to succeed (sb) Verbs expressing continuation of a condition permanere (R3) persistere restare to remain to persist to remain rimanere sopravvivere to remain to survive decorrere (R3) risultare succedere to pass (of time) to turn out to happen Verbs expressing happening accadere avvenire capitare to happen to happen to happen by chance Verbs expressing being, existing, and various states of being campare (R1–2) consistere costare dipendere eccellere (∗ ) equivalere (∗ ) esistere essere to live to consist to cost to depend to excel to be equivalent to exist to be giacere luccicare (∗ ) prevalere (∗ ) rassomigliare (∗ ) sedere stare sussistere to lie to glitter to prevail to resemble to sit to be to subsist Verbs expressing attributes of persons or things, often having “to be” in their English translation (cf. section 4.4) abbisognare (R3) bastare bisognare dispiacere dolere (R3) giovare (∗ ) importare piacere to be necessary to be enough to be necessary not to please to cause sorrow to be of use to be important to please premere rincrescere spiacere spettare toccare valere volerci to be urgent to regret not to please to be up to sb to befall to be worth to be required Verbs expressing seeming, appearing, disappearing apparire comparire parere sembrare to appear to appear to appear to seem sparire scomparire svanire to disappear to disappear to vanish 297 22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses Verbs expressing the emission of sound These verbs, all R2–3 except squillare, take both auxiliaries with no perceptible difference of meaning or register. For suonare, see section 22.4. echeggiare (∗ ) rimbombare (∗ ) risuonare (∗ ) to echo to boom out to resound rintronare (∗ ) squillare (∗ ) to boom out to ring (e.g. telephone) Verbs of weather and atmospheric phenomena Although ofﬁcial usage indicates essere, avere is very widely used today with these verbs. Essere is often considered to be high register or typical of central Italian usage. abbuiare (R3) annottare (R3) balenare (R3) ﬁoccare (∗ ) gelare (see also section 22.4) grandinare (∗ ) lampeggiare (∗ ) to turn dark to become night to lighten (of sky) to snow to freeze to hail to ﬂash (of lightning) piovere (∗ ) nevicare (∗ ) sgelare (see also section 22.4) spiovere (see also section 22.4) tuonare (∗ ) to rain to snow to thaw to stop raining to thunder When used to refer to things other than the weather: piovere (R2–3) takes essere, e.g.: Gli sono piovute addosso disgrazie a non ﬁnire. No end of bad luck poured down on him. But lampeggiare and tuonare take avere, e.g.: Il semaforo dev’essere rotto: ha lampeggiato tutta la notte. The trafﬁc light must be broken: it ﬂashed all night. Il predicatore ha tuonato contro il malcostume generale (R3). The preacher railed against the widespread immorality. 22.3 Verbs that take either according to grammatical construction (i) (ii) 298 While the basic meaning of these verbs remains the same, they take avere when used transitively, and essere when used intransitively. Verbs expressing motion discendere, montare, salire, scendere, e.g.: Abbiamo salito/sceso le scale. We climbed up/down the stairs. Siamo saliti/scesi per le scale. We came up/down by the stairs. Verbs expressing beginning, continuing, ceasing cessare, cominciare, continuare, ﬁnire, incominciare, iniziare, proseguire (but see section 22.4), seguire, seguitare, terminare, e.g.: 22.3 (iii) (iv) Verbs that take either according to construction Il direttore ha iniziato il concerto con un discorso. The conductor began the concert with a speech. Il concerto è iniziato alle otto in punto. The concert began at eight on the dot. They take avere when followed by an inﬁnitive (even one that would take essere), e.g.: Gli ospiti hanno continuato ad arrivare per tutto il pomeriggio. The guests kept arriving all afternoon. However, cominciare may take essere (in R2–3) when used with a verb that takes essere, especially if the subject comes after the verb, e.g.: Sono cominciati a volare insulti. Insults began to ﬂy. Verbs expressing living vivere: avere when transitive; essere when intransitive (also avere in R1–2), e.g.: La nonna ha vissuto una vita coraggiosa. The grandmother lived a courageous life. La nonna è vissuta (ha vissuto) in modo coraggioso. The grandmother lived courageously. note convivere to cohabit usually takes avere. Verbs which form transitive/intransitive pairs In many cases the object of the transitive verb is the same as the subject of the corresponding intransitive verb (in English, these pairs may be expressed by the same verb, or by two different verbs; in these cases the transitive meaning is given ﬁrst), e.g.: L’esperienza ha invecchiato mio padre di dieci anni. The experience aged my father by ten years. In quel momento mio padre è invecchiato di dieci anni. At that moment my father aged by ten years. Il viaggio in Italia ha migliorato il tuo italiano. The trip to Italy has improved your Italian. Il tuo italiano è migliorato grazie al viaggio in Italia. Your Italian has improved thanks to your trip to Italy. affogare to drown affondare to sink annegare to drown appoggiare to lean al s o reﬂexive, esp for persons; arrostire to roast assordare to deafen/go deaf atterrare to land aumentare to increase avanzare to advance; have/be in excess bruciare to burn calare to drop 299 22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses cambiare to change colare a picco (see also to sink (of a ship) section 22.4) crescere to grow derivare to derive dimagrire to make thin/become thin (lose weight) diminuire to diminish esplodere to explode ﬁltrare to ﬁlter to turn girare (∗ ) guarire to cure/get better imbiancare to whiten imbianchire to whiten ingrandire to make large/become large ingrassare to fatten/become fat ingrossare to make large/become large insospettire to make suspicious/become suspicious intimidire to make timid/become timid invecchiare to age to leaven/rise lievitare (∗ ) maturare to mature migliorare (see also to improve section 22.4) mutare (R2–3) to change passare (see also to pass (of time) section 22.4) peggiorare (see also to worsen section 22.4) to weigh pesare (∗ ) precipitare (R2–3) to precipitate raddoppiare to double retrocedere (R2–3) to push back/move back ribassare to lower note abbassare is only transitive rincarare to increase, heighten ringiovanire to make/get young (again) risuscitare to revive rotolare to roll salpare to weigh (anchor) sbarcare to disembark sbiadire to fade sbiancare to make white/turn white schizzare to spray scorrere to read quickly/ﬂow scurire to make dark/grow dark 300 22.3 Verbs that take either according to construction al s o reﬂexive sfogare to give vent to/pour forth al s o reﬂexive, esp for persons sfumare to tone down/disappear soffriggere to fry lightly sporgere to protrude sprizzare to spray sprofondare to throw down/fall stillare (R2–3) to ooze, exude trascorrere to pass (of time) variare (see also section to vary 22.4) There are many verbs that used to have this transitive/intransitive usage but nowadays tend to be used in the reﬂexive to express the intransitive meaning (cf. section 24.5). The past participle with essere is usually felt more as an adjective, e.g.: Abbiamo cotto la pasta. We cooked the pasta. La pasta si è cotta per otto minuti precisi. The pasta cooked for eight minutes exactly. La pasta è cotta: tutti a tavola! The pasta is cooked: everyone to the table! This trend seems to be spreading. For the following verbs it is well established: accorciare accrescere aggravare ammalare arricchire arrugginire asciugare calare chiarire cuocere fondere gelare gonﬁare imbrunire impaurire inasprire indebolire ingelosire muovere prosciugare to shorten to increase to make/become more serious to make/fall ill to make/become rich to rust to dry to drop to clarify to cook to melt, to fuse to freeze (as a weather verb, see section 22.2) to enlarge to make/become dark to frighten to make/become harsh to weaken to make/become jealous to move to dry up 301 22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses rinfrescare rinforzare ringiovanire riscaldare sbigottire schiarire scottare sgelare sgonﬁare soffocare spianare stupire susseguire (R3) to refresh to reinforce to rejuvenate to warm to dismay to clear up to burn to thaw (as a weather verb, see section 22.2) to deﬂate to suffocate to level to amaze to follow on One verb with three distinct usages is sfollare. As a transitive verb, it means to clear (a place of people); as intransitive with essere, it means to disperse; as a reﬂexive, it means to (become) empty. La polizia ha sfollato il teatro. The police cleared the theatre. La gente è sfollata senza panico. The people dispersed without panic. Il teatro si è sfollato rapidamente. The theater emptied quickly. 22.4 Verbs that take either according to meaning (i) 302 These verbs are intransitive, except in certain special uses. They take avere or essere in accordance with changes of meaning. Certain verbs of movement correre, emigrare, saltare, volare: avere when manner of motion verbs (cf. chapter 21); essere when change of location verbs; essere in ﬁgurative usage, e.g.: Il maratoneta ha corso a Roma / È corso a Roma. The marathon runner ran (a race) in Rome / He ran to Rome. Ha emigrato negli anni 50 / È emigrata in Australia. She emigrated in the 1950s / She emigrated to Australia. Ha saltato per la gioia / È saltata dalla ﬁnestra. She jumped for joy / She jumped out the window. Non ho mai volato con l’Alitalia / Sono volato in banca prima che chiudesse. I’ve never ﬂown Alitalia / I rushed to the bank before it closed. Sono corso/volato a prendere il treno. (implies I caught the train by running). Ho corso/volato per prendere il treno. 22.4 (ii) Verbs that take either according to meaning (implies I ran, in order to catch the train, but the outcome is ambiguous; cf. section 27.5.1). note : correre and saltare take avere when transitive, e.g.: Abbiamo corso molti rischi nel venire qua. We have run many risks in coming here. Ho saltato il pranzo perché avevo da fare. I skipped lunch because I was busy. note : verbs derived from correre: accorrere, decorrere, incorrere, intercorrere, occorrere, ricorrere always take essere; concorrere, discorrere are intransitive and always take avere; percorrere, precorrere, rincorrere, ripercorrere, soccorrere are transitive; scorrere and trascorrere (cf. section 22.3) take both, e.g.: Ho scorso rapidamente il giornale. I skimmed the newspaper. Il trafﬁco è scorso bene per l’intero periodo festivo. Trafﬁc ﬂowed well for the entire holiday period. Human vs non-human subject Some verbs tend to take avere when the subject is a human person (or sometimes an animal), and essere when the subject is an inanimate object, e.g.: Il paziente ha (or è) peggiorato da ieri sera. The patient has worsened since last night. La situazione economica è peggiorata. The economic situation has worsened. abortire appartenere fallire migliorare (see also section 22.3) peggiorare (see also section 22.3) procedere (see also below) progredire proseguire (see also section 22.3) variare (see also section 22.3) (iii) to abort/have a miscarriage to belong to fail/go bankrupt to improve to worsen to proceed to progress to continue to vary Verbs of emission of liquid or smell: A number of verbs may take avere when the subject is the container or source of the emission, and essere when the subject is the thing being emitted, e.g.: Il lago ha evaporato quest’estate. The lake evaporated this summer. L’alcol è evaporato durante la cottura. The alcohol evaporated during the cooking. 303 22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses colare to drip, ooze note for colare a picco, see section 22.3. emanare to emanate evaporare to evaporate gocciolare to drip profumare to perfume scolare to drain sgocciolare to drain, drip traboccare to overﬂow tracimare to overﬂow note spiovere takes only essere when meaning to pour down (cf. section 22.2). (iv) 304 A similar verb is abbondare, which often takes avere when the subject is the person or thing which has something in abundance, essere when the subject is the thing in abundance, e.g.: Abbiamo abbondato (la dispensa ha abbondato) di provviste. We had (the pantry had) plenty of provisions. I viveri sono abbondati durante il viaggio. The food was plentiful during the trip. Various other verbs convenire: avere meaning agree; essere meaning to behove/suit, or to congregate (R3), e.g.: Abbiamo convenuto sul prezzo. We agreed on the price. Il prezzo mi è convenuto. The price suited me. durare: avere for durability of an object; essere of an event, e.g.: Queste scarpe hanno durato molto a lungo. These shoes have lasted a long time. Il ﬁlm è durato due ore. The ﬁlm lasted two hours. al s o Ho durato fatica a risolvere il problema (R3). I labored hard to solve the problem. evadere, fuggire, sfuggire: avere meaning to avoid or evade; essere meaning to escape, e.g.: È diventato un orso: ha (s)fuggito anche gli amici più cari. He has become unsociable (lit. “a bear”): he has avoided even his dearest friends. Secondo i giornali, avrebbe evaso le tasse per anni. According to the papers, he is alleged to have evaded his tax for years. L’abbiamo visto in piazza, ma è (s)fuggito senza salutarci. We saw him in the piazza, but he ﬂed without saying hello. 22.4 Verbs that take either according to meaning incrudelire (R3): avere meaning to act cruelly, essere meaning to become cruel, e.g.: Il tiranno ha incrudelito contro la popolazione intera. the tyrant was cruel to the whole population. Il tiranno è incrudelito in seguito alla rivolta popolare. The tyrant grew cruel following the popular uprising. interessare: avere meaning to concern, affect; essere meaning to be of interest, e.g.: Il problema ha interessato tutta una generazione di giovani. The issue affected a whole generation of young people. Gli sono interessate tutte le questioni ambientali. All the environmental issues interested them. mancare: avere meaning to miss, or to fail in an obligation (cf. section 27.7); essere meaning to be missing, to lack, e.g.: Ho mancato la porta di poco. I just missed the goal. Mi sei mancata. I missed you. Lei è mancata a scuola per tre giorni. She was not at school for three days. passare: avere/essere for meanings to do with time (see section 22.3); essere meaning to go past, e.g.: Sono passato davanti a casa tua. I passed in front of your house. al s o ripassare: avere meaning to review; essere meaning to pass by again procedere: avere meaning to progress; essere meaning to behave, e.g.: Ha proceduto da persona onesta. He behaved like an honest person. È proceduto notevolmente. He has progressed considerably. scampare: avere meaning to avoid or to save; essere meaning to survive, e.g.: Ha scampato il pericolo per fortuna. She avoided the danger through good luck. È scampata al massacro in cui è perita tutta la sua famiglia. She survived the massacre in which her whole family perished. scattare: avere meaning to take (a photograph); essere meaning to jump or leap into action, e.g.: Abbiamo scattato tante foto del Foro. We took lots of photos of the Forum. Siamo scattati in piedi quando è entrato il Presidente. We jumped to our feet when the President came in. schiantare: avere meaning to break; essere meaning to die (R1–2), e.g.: Il vento ha schiantato le cime degli alberi. The wind snapped off the tops of the trees. Siamo schiantati dalle risate. We died laughing. 305 22 Auxiliary verbs in compound tenses scivolare: avere or essere when referring to physical movement; essere with the ﬁgurative meaning of slipping away/through one’s ﬁngers etc., e.g.: Ho scivolato sul ghiaccio. I slipped on the ice. Sei scivolato via e non si è accorto nessuno. You slipped away and no one noticed. Il bicchiere mi è scivolato tra le mani. The glass slipped through my hands. servire: avere meaning to provide service; essere meaning to be useful, e.g.: Ha servito a tavola in casa di nobili. He served at table in a noble house. Il suo consiglio non è servito proprio a niente. His advice was no use at all. sﬁlare: avere meaning to take by stealth; essere meaning to ﬁle past, e.g.: Ti hanno sﬁlato il portafoglio dalla tasca. They sneaked your wallet from your pocket. Sono sﬁlati in corteo. They ﬁled past in a procession. suonare: avere when subject is person or thing making sound, or resounding (also essere, R3); essere when subject is a fact announced by a sound, e.g.: Ha suonato il telefono. The phone rang. Le sue parole hanno suonato (al s o sono suonate) nell’aula vuota. His words resounded in the empty hall. È appena suonato mezzogiorno. Midday has just rung. avere when transitive, meaning to play an instrument etc., e.g.: Io ho suonato il violino quando ero a scuola. I played the violin when I was at school. 22.5 Modal verbs The modal verbs dovere, potere, volere take avere if the following inﬁnitive is a verb that takes avere. If the verb that follows takes essere, the modals may take essere (R2–3) or avere (R1–2). This may also occur with sapere but only in higher registers, e.g.: Abbiamo dovuto/potuto/voluto dormire all’aperto. We had to/could/wanted to sleep in the open. Siamo dovuti/potuti/voluti partire presto (R2–3). Abbiamo dovuto/potuto/voluto partire presto (R1–2). We had to/could/wanted to leave early. If the inﬁnitive is essere or in the passive, the auxiliary is avere, e.g.: Avrebbe dovuto essere qui a quest’ora. She should have been here by now. 306 22.6 Pronouns and auxiliaries If the modal verb is emphasized or used without a following inﬁnitive, avere is used, e.g.: Nonostante tutto, ha dovuto partire. Despite everything, she had to (was obliged to) leave. Non voleva partire, ma ha dovuto. She didn’t want to leave, but she had to. 22.6 Pronouns and auxiliaries (i) With modal verbs the position of a pronoun determines choice of auxiliary in two ways: ci, ne (cf. section 16.4) Non ci sono potuto andare (not Non ci ho potuto andare) Non ho potuto andarci (al s o Non sono potuto andarci) I wasn’t able to go there Non ne sono potuto uscire (not Non ne ho potuto uscire) Non ho potuto uscirne (al s o Non sono potuto uscirne) I wasn’t able to get out of there (ii) With reﬂexives Mi sono dovuto svegliare (not Mi ho dovuto svegliare) Ho dovuto svegliarmi (not Sono dovuto svegliarmi) I had to wake up note : this is similar to the way that pronoun position affects normal auxiliary choice with reﬂexive verbs (see section 24.1): Ho vestito me stesso (e poi i bambini) vs Mi sono vestito I dressed myself (and then the children) vs I got dressed note : cominciare can act in the same way as modal verbs with reﬂexives: Si è cominciato a spostare or Ha cominciato a spostarsi It started to move. 307 23 The passive The Italian passive, like the English passive, is a construction which focusses attention on the object of an action (for the passive with si, see section 24.6). The direct object of a transitive verb becomes the subject of the passive. The passive with essere may be used in all tenses and moods, and with modals: Le innovazioni caravaggesche furono adottate da artisti di molti paesi. Caravaggio’s innovations were adopted by artists in many countries. Credo che le prenotazioni siano già state chiuse. I think bookings have already been closed. Questa proposta potrebbe essere riformulata per la prossima riunione. This proposal could be reworked for the next meeting. 23.1 Passive with venire The passive may be formed with venire instead of essere to express an action rather than a state. This often avoids the ambiguity of essere + past participle, which may express a passive event, or may describe a state with the participle acting as adjective. Venire may be used as auxiliary only in the simple tenses, indicative and subjunctive, i.e. present, imperfect, passato remoto, future, and conditional, and is most often used with the third person. It is characteristic of R2–3, e.g.: La mostra viene aperta alle 4. The exhibition is being/gets opened at 4 o’clock. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 308 23.4 Expression of the agent La mostra è aperta alle 4. The exhibition is open (or is being opened) at 4 o’clock. 23.2 Passive with andare The passive formed with andare expresses obligation or opportuneness. This only occurs with the simple tenses, i.e. present, imperfect, future, and conditional, but not passato remoto. It is only found in the third person, in all registers: Il modulo va riempito in ogni sua parte. The form must be completed in all sections. La pasta andava tolta prima. The pasta should have been taken off (the heat) sooner. The agent is not usually expressed with the andare passive. If an agent is to be expressed with a passive involving obligation, dovere is used, e.g.: Il modulo deve essere riempito dal genitore o chi ne fa le veci. The form must be completed by the parent or guardian. Andare is also used as an alternative to essere, and without any notion of obligation, with a few verbs expressing a negative result such as loss or damage, e.g. perdere, disperdere, smarrire, distruggere, dimenticare, deludere, bruciare, spendere, etc. This occurs in all tenses, e.g.: Il manoscritto andò perduto nel Cinquecento. The manuscript was lost in the sixteenth century. Molti quadri sono andati distrutti durante la guerra. Many paintings were destroyed during the war. 23.3 Passive with rimanere and restare The passive may be formed with rimanere or restare with a small number of verbs expressing surprise, e.g.: Nel sentire la notizia, siamo rimasti sorpresi/delusi/interdetti. On hearing the news, we were surprised/disappointed/dumbfounded. 23.4 Expression of the agent The agent is preceded by da (although in the majority of passive sentences, no agent is indicated). If the passive action is expressed by a noun or adjective, the agent is preceded by da parte di, e.g.: La prospettiva fu usata da Brunelleschi. Perspective was used by Brunelleschi. L’uso della prospettiva da parte di Brunelleschi fu l’inizio dell’arte rinascimentale. The use of perspective by Brunelleschi was the beginning of Renaissance art. 309 23 The passive Queste condizioni non sono accettabili da parte dei (or dai) sindacati. These conditions are not acceptable by/to the unions. 23.5 Indirect objects Unlike in English, an indirect object in Italian cannot become the subject of a passive verb, but must remain indirect, e.g.: A Giuseppe sono stati mandati i risultati sbagliati. Giuseppe was sent the wrong results. Le è stato chiesto di parlare delle sue esperienze in Italia. She has been asked to speak about her experiences in Italy. 23.6 Other ways of expressing the passive The passive is found more often in higher registers. In informal speech, other ways of placing the emphasis on the object are preferred. These include using a “marked” word order, such as moving the object to the left, i.e. to the normal position of the subject, or using a cleft sentence (see section 18.2). Compare: Gli spaghetti sono stati fatti da mia zia. Gli spaghetti li ha fatti mia zia. E’ mia zia che ha fatto gli spaghetti. An impersonal subject may be used (see section 24.9). Compare: A Giuseppe sono stati mandati i risultati sbagliati. A Giuseppe hanno mandato i risultati sbagliati. 310 24 Reﬂexives and impersonals The Italian reﬂexive has many different functions, some of which are not paralleled in English. Reﬂexive verbs always take the auxiliary essere, except in the case mentioned in section 24.1. The reﬂexive pronoun is omitted when the reﬂexive verb is an inﬁnitive depending on fare or lasciare, e.g.: Lo hanno fatto pentire (not pentirsi) delle sue parole. They made him regret his words. 24.1 Direct reﬂexives Most transitive verbs can be used reﬂexively when subject and object coincide. Direct reﬂexives are usually deﬁned as taking unstressed reﬂexive pronouns (before the verb) and essere in compound tenses. However, they may also take stressed pronouns (cf. chapter 16): these follow the verb, and avere is used (cf. section 22.6), e.g.: Mi sono vestito / Ho vestito i bambini (e poi me stesso). I (got) dressed / I dressed the children (and then myself ). 24.2 Indirect reﬂexives The reﬂexive pronoun is an indirect object and expresses greater involvement in the action by the subject. This is increasingly common in R1–2. In compound tenses, the past participle agrees with the subject (or with the object, R3): R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 311 24 Reﬂexives and impersonals Chiara si è mangiata (or mangiato, R3) un bel piatto di spaghetti. Chiara had (herself ) a lovely plate of spaghetti. The participle agrees with a direct object if it is a preceding pronoun, e.g.: I biscotti, se li è mangiati Emilia. The biscuits, it was Emilia who ate them up. An indirect reﬂexive is the usual way of expressing possession of parts of body or items of clothing, e.g.: Elena si è rotta un braccio/si è messa il cappotto. Elena broke her arm/put on her coat. Some verbs have an indirect reﬂexive form which carries a subtle but perceptible change of meaning, in terms of greater involvement by the subject. This usage seems to be increasing in R1–2. approﬁttare (di) to take advantage (of ) approﬁttarsi (di) incontrare sbagliare sedere to meet to make a mistake to be seated incontrarsi (con) sbagliarsi sedersi to take advantage (of ), esp in negative sense to have a meeting with to err, be in the wrong to sit down Several verbs of motion and state can be similarly “intensiﬁed” through the addition of se + ne; cf. section 4.5.2. 24.3 Reciprocal reﬂexives In the plural, the reﬂexive can express reciprocal actions. Ambiguity between direct and reciprocal reﬂexives can be removed through expressions such as reciprocamente, a vicenda, scambievolmente, l’un l’altro, gli uni con gli altri, etc.: I prigionieri si accusavano del delitto. This could mean “The prisoners accused each other of the crime” or “The prisoners accused themselves of the crime.” I prigionieri si accusavano a vicenda del delitto. The prisoners accused each other of the crime. 24.4 Inherent reﬂexives A number of verbs exist only in the reﬂexive form and in most cases there is nothing particularly reﬂexive about their meaning. They are all intransitive, e.g.: accorgersi (di) arrendersi avvalersi (di) (R2–3) congratularsi (con qu) imbattersi (in) 312 to notice to surrender, give oneself up to make use (of ) to congratulate (sb) to come across, run into 24.5 Reﬂexive as marker of intransitive to take possession of, master (sth) to complain (of/about) to repent, regret to rebel (against) to take one’s own life to be ashamed (at/of ) impadronirsi (di) lagnarsi (di) pentirsi (di) ribellarsi (a) suicidarsi vergognarsi (di) 24.5 The reﬂexive as marker of the intransitive The reﬂexive form is used simply as the intransitive counterpart of many transitives. This usage appears to be growing (cf. section 22.3), e.g.: abbattere accostare addormentare allontanare alzare annoiare arrabbiare avviare avvicinare deprimere destare (R2–3) fermare gonﬁare guastare imbarcare inﬁammare invogliare irritare meravigliare muovere offendere rasserenare rattristare rendere conto (di) ritirare rivolgere scoraggiare spaventare stancare stupire svegliare trattenere voltare to knock down to put near to put to sleep to push away to raise to bore to enrage to set in motion to move near (tr) to depress to waken to stop (tr) to inﬂate to damage to take on board to inﬂame to attract to irritate to surprise to move (tr) to offend to calm (tr) to sadden to give an account of to withdraw (tr) to turn (tr) to discourage to frighten to tire (tr) to amaze to waken to hold back to turn (tr) abbattersi accostarsi addormentarsi allontanarsi alzarsi annoiarsi arrabbiarsi avviarsi avvicinarsi (a) deprimersi destarsi (R2–3) fermarsi gonﬁarsi guastarsi imbarcarsi inﬁammarsi invogliarsi (di) (R3) irritarsi meravigliarsi muoversi offendersi rasserenarsi rattristarsi rendersi conto (di) to lose heart to approach to fall asleep to move away to get up to get bored to get angry to set out to approach to get depressed to wake up to stop (intr) to swell up to break down to go on board to catch ﬁre (ﬁg) to take a fancy (to) to become irritated to wonder to move (intr) to get offended to become calm (again) to become sad to realize ritirarsi rivolgersi scoraggiarsi spaventarsi stancarsi stupirsi svegliarsi trattenersi voltarsi to withdraw (intr) to turn to (intr) to become discouraged to become frightened to get tired to be amazed to wake up to hold oneself back to turn (intr) 313 24 Reﬂexives and impersonals Some verbs have three possible constructions, e.g. dimenticare, ricordare, scordare, sposare. The reﬂexive as intransitive requires a preposition. The meaning of these groups of sentences is essentially the same, e.g.: Ha sposato un’italiana (transitive). Si è sposato un’italiana (R1–2) (indirect reﬂexive). Si è sposato con un’italiana (reﬂexive as intransitive). 24.6 The passive reﬂexive In the third person, the reﬂexive may be used to express the passive. With the si passive, the agent is not usually expressed: the essere passive is used for that, cf. chapter 23. The verb agrees with the grammatical subject and the auxiliary in compound tenses is always essere, e.g.: Qui si parla italiano. Italian (is) spoken here. In Italia si parlano molti dialetti. Many dialects are spoken in Italy. Si sono vendute mille copie del suo primo cd. 1000 copies of her ﬁrst c d were sold. The rules for verb agreement and auxiliary choice also apply with modal verbs, e.g.: Si sono dovuti ristampare tutti i biglietti. All the tickets had to be reprinted. 24.7 The impersonal reﬂexive with transitive verbs The passive use of the reﬂexive often merges with an impersonal meaning. As before, verb agreement is compulsory and the auxiliary is essere, e.g.: Non si possono accettare lettere anonime. One cannot accept anonymous letters (or Anonymous letters cannot be accepted). Non si è mai vista una cosa simile. One has never seen anything like this (or Nothing like this has ever been seen). I risultati si sono visti subito. One saw the results immediately. The position of si may suggest either a passive or an impersonal meaning, e.g.: Questo si può capire facilmente. One can understand this easily. Questo può capirsi facilmente. This can be understood easily. 314 24.8 Impersonal reﬂexive with intransitive verbs The fact that the impersonal si looks like the subject of the verb means that the verb could agree with si in older Italian, but today only in R1, e.g.: Si vede tante cose strane in questi giorni. You see many strange things these days. When the subject of an impersonal reﬂexive is a pronoun, it takes the form of an object pronoun and precedes the si. The verb is always in the singular, but a past participle agrees with the object pronoun, e.g.: Non ti si vede in giro in questi giorni. One doesn’t see you around these days. Le albicocche? Le si compra in primavera. Apricots? One buys them in spring. Le albicocche? L’anno scorso le si è comprate tutta la primavera. Apricots? Last year one bought them all spring. An impersonal reﬂexive may combine with any other reﬂexive (direct, indirect, reciprocal or inherent). To avoid si si, the ﬁrst si becomes ci, e.g.: ci si alza; ci si fa un bel caffè; ci si saluta; non ci si accorge di niente one gets up; one makes oneself a nice coffee; everyone greets each other; one notices nothing. 24.8 The impersonal reﬂexive with intransitive verbs The use of si with intransitive verbs can only be interpreted as impersonal, since there can be no passive meaning. The verb is always singular, e.g.: Si viaggia bene in prima classe. One travels well in ﬁrst class. Any adjective or noun referring to the si is in the masculine plural (or feminine plural if reference is exclusively to females). This is most common with essere, stare, diventare, but it applies with any intransitive verb, e.g.: si è giovani; si dorme tranquilli; si vive contenti one is young; one sleeps peacefully; one lives happy (or happily) si è donne; si è vedove; si è incinte one is (a) woman; one is a widow; one is pregnant In fact, adjectives and nouns referring to any impersonal expression are in the masculine plural, e.g.: La città è bella d’agosto: basta non essere soli. The city is beautiful in August: just make sure you’re not alone. Bisognerebbe essere sognatori più spesso. One should be a dreamer more often. E’ impossibile non essere attratti dalla sua forte personalità. It is impossible not to be attracted by his strong personality. 315 24 Reﬂexives and impersonals (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) In compound tenses, the ending of the participle depends on the type of verb: The participle ends in -o if the verb normally takes avere, e.g.: Si è lavorato per tre giorni su questo problema. One worked on this problem for three days. The participle ends in -i, or -e, as with adjectives and nouns above, if the verb normally takes essere. This includes: intransitive verbs which take essere (cf. section 22.2) si è usciti presto; si è stati in casa one got out early; one remained in the house passive of transitive verbs si è ammirati; si è ammirate one is admired; a woman is admired reﬂexives ci si è vergognati; ci si sente stanchi one felt ashamed; one feels tired The impersonal reﬂexive is used in place of the ﬁrst person plural in Central Italy, especially Tuscany, and occasionally elsewhere (R1–2): Si va? Ci si vede domani! Andiamo? Ci vediamo domani! 24.9 Other impersonal subjects Other ways of expressing a general, impersonal subject are: uno, tu (which may even be used – with care – when using the Lei form of address), or use of the third person plural, e.g.: Quando uno è fatto cosı̀, non c’è niente da fare. When someone is like that, there is nothing to be done. Quando ti trovi in quella situazione lı̀, non capisci niente. When you ﬁnd yourself in that situation, you don’t understand a thing. Hanno licenziato il Presidente. They have sacked the President or The President has been sacked. 24.10 Impersonal objects Impersonal si can never be used as an object. It may be replaced by ci (R2–3) or ti (R1–2), e.g.: Si è felici se ci scrivono (R3). One is happy if they write to one. Se ti beccano senza documento, sei fregato (R1). If they catch you without i d , you’re in trouble. In more elevated styles, an impersonal object may be omitted altogether. Usually an English translation must include an object, e.g.: 316 24.10 Impersonal objects Questo esperimento permette di veriﬁcare le ultime ipotesi. This experiment allows one/us to test the latest hypotheses or This experiment allows the latest hypotheses to be tested. With “impersonal verbs,” which usually use an indirect object pronoun to indicate the logical subject (cf. section 27.2.1), impersonal reference is achieved by omitting a pronoun altogether, e.g.: Sembra di mangiare cartone. It’s like eating cardboard (lit It seems [to one] to eat cardboard). 317 THE SENTENCE – combining clauses 25 Italian prepositions Italian grammars traditionally divide prepositions into two groups. The “preposizioni proprie” are, in order of frequency of use, di, a, da, in, con, su, per, tra/fra. Of these, a, da, di, in, su are always articulated when used with the deﬁnite article (i.e. combine with it to produce alla, della, etc.). In modern Italian, per and tra/fra are no longer articulated. Con is only usually articulated in speech, and usually R1–2. The “preposizioni improprie” were originally adverbs and in modern Italian can be used as prepositions or adverbs: e.g. contro, davanti, dietro, sotto, sopra. They are never articulated. 25.1 a In modern Italian a becomes ad usually only before another word beginning with a, but higher registers continue the tradition of using ad before words beginning with any vowel. ad alta voce, ad (or a) Ancona (all registers) ad Empoli, ad Imola, ad Otranto, ad Udine (R2–3) 25.1.1 Basic meanings (a) destination, direction; generally corresponds to English to vado al ristorante, vado a Roma I’m going to the restaurant, I’m going to Rome R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. (b) location; corresponds to English at or in sono a casa, abitano a Milano They are at home, they live in Milan (c) point in time alle due; a mezzogiorno at two o’clock; at midday 321 25 Italian prepositions 25.1.2 Expressing time alle due del mattino all’alba a mezzogiorno/mezzanotte all’inizio del mese/dell’anno alla ﬁne del mese/anno a vent’anni/all’età di vent’anni (R3) allo/nello stesso tempo ai nostri tempi ai tempi dei comuni a prima vista a domani/presto/dopo al cessare della musica 25.1.3 at two in the morning at dawn at midday/midnight at the beginning of the month/ year at the end of the month/year at twenty years of age at the same time nowadays in the time of the communes at ﬁrst sight see you tomorrow/soon/later when the music ended Expressing rate (= distribution, price, and measure) one by one by the ten/dozen/hundred one at a time twice a week on alternate days she sells it at one euro per 100 grams lo vende a buon mercato she sells it cheaply vendere al dettaglio/all’ingrosso to sell retail/wholesale a (una velocità di) cento at 100 km an hour (60 mph) chilometri all’ora pagare a rate to pay in instalments a uno a uno a decine/dozzine/centinaia uno alla volta due volte alla settimana (cf. per) a giorni alterni lo vende a un euro all’etto 25.1.4 Expressing manner a bocca aperta alla bolognese/milanese/ napoletana all’italiana fare alla romana spaghetti al sugo/ragù gelato al cioccolato gelato alla frutta cuocere a fuoco lento a ogni costo/a tutti i costi giocare a carte prendere qc alla leggera a lungo 322 open-mouthed in the style of Bologna/Milan/ Naples in the Italian style to go Dutch, pay one’s own way spaghetti with tomato sauce/ ragout chocolate ice-cream fruit ice-cream to cook over a slow heat at any cost to play cards to take sth lightly for a long time 25.1 a a modo mio alla maniera di Caravaggio but : in modo/maniera elegante alla moda è alla moda but : è di moda a memoria a passo d’uomo a mio parere/avviso a mio modo di vedere al contrario/all’inverso alla rovescia/al rovescio/ a rovescio conto alla rovescia a ritroso/all’indietro a spese mie a bassa voce/ad alta voce a quattro zampe a tutta velocità a tutto gas, a tutta birra (R1) a tu per tu/a quattr’occhi 25.1.5 in my own way in Caravaggio’s style in an elegant manner in fashion it/he/she conforms to current fashion it is in fashion/in vogue by heart at a walking pace in my opinion the way I see things . . . on the contrary, the opposite way, vice versa upside-down, back to front, inside out, the wrong way count-down backwards at my expense in a low/loud voice on all fours at full speed ﬂat out, at full speed face to face Expressing place all’equatore ai Tropici al polo nord all’orizzonte a casa/a casa di Maria al telefono al sole all’aperto al fresco al fresco della sera all’ombra alla radio/televisione a bordo di a metà strada a/in contatto con al collo a destra/sinistra alle spalle (di qu) ferito a una mano/gamba si guardò allo specchio at/on the equator in/to the Tropics at/to the north pole on/to the horizon (at) home/at /to Maria’s place on the telephone in the sun in the open air open-air (R1 = in jail) in the cool evening air in the shade on the radio/TV on board half-way there in contact with around one’s neck on/to the right/left behind sb’s back wounded in one hand/leg he looked at himself in the mirror 323 25 Italian prepositions alla luce di in the light of (lit and ﬁg) a tavola at the table a livello letterario on the literary level alla/sulla riva del mare at the seashore suonare una canzone al pianoforte play a song on the piano a letto in bed a teatro/scuola at/to the theater/school note al s o the general expression of distance from something: essere a (due chilometri) da (casa mia) to be (two kilometres) from (my place) 25.1.6 Expressing kind un sacco a pelo una bomba a mano un dipinto a mano una villa a due piani una barca a remi/vela pantaloni a zampa d’elefante una nave a vapore rapina a mano armata 25.1.7 Expressing instrument andare a piedi chiudere a chiave fatto a mano/macchina scrivere a macchina a cavallo/cavalluccio 25.1.8 to go on foot, to walk to lock made by hand/machine to type on horseback/piggy-back Adverbial idioms with a stare a proprio agio a bruciapelo alla cheticella alla cieca piove a dirotto/a catinelle alla grande (R1) vivere alla grande alla mano alla meglio/alla bell’e meglio agli occhi di qu al potere a rigore a vista d’occhio a volo d’uccello 324 a sleeping-bag a hand grenade a hand-drawn design a two-storey villa a row/sail boat ﬂared trousers a steamship armed hold-up to be at one’s ease point-blank stealthily blindly it’s raining cats and dogs big-time to live like a king easy-going one way or another in sb’s eyes in power strictly speaking in the blink of an eye with a bird’s-eye view, as the crow ﬂies 25.1 a e’ stato il primo/ etc./ultimo a farlo al verde a casaccio a che serve? agli arresti domiciliari 25.1.9 he was the ﬁrst/ etc./last to do it in the red, broke random what is it for? under house arrest “Personal” a (a with direct object) In R1–2 speech, a is often used before a pronoun direct object which is moved to the beginning of a sentence for emphasis, e.g.: A noi chi ci paga? (= Chi paga noi?) Who will pay us? A is also used before a direct object which is an animate being, especially human. This usage is conﬁned to the South and is R1, e.g.: Tommaso chiama a Chiara (= Tommaso chiama Chiara) 25.1.10 Complex prepositional expressions with a all’altezza di essere all’altezza del compito (ﬁg) a causa di a cura di a differenza di a/in favore di a ﬁanco di a furia di a guisa di a lato di a livello di a nome di a partire da a proposito di a scapito di a titolo di al di sopra di al di sotto di al di là di al di là del bene e del male al di qua di al di fuori di un cittadino al di sopra di ogni sospetto al di fuori di questi indizi, non c’era altro on a level with, abreast of (ﬁg) to be equal to the task because of prepared by, (of books) edited by unlike in favor of alongside by dint of by way of by the side of at the level of on behalf of starting from (a point in time) à propos of, regarding at the expense of by way of (e.g. excuse) over, above beneath on the other side of, beyond beyond good and evil on this side of outside, apart from (not usu physical) a citizen above all suspicion apart from these clues there was nothing 325 25 Italian prepositions Many prepositions expressing movement or position use a, e.g. accanto a, davanti a, dietro a, sopra a, sotto a, vicino a. 25.2 attraverso 25.2.1 Movement Expresses movement through or across space or time, or by means of. attraverso la strada guardare attraverso un buco attraverso i secoli attraverso lunghe indagini 25.2.2 across the street to look through a hole through the centuries through long inquiries Used as adverb un albero si era messo attraverso la strada una nocciolina mi è andata attraverso/per traverso a tree was blocking the road a peanut has got stuck in my throat/went down sideways 25.3 con 25.3.1 Basic meanings (a) association; corresponds to English with caffé col latte coffee with milk un panino con il salame a salame roll viaggio insieme con altri I’ll travel together with others (b) instrument, or means of transport; corresponds to English with or by ho aperto la lattina con un cacciavite I opened the can with a screwdriver viaggiare con l’aereo/la macchina/il tram/l’autobus/i mezzi pubblici to travel by plane/car/tram/bus/public transport (cf. section 25.11.2) arriva con l’aereo delle tre she’s arriving on the 3 o’clock plane 326 25.4 contro (c) description (alternates with da) una ragazza con i/dai (R2–3) capelli biondi a girl with blonde hair una camicia con le maniche corte a short-sleeved shirt (d) with adjectives that describe behavior that affects another person gentile con/verso (R2–3) tutti polite with everybody sei troppo buono con tutti you’re too nice to everyone 25.3.2 In adverbial phrases to my great surprise/delight in a hoarse/ﬁrm voice it’s hard to work with/in this heat do you want to go out in this rain? con combines with many abstract nouns to create adverbial expressions of manner, e.g.: con chiarezza clearly con pazienza patiently con freddezza coldly con mia grande sorpresa/gioia con voce rauca/ferma con questo caldo è difﬁcile lavorare vuoi uscire con questa pioggia? 25.3.3 Idiomatic expressions with con con tutti i suoi difetti lo trovo simpatico con tutto il rispetto come va con il nuovo lavoro? e con questo? (R1) col cavolo (R1)/col cazzo (R1∗ ) for/despite all his faults I like him with all due respect how’s the new job going? so what? like hell/no way! 25.4 contro 25.4.1 Before nouns and pronouns Contro before nouns, contro di before personal pronouns ha messo la sedia contro la parete she put the chair against the wall la lotta contro la maﬁa the struggle against the maﬁa uno contro tutti one against all ha puntato il fucile contro di loro he aimed the riﬂe at them 327 25 Italian prepositions 25.4.2 Used as adverb voterò contro sei pro o contro? ho tutti contro I’m voting against are you for it or against it? I’ve got everyone against me 25.5 da 25.5.1 Basic meanings (a) origin; corresponds to English from, out of da Roma a Napoli from Rome to Naples dalle Alpi alle Piramidi from the Alps to the Pyramids dalle due alle tre from 2 o’clock to 3 o’clock l’espresso delle 14 e 30 proveniente da Venezia è in arrivo sul primo binario the 2:30 express from Venice is arriving at platform one togliere i vestiti dalla valigia to take the clothes out of the suitcase (b)cause or agent in passive constructions (an extension of [a]); see also section 23.4 la lettera è stata scritta dal suo amante the letter was written by her lover When the action is expressed by a noun rather than a verb, the agent is introduced by da parte di, e.g. l’approvazione da parte del Parlamento di queste leggi è una soluzione disperata the approval of these laws by the Parliament is a desperate solution tremare dalla paura (cf. tremare di paura, section 25.7.1) to tremble with fear non ci vedo dalla fame (R1) I am starving (lit can’t see for hunger) (c) location, with the name of a person; corresponds to English to, at andiamo da Maria let’s go to Maria’s ti aspetto dall’avvocato I’ll wait for you at the lawyer’s facciamo la festa dai miei we’re having the party at my parents’ place 328 25.5 da (d) purpose una tazza da té (cf una tazza di té, section 25.7.1) a teacup (e) description la ragazzina dai capelli rossi the little red-haired girl si comporta sempre da gentiluomo he always behaves like a gentleman 25.5.2 Expressing time studio l’italiano da tre anni, dal 1999 al s o e’ da tre anni che studio l’italiano cf. sono tre anni che studio l’italiano parlavamo da un’ora quando è arrivato il capo abitiamo in questa casa da quando ci siamo sposati e’ cosı̀ da sempre non la vedo da una vita ho ﬁnito di lavorare da più di un’ora erano partiti da qualche giorno d’ora in poi dall’oggi al domani da un momento all’altro 25.5.3 we had been talking for an hour when the boss arrived we’ve been living in this house since we married it’s always been like that I haven’t seen her for ages it’s over an hour since I ﬁnished work it was some days since they had left from now on from one day to the next from one moment to the next Expressing purpose una macchina da scrivere un costume da bagno gli occhiali da sole le scarpe da tennis 25.5.4 I’ve been studying Italian for three years, since 1999 a typewriter a swimming costume sunglasses tennis shoes Expressing characteristics or description lo trattano da imbecille da giovane da persona onesta, ha restituito i soldi they treat him like an idiot as a youngster being an honest person, he handed the money back 329 25 Italian prepositions un biglietto da 10 euro un francobollo da 50 centesimi abito da sera sordo dall’orecchio sinistro io gli ho fatto da padre questa stanza serve da ufﬁcio ho una fame da lupo! non è da lui parlare cosı̀ 25.5.5 dalle mie parti si mangiano i funghi crudi io sono dalla tua parte on the one hand . . . on the other on/to/from the other side of the street/world everywhere nowhere on the other hand on behalf of on behalf of my parents and myself say hello to them from me my grandfather on my mother’s side she lives in the area around the Colosseum where I am from we eat mushrooms raw I’m on your side With a verb in the inﬁnitive (cf. section 27.4) qualcosa da mangiare/bere che cosa vuoi da bere? niente da dichiarare fa un caldo da morire pazzo da legare noioso da morire mi è piaciuto da morire non è da credere c’è da diventare matti c’è poco da ridere è un’occasione da non perdere 330 evening gown deaf in his left ear I acted as a father towards him this room serves as an ofﬁce I’m starving! it’s not like him to speak like that da used with parte da una parte . . . dall’altra dall’altra parte della strada/del mondo da tutte le parti da nessuna parte d’altra parte, d’altro canto da parte di da parte mia e dei miei genitori salutali da parte mia mio nonno dalla parte di mia madre abita dalle parti del Colosseo 25.5.6 a 10-euro note a 50-cent stamp sth to eat/drink what would you like to drink? nothing to declare It’s very hot stark raving mad deadly boring I liked it a lot you can’t really believe it it’s enough to drive you crazy there’s nothing to laugh about it’s an opportunity not be missed 25.6 25.5.7 davanti a, prima di, avanti, di fronte a Adverbial expressions with da dal mio punto di vista da cima a fondo da capo da lontano/vicino lo faccio da me il faidaté da solo dappertutto riconoscere qu dalla voce sono passato dalla/per la piazza trasmissione dal vivo (al s o in diretta) from my point of view from top to bottom from the beginning, from the top from a distance/close up I’ll do it myself D.I.Y. (do it yourself) alone everywhere recognise sb by their voice I passed by/through the piazza live broadcast 25.6 davanti a, prima di, avanti, di fronte a 25.6.1 Basic meanings These prepositions all express before or in front of. Prima di refers to time, space, and objects in a series; davanti a and di fronte a refer principally to space but may also refer to time. Innanzi, dinanzi, and dinnanzi cover most of the same uses as prima and davanti but are R2–3. They usually require a, except with certain expressions of time. Avanti is only used as an adverb in modern Italian (e.g. andiamo avanti!) except for certain set phrases. prima delle quattro prima del tempo/innanzi tempo (R3) prima di partire l’ha fatto prima di me l’ultima traversa prima del semaforo Lei era prima di me nella ﬁla avanti Cristo = a.C. prima di tutto/innanzi tutto è comparso davanti al giudice (innanzi al giudice) mi stava davanti/ stava davanti a me mi stava davanti agli occhi davanti alla casa/innanzi alla casa (R3) di fronte alla casa/dirimpetto alla casa (R3) di fronte a questa situazione before four o’clock prematurely before leaving he did it before me (= before I did) the last side road before the trafﬁc lights you were ahead of me in the queue before Christ = BC ﬁrst of all he appeared before the judge he was in front of me he was before my eyes in front of the house; opposite the house opposite the house in the face of this situation 331 25 Italian prepositions 25.6.2 Used as adverbs bisognava pensarci prima prima o poi le autorità erano sedute davanti hai ancora molto tempo davanti (a te) abita qui di fronte avevo innanzi/dinanzi le prove che cercavo (R3) tiriamo innanzi! avanti! we (you, one, etc.) should have thought of it sooner/earlier sooner or later the authorities were sitting at the front you still have lots of time ahead of you she lives opposite I had the evidence I was looking for in front of me let’s keep going! come in! 25.7 di 25.7.1 Basic meanings (a) possession, corresponds to English genitive (’s, s’) or of questa macchina è di mia sorella this car is my sister’s una strada di Napoli a Naples street (b) origin (associated with [a]); corresponds to English from è di Bologna she’s from Bologna note Viene da Bologna may mean the same thing, or may imply that she is coming from Bologna now or that she has just arrived from there (c) material from which something is made (ﬁg associated with [b]) la statua di marmo the marble statue un sacchetto di plastica a plastic bag (d) cause, when a physical or emotional condition morı̀ di dolore he died of grief ha pianto di gioia she wept for/with joy tremare di paura to tremble with fear cf. tremare dalla paura (section 25.5.1) soffre di asma he suffers from asthma 332 25.7 di (e) concern or subject matter questo libro tratta dell’industrializzazione del dopoguerra this book deals with post-war industrialization non so niente di questo I know nothing about this Dei delitti e delle pene (treatise by G. L. Beccaria) On crime and punishment (f ) introducing a descriptive or specifying phrase Italian by birth italiano di nascita hairdresser by trade parruchiere di professione una tazza di té a cup of tea (cf. una tazza da té, section 25.5.1) (g) linking nouns in apposition la città di Firenze quel matto di Giorgio il mese di maggio 25.7.2 the city of Florence that madman Giorgio the month of May In expressions of description or origin rosso di capelli red-haired sano di mente of sound mind una commedia di Goldoni a play by Goldoni di is used with adjectives when the following noun refers to a general substance (or color) rather than a single object, e.g.: era coperto di polvere it was covered in/with dust but coperto da una tela but covered by/with a cloth macchiato di sangue spattered in/with blood la stanza era piena di fumo the room was full of smoke vestito di nero dressed in black 25.7.3 Expressing time (see also in, section 25.11.1) di giorno/notte di mattina/sera di prima mattina di buon mattino/di buon’ora d’estate/inverno (less commonly d’autunno/primavera) di questi tempi/giorni cento di questi giorni! 25.7.4 by day/night in the morning/evening early in the morning early (usu in the morning) in summer/winter (in autumn/spring) these days many happy returns! In expressions of price and measurement il prezzo della macchina è 5000 euro l’aumento è del dieci per cento the price of the car is 5000 euro the increase is 10% 333 25 Italian prepositions 25.7.5 Idiomatic expressions esco di casa/scuola presto vado via di qua dare del cretino a qu dare del tu/Lei/voi a qu diamoci del tu! dire di sı̀ o di no l’ho visto di spalle/proﬁlo/faccia di nascosto di conseguenza di seguito di tutto cuore vivere di espedienti di qua/là I leave the house/school early I’m going away from here call sb a cretin use the tu/Lei/voi form of address with sb, be on ﬁrst/last name terms with sb let’s use ﬁrst names to say yes or no I saw him from behind/from the side (in proﬁle)/from the front covertly consequently in a row, continuously willingly, with pleasure to live by one’s wits over here/there; this way/that way I spent so much money ho speso tanti di quei soldi (R1) ci vuole tanta di quella you need so much patience pazienza (R1) ha preteso tanto di ﬁrma sul he even demanded a signature on documento the document di . . . in . . . is used in certain expressions corresponding to from . . . to . . . di anno in anno from year to year di ora in ora gradually, from one moment to the next di tanto di tanto/di volta in every now and again volta (girare) di città in città (to wander) from town to town di male in peggio from bad to worse 25.7.6 (a) (b) (c) 334 “Grammatical” uses of di in comparisons (see chapter 17): sei più furbo di me you’re smarter than me in superlative constructions: il paese più bello del mondo the most beautiful country in the world joining an indeﬁnite pronoun and an adjective (always masculine singular): niente di nuovo/particolare nothing new/special un che di misterioso a certain mysterious quality 25.8 dietro, dopo 25.8 dietro, dopo Dopo expresses after and dietro expresses behind. Both also express the idea of one thing occurring after another. Indietro is an adverb and expresses backwards, behind. time place successive events 25.8.1 dopo dopo le sei after six o’clock dopo l’incrocio past the intersection uno dopo l’altro one after the other – dietro la porta behind the door uno dietro l’altro one after the other dietro dietro a me/te dietro di me/te andare dietro a qu dietro richiesta dietro consiglio di dietro versamento di (R3) dietro le quinte 25.8.2 dietro behind me/you (in general) right behind me/you to follow sb’s example on request on the recommendation of on payment of behind the scenes, in the wings dopo dopo due mesi di assenza after two months’ absence l’ho fatto dopo di lui I did it after him (R2–3)/dopo lui (R1) dice una stupidaggine he says one stupid thing after dopo/dietro l’altra another leggeva libro dopo/dietro libro he read book after book dopo tutto after all, in conclusion il dopo Vietnam the post-Vietnam period dopo Cristo = d.C. Anno Domini = AD dopo di Lei, prego please, after you 25.8.3 dopo, dietro, and indietro used as adverbs poco dopo il giorno dopo ci vediamo dopo guardare indietro è rimasto indietro avanti e indietro shortly after/afterwards the day after, the next day see you later to look back he stayed behind or he got left behind backwards and forwards, to and fro 335 25 Italian prepositions 25.9 ﬁno a, sino a, verso Verso expresses movement towards and ﬁno a expresses the end-point. Both can refer to space, time or objects. Sino a is an R3 equivalent of ﬁno a. towards Naples towards home/homeward(s) she lives near the city center upwards/downwards towards/around ﬁve o’clock around October her feelings towards her father/towards him here (= up to here, as far as here) I’ll walk with you as far as the corner ho dormito ﬁno alle tre I slept until three o’clock ﬁno alle tre non ho dormito I didn’t sleep until three o’clock ﬁno alla ﬁne del mondo until the end of the world ﬁno a quando ti fermi qui? how long are you staying here? posso spendere ﬁno a cinquanta I can spend up to 50 euro euro schiaccia la pasta ﬁno a ridurla press the pasta until you reduce in una sfoglia it to a sheet Note that ﬁno/sino can combine with other prepositions to emphasize their meaning. It is usually abbreviated to ﬁn/sin, e.g.: è arrivata gente ﬁn people came even from Australia dall’Australia l’acqua è arrivata ﬁn dentro la the water reached right into the stanza room ne ho ﬁn sopra i capelli I’ve had it up to here (ﬁg) ho aspettato ﬁn troppo I’ve really waited too long verso Napoli verso casa abita verso il centro verso l’alto/il basso verso le cinque verso ottobre i suoi sentimenti verso suo padre/verso di lui ﬁno a qui/ﬁn qui ti accompagno ﬁno all’angolo 25.10 fuori 25.10.1 Used as preposition Fuori may be used with di or da, but is often used without either. fuori Milano, fuori della Lombardia oggi la signora è fuori sede questa frutta è fuori stagione fuori servizio 336 outside Milan, outside Lombardy she is out of the ofﬁce/out of town today this fruit is out of season out of order 25.11 fuori luogo è fuori dubbio giocare fuori casa 25.10.2 in out of place, uncalled for (ﬁg) it is beyond doubt to play away Used as adverb fa freddo fuori l’hanno buttato fuori stasera mangiamo fuori fuori da casa (mia)! it’s cold outside they threw him out tonight we’re eating out get out of my house! 25.11 in 25.11.1 Basic meanings (a) location; corresponds to English in abitano in Sicilia, negli Stati Uniti, nelle Marche they live in Sicily, in the USA, in the Marche (b) destination, direction; corresponds to English to or into vado in Italia, nella Calabria meridionale I’m going to Italy, southern Calabria il treno è entrato nella galleria the train went into the tunnel andare in orbita to go into orbit (c) a moment within a period of time; corresponds to English in in giugno; nel 1989; nel passato in June; in 1989; in the past 25.11.2 Expressing location or movement nella/dentro la scatola in centro in in in in in periferia via Garibaldi piazza carcere/prigione/galera casa cf. a casa avvocato in Milano (R3) in aereo/macchina/tram/ autobus/pullman/treno/ nave/bicicletta (cf. section 25.3.1) in the box in/to the centre of town/downtown in/to the suburbs in/to via Garibaldi in/at/to the piazza in prison in the house, inside (at) home lawyer in Milan by plane/car/tram/bus/coach/ train/ship/bicycle 337 25 Italian prepositions in crisi in biblioteca/libreria/farmacia/ ufﬁcio/banca/chiesa in tavola in Serie A 25.11.3 Expressing change andare in fumo andare in pensione si è trasformato in bestia but è andato in bestia Maria Rossi in Brambilla tradurre dall’italiano in inglese convertire in html cambiare dollari in euro 25.11.4 lo farò in settimana lo farò in giornata in ritardo/anticipo at that moment in the future at that time in time of war in my (whole) life in winter/summer/spring in the summer of ’88 the day when/on which in the month of May at the same time in the course of a year I did it in ten days I’ll do it in ten days/it will take me ten days to do it I’ll do it this week I’ll do it today late/early (for an appointment; tardi/presto = late/early in general) Expressing manner, means, or material essere in lutto essere in divisa essere in piedi/ginocchio essere in pigiama in maniche di camicia 338 to go up in smoke (ﬁg) to retire (from work) he turned into a beast but he ﬂew into a rage Maria Brambilla née Rossi to translate from Italian (in)to English to convert to h tm l to change dollars into euro Expressing time in quel momento in/nel futuro in/a quel tempo in tempo di guerra in tutta la mia vita in (nell’) inverno/estate/ primavera nell’estate dell’88 il giorno in cui nel mese di maggio nello stesso tempo nell’arco di un anno l’ho fatto in dieci giorni lo farò in dieci giorni 25.11.5 in trouble/in a spot of bother in/at/to the library/bookshop/ pharmacy/ofﬁce/bank/church on the table (of food) in the ﬁrst division to be in mourning to be in uniform to be standing/kneeling to be in one’s pyjamas in shirt sleeves 25.11 un testo (scritto) in dialetto/latino/codice trasmissione in differita trasmissione in diretta (al s o dal vivo) pagare in contanti mangiare in bianco una notte in bianco la statua è in marmo in a text (written) in dialect/Latin/ code delayed broadcast live broadcast to pay cash to eat simply (esp during illness) a sleepless night the statue is made from/out of marble in focuses attention on the material, while di is more of a simple description: una statua in marmo = a statue made out of marble, una statua di marmo = a marble statue 25.11.6 Common idioms and expressions involving in in breve in ogni caso in linea d’aria in qualche modo in parte in seguito in fretta e furia in poche parole in parole povere laurea in lettere eravamo in dieci/pochi/tanti in alto/basso si è messo in testa che . . . più in là essere in vita/in ﬁn di vita in prima pagina in bocca al lupo! in un batter d’occhio 25.11.7 in short, to put it brieﬂy in any case as the crow ﬂies in one way or another in part subsequently, next, in the future in a great hurry in a few words to put it bluntly bachelor of arts there were ten/only a few/lots of us up/down (there) he has got it into his head that . . . further on to be alive/to be on the point of death on the ﬁrst page (of a newspaper) good luck! in the blink of an eye In complex prepositional expressions in base a in cerca di in cima a in conformità a in confronto a nei confronti di in fondo a in forza di in funzione di on the basis of in search of on top of conforming to in comparison with with respect to at the bottom/end of by force of/because of in terms of 339 25 Italian prepositions in luogo di in mezzo a in nome della legge but nel nome del Padre del Figlio e dello Spirito Santo in occasione di in onore di in presenza di qu nei pressi di in quanto a (qc/fare qc) in riguardo a/nei riguardi di in seguito a in vista di in place of in the middle of in the name of the law in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit on the occasion of in honor of in the presence of sb nearby as regards (sth/doing sth) with respect to following in view of 25.12 per 25.12.1 Basic meanings (a) movement towards or through (both space and time) parte per Mantova she is leaving for Mantua sono passato per Pisa I passed through/by Pisa ci siamo rimasti per tre ore we stayed there for three hours (b) purpose; corresponds to English for, to, in order to sono venuto in biblioteca per studiare I have come to the library to study 25.12.2 Expressing movement il treno per Lecce è in the train to Lecce is departing from partenza sul primo binario platform one sono passato per la piazza I came via the piazza camminava per la strada she was walking along the street 25.12.3 Expressing time va via per una settimana torno per ferragosto viene per tre giorni lo rimandiamo per/di un mese va per i diciotto anni per il momento 340 he is going away for a week I’ll be back for/by/in time for 15 August he is coming for three days we’ll put it off for a month she is turning eighteen for the moment 25.12 per un attimo/momento/ istante/secondo per la prima/l’ultima volta è tutto per ora è arrivato per primo/ultimo 25.12.4 l’hanno cambiata per una macchina nuova siamo qui per quello non ho abbastanza soldi per comprarlo I bought it for you a garage for two cars I did it for you (= for your sake) he signs for (= on behalf of) his wife they exchanged it for a new car that’s what we are here for I don’t have enough money to buy it they arrested him for not paying his taxes they’ve dismissed him for incompetence it’s your fault I missed the train because of this/that’s why the answer exists by the very fact that the question exists In expressions of quantity due per volta due per due giorno per giorno cinquanta per cento 25.12.7 for the ﬁrst/last time that’s all for now he was ﬁrst/last to arrive Expressing reason or cause l’hanno arrestato per non aver pagato le tasse l’hanno licenziato per incompetenza per colpa tua ho perso il treno per questo, . . . la risposta esiste per ciò stesso che esiste la domanda 25.12.6 for a second/moment/instant Expressing purpose l’ho comprato per te un box per due macchine l’ho fatto per te ﬁrma per sua moglie 25.12.5 per two at a time two by two day by day 50% Common idioms and expressions involving per è troppo per me per me, . . . per me va bene passa per intelligente l’ho scambiata per tua sorella per quanto mi riguarda/ per quel che mi riguarda/ per ciò che mi riguarda (R2–3) per caso per fortuna it’s too much for me in my opinion, . . . it’s OK by me he is considered intelligent I mistook her for your sister as far as I am concerned by chance luckily 341 25 Italian prepositions per per per per per per per per disgrazia certo nessun motivo iscritto cui favore/piacere/cortesia mezzo di via di unfortunately certainly on no account in writing therefore please by means of because of 25.13 sotto 25.13.1 Basic meanings Sotto expresses the notion of under, underneath, below. It also appears in a number of expressions with a more ﬁgurative meaning. As a preposition, sotto is the usual opposite of sopra and su; as an adverb, sotto often, but not always, alternates with giù. due gradi sotto zero sotto la pioggia sotto pena di morte essere sotto le armi/la naia (R1) sotto processo sotto ogni punto di vista sotto casa sotto Natale/le feste sotto banco ﬁnire sotto una macchina 25.13.2 342 on trial from all points of view downstairs, down below before Christmas/the festive season under the table, illegal(ly) to be run over by a car Idiomatic expressions with parts of the body sotto braccio prendere qc sotto gamba sotto mano avere qc sottocchio/sott’occhio 25.13.3 two degrees below zero in the rain on pain of death to be on military service arm in arm to take sth (too) lightly nearby, at hand to have sth under one’s gaze Used as an adverb il bosco si estende sotto per the forest extends for 1800 meters 1800 metri (downhill) un albero con un cartello sotto a tree with a sign under it mettersi sotto to start working hard/to take the initiative mettere sotto qu (con la to run sb over (with a car) macchina) 25.14 sotto! sotto sotto su, sopra down to it!/get to work! secretly/deep down (ﬁg) 25.14 su, sopra 25.14.1 Basic meanings Sopra and su both express on, over, above, on top of. They are interchangeable in most expressions, but not all. Su has a wider range of uses than sopra. The following examples contain one or both prepositions according to what occurs in current usage. Su is always articulated with the deﬁnite article, sopra never is. In higher registers, su is often followed by di before a personal pronoun or a noun beginning with the letter u-, e.g. su di me, su di noi, su di una collina. (a) position on, above, over, on top of c’è un libro sul/sopra il tavolo there’s a book on the table una casa sul/sopra il mare a house overlooking/by the sea (b) movement onto, over sth vado sul/sopra il balcone per un po’ d’aria I’m going on the balcony for a bit of air l’aereo ha volato sulla/sopra la città the plane ﬂew over the city 25.14.2 Expressing location or direction sulla destra/sinistra/sopra la destra/sinistra (R3) mise un mattone sull’altro/ sopra l’altro mille metri sopra il livello del mare un grado sopra zero cento chilometri sopra Napoli la Marcia su Roma su Canale 5 25.14.3 on the right/left-hand side he put one brick on top of the other 1000 meters above sea level one degree above zero 100 km past Naples the March on Rome (October 1922) on Channel 5 In expressions of time or number su per giù sul presto/tardi sul far del mattino/della sera approximately early/late in the early morning/evening 343 25 Italian prepositions sul calar della sera as evening was falling sulle prime at ﬁrst otto su dieci eight out of ten tre disoccupati su cento three unemployed persons per abitanti hundred inhabitants ventiquattro ore su 24 hours a day ventiquattro Note the difference between su and sopra in these expressions: costa sui 500 euro it costs around 500 euro costa sopra i 500 euro it costs more than 500 euro pesa sui cento chili it weighs around 100 kilograms pesa sopra i cento chili it weighs more than 100 kilograms un ragazzo sui vent’anni a young man of around twenty un ragazzo sopra i vent’anni a young man over twenty una donna sulla cinquantina a woman of around ﬁfty una donna sopra la a woman over ﬁfty cinquantina 25.14.4 su expressing subject-matter (sopra is less common) un libro su Pasolini un dibattito sul voto all’estero una mostra sul Rinascimento un giudizio sulla poesia contemporanea 25.14.5 an exhibition on the Renaissance a judgment on contemporary poetry su in idiomatic expressions su scala internazionale sul serio credere a qc sulla parola mettere una questione sul tappeto sul piede di guerra un fallo su Del Piero l’articolo è apparso sul Corriere della Sera la camera dava/guardava sul cortile un vestito su misura su due piedi si è tenuto sulle generali giurare sulla Bibbia imposta sul reddito imposta sul valore aggiunto (IVA) 344 a book on Pasolini a debate on overseas voting on an international scale seriously to take sb at their word to put the matter on the table/on the agenda on a war footing a foul on Del Piero the article appeared in the Corriere della Sera the bedroom gave onto/looked out onto the courtyard a tailor-made suit/outﬁt immediately, without prior warning he kept to generalities to swear on the Bible income tax Value-Added Tax (UK)/Goods and Services Tax (Aus) 25.15 si contano sulla punta delle dita oggi è sulle spine sulla punta della lingua lui sta sulle sue su Internet sul Web 25.14.6 tra, fra you can count them on the ﬁngers of one hand she is very anxious/nervy today on the tip of one’s tongue he keeps himself to himself on the Internet on the (World Wide) Web su and sopra used as adverbs su! su con la vita! su le mani! un foglio di carta con su/sopra scritto “Aiuto” è una famiglia molto su (R1–2) oggi è su di giri le azioni sono andate su vorrebbe mettere su famiglia da dieci euro in su dalla cintola in su (R3-from Dante) di cui sopra (R3) come sopra, vedi sopra mettiamoci una pietra sopra pensarci su/sopra voglio dormirci sopra come on! look up! / chin up! hands up! a sheet of paper with “Help” written on it they are a high-placed family/ in high society he’s very excited/in a good mood today my shares have gone up he would like to marry from 10 euro up from the waist up above, above-mentioned as above, see above let’s forget it to think about it I want to sleep on it (ﬁg) 25.15 tra, fra These two prepositions are identical in meaning. Tra is somewhat more commonly used than fra. The only clear reason to prefer one over the other is to avoid unpleasant sound combinations, e.g.: fra tre ore is preferred to tra tre ore tra fratelli is preferred to fra fratelli 25.15.1 Basic meanings (a) between (both space and time) tra il ristorante e il negozio between the restaurant and the shop tra le cinque e le sei between ﬁve and six (o’clock) 345 25 Italian prepositions (b) among si muoveva tra la folla parlando con tutti he moved among the crowd speaking to everyone 25.15.2 Expressing time or distance fra breve/tra poco/tra non molto tra due chilometri c’è un benzinaio arriverà fra venti minuti 25.15.3 there’s a petrol pump in two km she’ll be here in twenty minutes Common idioms and expressions involving tra, fra tra l’altro detto tra noi una discussione tra amici sei il migliore tra i miei amici tra tutti c’era una ventina di persone tra amici e parenti ci saranno state cento persone tra lavoro e la famiglia non ho un momento libero parlava fra sé (e sé) (R2–3) distinguere tra caso e caso 346 soon moreover, furthermore between us a discussion among friends you’re the best of my friends in all there were about twenty people there must have been 100 people including friends and relatives with work and the family I don’t have a free moment he was talking to himself to distinguish between one case and another 26 English prepositions This section lists common English prepositions and some Italian equivalents. The focus is on Italian expressions that are different from the usual equivalent of each English expression. 26.1 about 26.1.1 In the sense of “concerning” a book about neorealism he doesn’t understand anything about the issue what’s this about? 26.1.2 un libro sul neorealismo non capisce niente della questione di che cosa si tratta? In the sense of “approximately” about midday about ﬁfty people he is about twenty verso mezzogiorno circa cinquanta persone/una cinquantina di persone/ cinquanta persone circa (R3) lui ha circa vent’anni/ha una ventina d’anni/è sui venti anni/è sulla ventina With multiples of ten up to 90, one can say: è sulla ventina/trentina/ quarantina/cinquantina/sessantina/settantina/ottantina/ novantina R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 347 26 English prepositions 26.2 above above the limit above the village the Arno above Florence above average oltre il limite sul/sopra il paese l’Arno sopra/a monte di Firenze sopra la media/al di sopra della media 26.3 according to according to John/in my opinion according to the law secondo Giovanni/me secondo la legge 26.4 across to go across the bridge she lives across the piazza the house across the river he ran across the ﬁeld (cf. chapter 21) attraversare il ponte abita dall’altra parte della piazza la casa oltre/dall’altra parte del ﬁume ha attraversato il campo correndo/di corsa 26.5 along Usually lungo or per; rasente stresses proximity. he is walking along the road/river/coast I saw them along the road along the wall he ran along the edge of the precipice along with cammina lungo la strada/il ﬁume/la costa li ho visti per la strada lungo il muro/rasente il muro correva rasente l’orlo del precipizio insieme a/con 26.6 among among the Italians among friends 348 presso gli italiani tra amici 26.8 at 26.7 as as a child she was successful as a writer dressed as a priest as far as the village as far as I know as for him as to the ﬁnancial aspects as soon as possible as well as possible da bambino ebbe successo come scrittrice vestito da prete ﬁno al paese che sappia io quanto a lui quanto ai risvolti ﬁnanziari appena possibile/quanto prima il meglio possible 26.8 at 26.8.1 Expressing place at home at my/his/our place at the doctor’s at school at church at the bank/ofﬁce at the theater at University at the library at work at sea a casa a casa mia/sua/nostra or da me/lui/noi dal dottore a scuola in chiesa in banca/ufﬁcio a teatro all’Università in biblioteca al lavoro in/sul mare There has been an accident at sea. C’è stata una disgrazia sul mare/in alto mare. There he is, in the sea. Eccolo, nel mare. 26.8.2 Expressing time at midnight at ten o’clock at 7.20 pm at about seven at this time at the same time at day/night a mezzanotte alle dieci alle 7,20 / alle 19,20 = alle sette e venti / alle diciannove e venti alle sette circa/verso le sette a quest’ora allo/nello stesso tempo/alla stessa ora di giorno/notte 349 26 English prepositions at the age of twenty at present at the weekend(s) 26.8.3 all’età di vent’anni in questo momento/attualmente il weekend/il ﬁne settimana In other expressions at best at least at once at most at peace at the top at ﬁrst sight at bottom at the point of death at 100 miles an hour at hand at any rate at stake one thing at a time nella migliore delle ipotesi almeno/per lo meno subito al massimo in pace in cima/in alto a prima vista in fondo in ﬁn di vita a (una velocità di) 160 km all’ora/a 160 km l’ora a portata di mano ad/in ogni modo/comunque in gioco una cosa per volta 26.9 because of because of his age per la sua età/a causa della sua età (R2–3) 26.10 before 26.10.1 Expressing place he stood before the house to have sth before one’s eyes the problem before us a crime before God and man 26.10.2 Expressing time before me she’ll come before six before long the day before yesterday Before Christ (BC) 350 stava davanti alla casa avere qc sotto gli occhi il problema che ci sta davanti/che abbiamo di fronte un delitto innanzi a Dio e agli uomini prima di me verrà prima delle sei fra non molto/fra poco l’altro ieri/ier(i) l’altro/avant’ieri (R3) avanti Cristo (a.C.) 26.14 by 26.10.3 Expressing order of importance etc. he puts money before everything mette i soldi davanti a tutto 26.11 below below zero the Tiber below Rome below average sotto zero il Tevere sotto/a valle di Roma sotto la media/al di sotto della media 26.12 beneath to disappear beneath the waves beneath contempt that action is beneath him sparire sotto le onde vergognoso, ignobile quell’atto è indegno di lui 26.13 beyond twenty kilometers beyond Bologna beyond the horizon beyond human understanding beyond my wildest dreams he’s living beyond his means it’s beyond me venti km oltre/dopo Bologna oltre l’orizzonte/al di là dell’orizzonte al di là della comprensione umana al di là dei miei sogni più folli vive al di sopra dei suoi mezzi non lo capisco/non ci arrivo (R1–2) 26.14 by 26.14.1 Expressing place by my side she sat down by her father (i.e. near) she sat down by her father (i.e. alongside) al mio ﬁanco/a ﬁanco a me si è seduta vicino a suo padre si è seduta accanto a suo padre 351 26 English prepositions he took me by the hand he led my by the hand we went by his house 26.14.2 Expressing time by nine o’clock by Friday by now 26.14.3 più alto di trenta cm di gran lunga più interessante sono pagato a ore/a settimana noleggiare al giorno vende il vino al litro le uova si vendono a dozzine ha mancato il bersaglio di un metro 15 cm per 10 cm Expressing means to travel by train/bus/car/plane to travel by bike may I pay by cheque? to contact sb by phone/email by air mail by means of by no means by all means 352 entro/per (R1–2) le nove entro has more the meaning of “not later than.” This can be made explicit: entro e non oltre le nove no later than nine o’clock per/entro venerdı̀ ormai/a questo punto Expressing measure taller by thirty centimeters more interesting by far I am paid by the hour/week to hire by the day he sells wine by the litre eggs are sold by the dozen she missed the target by a meter 15 cm by 10 cm 26.14.4 mi ha preso per mano mi ha portato per mano siamo passati per casa sua viaggiare in treno/autobus/ macchina/ aereo or col treno/con l’autobus/con la macchina/con l’aereo viaggiare in bicicletta posso pagare con un assegno? contattare qu per telefono/ email/posta elettronica per via aerea per mezzo di in nessun modo/neanche per sogno (R1–2) certamente, senz’altro 26.16 during 26.14.5 Expressing cause or agent For the use of by in passive constructions, see also section 23.4. by accident/mistake per caso/sbaglio a play by Pirandello una commedia di Pirandello made by hand fatto a mano the battery was invented la pila fu inventata da Alessandro Volta by Alessandro Volta the invention of the l’invenzione della pila da parte di Alessandro Volta al s o ad opera di battery by Alessandro Volta (R3) 26.14.6 In other expressions one by one I know her by sight side by side I learned the whole poem by heart by ear by my watch he swore by all that is holy by way of example by dint of hard work by Jove! uno alla volta la conosco di vista ﬁanco a ﬁanco ho imparato a memoria l’intera poesia a orecchio secondo il mio orologio giurò su tutto ciò che vi è di più sacro (R2–3) a mo’ di esempio a forza di fatica per Giove/per Bacco! 26.15 down we walked down the street we walked down the stairs (cf. chapter 21) tears ran down his cheeks down the centuries downtown camminavamo lungo/per la strada camminavamo giù per le scale/ scendevamo le scale a piedi le lacrime gli scendevano lungo le guance lungo/attraverso i secoli in centro 26.16 during during the day during one’s lifetime durante il giorno per tutta la vita/vita natural durante (R3) 353 26 English prepositions 26.17 except (for) every day except Sunday everyone except for him the ﬂat is ﬁnished except for the kitchen tutti i giorni eccetto domenica tutti tranne lui/eccetto lui/salvo lui (R3) a parte la cucina, l’appartamento è pronto 26.18 for 26.18.1 Expressing beneﬁt a present for her husband a reward for sth for your beneﬁt 26.18.2 Expressing purpose for pleasure what’s for dinner? they’re coming to my house for dinner cf. guess who’s coming to dinner for monetary gain what’s it for? 26.18.3 indovina chi viene a cena a scopo di lucro (R3) a che cosa serve? gridare dalla/di gioia fu imprigionato per omicidio per questo motivo Expressing time I have been living in Rome for three years we had been living in Rome for ﬁve years 354 per (puro) divertimento che cosa c’è per cena? vengono a cena da me Expressing cause to shout for joy he was jailed for murder for this reason 26.18.4 un regalo per suo marito un premio per qc a tuo beneﬁcio vivo a Roma da tre anni / sono/è (R1) tre anni che vivo a Roma / è da tre anni che vivo a Roma vivevamo a Roma da cinque anni / erano/era (R1) cinque anni che vivevamo a Roma / era da cinque anni che vivevamo a Roma 26.19 from they lived in Rome for two years when they were just married she will be in Venice for two weeks they are here for two days he was there for a week = he spent a week there she was there for a week = she was going to stay for a week he won’t be back for a month I’ll do it for Monday 26.18.5 sarà a Venezia per due settimane sono qui per due giorni c’è stato lı̀ per una settimana/ci ha passato una settimana era lı̀ per una settimana / si fermava lı̀ per una settimana / si sarebbe fermata lı̀ per una settimana non ritorna per un mese/ritorna fra un mese lo faccio per lunedı̀ Expressing place at Terontola you change for Perugia I’m leaving for Calabria 26.18.6 hanno vissuto (sono vissuti) a Roma per due anni appena sposati a Terontola si cambia per Perugia parto per la Calabria In other expressions for example for sale as for me for all I know per/ad esempio in vendita per me per quanto ne sappia io/ne so (R1) 26.19 from 26.19.1 Expressing place she comes from Australia (i.e. that is her country of origin) she comes from Australia (i.e. she is traveling or has just arrived from there) where are you from? the train from Lecce (to Milan) from top to bottom from beginning to end from the beginning from head to foot tell him from me that . . . lei è dell’Australia/australiana lei viene dall’Australia di dove sei? il treno da Lecce (a Milano) da cima a fondo dall’inizio alla ﬁne da capo dalla testa ai piedi digli da parte mia che . . . 355 26 English prepositions 26.19.2 Expressing time from dawn to dusk from today on from now on from 1 January from day to day from time to time 26.19.3 dall’alba al tramonto da oggi in poi da/d’ora in poi (a partire) dal 1 gennaio di giorno in giorno di quando in quando/di tanto in tanto In other expressions he is suffering from AIDS from what I’ve heard from my point of view from the psychological point of view è malato di AIDS da quello che ho sentito io dal mio punto di vista sotto il proﬁlo psicologico 26.20 in 26.20.1 Expressing place in our country/region/city in the Alps in Turin in Italy but in southern (etc.) Italy in + names of Italian regioni f sing names m sing names all pl names in town in the country/mountains in the sky in heaven in the piazza wounded in the arm blind in one eye in the direction of the harbour in the neighborhood of in the air (lit and ﬁg) 356 da noi sulle/in mezzo alle Alpi a Torino but in Torino (R3) = within Turin in Italia nell’Italia meridionale (ecc) in Lombardia nel Lazio, nel Veneto, nel Molise but it is increasingly common to use in without the article, esp in Piemonte, in Abruzzo, in Veneto, in Trentino, in Friuli nelle Marche, negli Abruzzi in città/paese in campagna/montagna nel/in cielo in cielo in piazza ferito al braccio cieco da un occhio verso il/in direzione del porto nei pressi di/nei paraggi di (R3) in aria (lit), nell’aria (ﬁg) 26.20 in space in a tent in the newspaper in the saddle (of horse and bike) to sit in an armchair to have sth in one’s mouth in the sun in the shade/shadow in the rain in the snow in the kitchen/bedroom in the bathroom/living room in the garden in bed in place of in your place (lit and ﬁg) to save in memory 26.20.2 in nello spazio in tenda sul giornale in sella essere seduto in poltrona avere qc in bocca al sole all’ombra sotto la pioggia sotto la neve (when it is falling)/nella neve (on the ground) in/nella cucina/camera in/nel bagno/salotto in/nel giardino a letto al posto di al tuo posto salvare in memoria Expressing time in the morning in the afternoon it is better to sleep in the afternoon yesterday I slept in the afternoon in the evening in the early afternoon in August in mid August in (the) spring/ summer/ autumn/ winter in the winter of 1944 in 1948 in the twenty-ﬁrst century in our time in the time of the Caesars I will do it in ten days (i.e. in ten days from now) I will do it in ten days (i.e. it will take me ten days) al mattino/la mattina/di mattina il/nel/di pomeriggio è meglio dormire di pomeriggio ieri ho dormito nel pomeriggio la/di sera nel primo pomeriggio in agosto a metà agosto d’/di or in primavera/estate/ autunno/inverno di implies some usual activity; in is used for a speciﬁc time reference nell’inverno del 1944 nel 1948 nel 21◦ secolo ai nostri giorni/tempi ai tempi dei Cesari lo farò fra dieci giorni lo farò in/entro dieci giorni 357 26 English prepositions I did it in ten days (i.e. it took me ten days) in this weather in the long run in the short/mid/long term 26.20.3 l’ho fatto in dieci giorni con questo tempo a lungo andare a breve/medio/lungo termine In other expressions the best in the world in a happy/sad voice in a whisper in a strange way (in) my way in the light of these revelations in that case in peace/silence to be in mourning in writing in my opinion in the opinion of the judges dressed in white/black/red dressed in mourning to pay in cash or in kind in power in the ﬁnals/semiﬁnals in the present situation in parentheses four in number in all sincerity il migliore del mondo con voce felice/triste sotto voce/a voce bassa in modo strano a modo mio alla luce di queste rivelazioni in questo caso in pace/silenzio essere in lutto per iscritto secondo me/a mio parere/a parer mio (R3) secondo i giudici vestito di bianco/nero/rosso vestito a lutto pagare in contanti o in natura al potere in ﬁnale/semiﬁnale allo stato attuale delle cose tra parentesi quattro di numero con tutta sincerità 26.21 inside inside the room inside two months dentro la/nella stanza nel giro di due mesi/entro due mesi 26.22 instead of instead of ﬂowers he acted instead of his son 358 invece/al posto dei ﬁori ha fatto le veci di suo ﬁglio (R3) 26.26 on 26.23 into to fall into sb’s hands to translate into Spanish to drive into a tree cadere nelle/tra le mani di qu tradurre in spagnolo andare (con la macchina) contro un albero 26.24 of some of them all of them the ﬁve of us a friend of mine the city of Milan a house (made) of wood of late of old of his own accord alcuni di loro tutti (loro) noi cinque un mio amico la città di Milano una casa di legno ultimamente anticamente di sua spontanea volontà 26.25 off to get off the train/tram/ bus/plane she fell off a ladder off shore off Naples off the coast of Calabria offside scendere dal treno/tram/ dall’autobus/l’aereo è caduta da una scala al largo al largo di Napoli al largo della Calabria (in) fuorigioco 26.26 on 26.26.1 Expressing place the book is on the table the picture is hanging on the wall the cat is sitting on the wall on the ceiling on the stage (of a play etc.) on the stage (of a performer) to travel on the river (i.e. by boat) il libro è sul/sopra il tavolo il quadro è appeso al muro/alla parete il gatto è seduto sul muro sul sofﬁtto sul palcoscenico/sulla scena in scena viaggiare sul ﬁume 359 26 English prepositions to have a picnic on the river (i.e. beside it) a house on the river the room looks on to the courtyard on top of on the left/right on board on the train to travel on the train/on a bike on that train/bike (i.e. on a particular one) on the second ﬂoor on the stairs on the ground on the footpath/pavement on this side on the other side on all sides on page 50 on the front page (of a newspaper) on his face on the mouth 26.26.2 in cima di a sinistra/destra a bordo (di) sul treno viaggiare in treno/bicicletta su quel treno/quella bicicletta al secondo piano sulle scale/per le scale per terra/a terra sul marciapiede da questa parte dall’altra parte da tutte le parti a pagina 50 in prima pagina in faccia sulla bocca il 25 aprile domenica la domenica in un freddo giorno d’inverno nei giorni feriali/lavorativi il weekend/il ﬁne settimana in questa importante occasione al suo arrivo (pagamento) alla consegna In other expressions on the telephone on radio/television but the cat is sitting on the television (set) on Channel 5 360 una casa sul ﬁume la stanza dà sul cortile Expressing time on 25 April on Sunday on Sundays on a cold winter’s day on weekdays on (GB: at) the weekend(s) on this important occasion on his arrival (payment) on delivery 26.26.3 fare un picnic vicino al ﬁume al telefono alla radio/televisione but il gatto è seduto sul televisore su Canale 5 26.28 on air the song has come out on c d on the Internet on the Web we arrived on foot/horseback to go on a pilgrimage they are on the way (of people) they are on the way (of things) on average on one condition to go on tour to be on leave tell him on my behalf he’s on our side shares quoted on the (Milan) Stock Exchange on the agenda congratulations on outside in onda la canzone è uscita su cd su Internet sul Web [wεb] siamo arrivati a piedi/cavallo andare in pellegrinaggio sono in viaggio/per strada stanno arrivando in media a una condizione andare in tournée essere in congedo/permesso/ ferie digli da parte mia lui è dalla nostra parte azioni quotate in borsa/sulla piazza (di Milano) all’ordine del giorno mi congratulo (con te) per 26.27 out of she went out of the room he is out of town she is out of the ofﬁce eight out of ten out of action out of work out of breath out of danger out of the way out of the way! out of meaning through = per out of kindness/love/envy out of meaning without = senza out of petrol/sugar è uscita dalla stanza è fuori città/sede è fuori ufﬁcio/sede otto su dieci fuori servizio senza lavoro, disoccupato senza ﬁato, trafelato (R2–3) fuori pericolo fuori mano, lontano levati dai piedi! via! per gentilezza/amore/invidia senza benzina/zucchero 26.28 outside the house is outside Rome the campsite is outside Lazio outside ofﬁce hours la casa è fuori Roma il campeggio è fuori del Lazio al di fuori dell’orario d’ufﬁcio 361 26 English prepositions 26.29 over clouds hung over the city he jumped over the table over the sea children over three years old over a year ago over dinner over the years le nuvole incombevano sulla/sopra la città ha saltato/scavalcato la tavola al di là del mare/oltremare bambini sopra i tre anni/superiori ai tre anni (R3) più di un anno fa a cena/a tavola negli anni 26.30 past just past the shop he ran past the shop she is past seventy ﬁve past two poco dopo il negozio ha passato il negozio correndo ha più di settant’anni le due e cinque 26.31 round we sat round the table we walked round the park (round the perimeter) we walked round the park (in the park) he travelled round Italy round the corner ci siamo seduti intorno alla tavola abbiamo fatto il giro del parco abbiamo fatto un giro nel parco ha viaggiato in Italia/ha girato l’Italia dietro l’angolo 26.32 through she walked through the wood/forest/countryside to look through a window canceled through illness I went through a red light all through her life 362 ha attraversato il bosco/la foresta/la campagna a piedi guardare da una ﬁnestra cancellato per malattia sono passato col rosso (per) tutta la vita 26.34 towards 26.33 to 26.33.1 Expressing direction to go to school andare a scuola (both in the sense of “to attend school” and “to be travelling to the school building”) The following expressions have the same two types of meaning: to go to church andare in chiesa to go to University andare all’Università to go to the bank andare in banca to go to work to go to town to go to the ofﬁce to go to the doctor(’s) to go to bed to go to Heaven to go to Hell to go to the moon/Mars to go to Brindisi to go to Italy andare andare andare andare andare andare andare andare andare andare al lavoro in città/paese/centro in ufﬁcio dal dottore a letto/coricarsi (R3) in Paradiso/salire in cielo all’Inferno sulla luna/su Marte a Brindisi in Italia For the Italian regions, the same rules apply as for the English preposition in. Thus: andare in Toscana, nelle Marche, in Veneto, in Piemonte, nel/in Lazio to fall to the ground the bird fell to the ground he fainted and fell to the ground twenty to six 26.33.2 cadere in/per terra l’uccello è caduto per/a terra è svenuto ed è caduto per/a terra le sei meno venti/venti alle sei (R1) In other expressions to my surprise/delight to (the best of) my knowledge married to sb I told him to his face to my mind con mia sorpresa/gioia per quel che ne so io/che sappia io sposato con qu gliel’ho detto in faccia a mio parere 26.34 towards your kindness towards me your duty towards your parents la tua gentilezza con me il tuo dovere verso i (tuoi) genitori 363 26 English prepositions 26.35 under under the table children under three years old under an hour under age under consideration born under the sign of Pisces sotto il tavolo bambini sotto i tre anni (R1–2)/ inferiori ai tre anni (R3) meno di un’ora minorenne in esame nato sotto il segno dei Pesci 26.36 until, till until now until then until 2002 until the end of the month until seven o’clock until after his death I waited until seven o’clock he won’t know until Saturday ﬁno ad ora/ﬁnora ﬁno ad allora ﬁno al 2002 ﬁno alla ﬁne del mese ﬁno alle sette ﬁno a dopo la sua morte ho aspettato ﬁno alle sette non lo saprà prima di sabato/lo saprà solo sabato 26.37 up we climbed up the hill he walked up the street siamo saliti sulla collina ha camminato lungo la strada 26.38 with come with me I am angry with you with all my heart he lives with his mother he lives with his girlfriend she wept with joy covered with dust together with 364 vieni con me sono arrabbiato con te con tutto il cuore vive con sua madre convive con la (sua) ragazza pianse di gioia/per la (grande) gioia coperto di polvere insieme con (R2–3)/a (R1–2) 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives In sections 27.1 to 27.6, each verb is listed only once, under the preposition with which it is most commonly used. The existence of alternative usages is signaled by, e.g., (al s o di), but the verb is not listed under the alternative prepositions. The index may be consulted to locate verbs if necessary. Verbs which permit different constructions that have different meanings are listed in section 27.7. 27.1 Verbs with no preposition before an inﬁnitive 27.1.1 Inﬁnitive as subject of the verb In the sentence Occorre scrivere, the inﬁnitive scrivere is the subject of occorre, just as in the sentence Occorre una lettera, the noun una lettera is the subject of the verb. When an inﬁnitive is the subject of a verb, there is usually no intervening preposition. A number of these verbs are sometimes used with di, but this usage should not be imitated by the student. affascinare (R2–3) appassionare (R2–3) bastare a qu bisognare a qu convenere a qu le conviene aspettare costare a qu to fascinate to please greatly to be enough to be necessary to be opportune she should wait to cost R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 365 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives dare fastidio a qu gli dà fastidio sentire discorsi retorici dispiacare a qu le dispiace attendere fuori? entusiasmare essere + noun e.g. è un peccato/la cosa più facile del mondo essere + adj è necessario/possibile/vietato importare a qu esp non importa infastidire (R2–3) interessare a qu occorrere a qu piacere a qu rallegrare qu (R3) rendere + adj a qu la tua lettera (le) rende impossibile aiutarti riuscire only in the R2–3 construction riuscire a + qu + adj , e.g.: gli riesce difﬁcile ﬁdarsi di lei rincrescere a qu (R2–3) le rincresce non poterti aiutare ripugnare (R3) seccare a qu gli secca aspettare i ritardatari servire a qu spettare a qu le spetta badare al bambino toccare a qu gli tocca pagare per tutti a chi tocca (pagare)? valere la pena (al s o di) val la pena (di) chiedere il prezzo venire + adj a qu le viene spontaneo pensare a lui al tramonto 366 to give annoyance it annoys him to hear rhetorical speeches to give displeasure do you mind waiting outside? to give enthusiasm to be (a pity/the easiest thing in the world, etc.) to be (necessary/possible/ forbidden, etc.) to be of importance it isn’t important to give annoyance to interest to be necessary to give pleasure to give joy to make it impossible for sb to do sth your letter makes it impossible (for her) to help you it is difﬁcult for him to trust her to give sorrow she is sorry she can’t help to be repugnant to give annoyance it annoys him to wait for late-comers to be of use to be the duty of it is up to her to look after the baby to fall to he has to pay for everyone whose turn is it (to pay)? to be worthwhile it is worth asking the price she ﬁnds herself thinking of him at sunset 27.1 27.1.2 Verbs with no preposition before an inﬁnitive Inﬁnitive as object of the verb When the inﬁnitive has the same function as a direct object, there is no preposition. Compare: Preferisco camminare. I prefer to walk. Preferisco una passeggiata. I prefer a stroll. A number of these verbs used to take di in older forms of Italian but this is restricted to higher registers today and often sounds old-fashioned. adorare (R2–3) amare (R2–3) bramare (R3) desiderare dovere gradire (R2–3) osare (R2–3) potere preferire sapere sembrare Matteo sembra dormire Tommaso sembra aver capito essere solito (R3) usare (R3) uso andare a letto presto oggi usa uscire in compagnia volere 27.1.3 to adore doing sth to love to do sth to long to do sth to desire to do sth to have to do sth to be pleased to to dare to do sth to be able to do sth to prefer to do sth to know how to do sth to seem Matteo seems to be sleeping Tommaso seems to have understood to be accustomed to doing sth to be accustomed to doing sth I usually go to bed early today one goes out in company to want to do sth Verbs of perception sento (qu) cantare sento Tommaso cantare or sento cantare Tommaso or sento Tommaso a cantare (R1, South) sento cantare la canzone da/a Tommaso la sento cantare da/a lui gli sento cantare la canzone gliela sento cantare sento Tommaso cantare la canzone lo sento cantarla mi fa piacere sentirgliela cantare I hear (sb) singing I hear Tommaso singing I hear Tommaso sing the song or I hear the sung being sung by/to Tommaso I hear him singing it I hear him singing the song I hear him singing it I hear Tommaso singing the song I hear him singing it I am pleased to hear him sing it 367 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives vedo andare via Giuseppe vedo abbattere gli alberi vedo Giuseppe pentirsi delle sue parole 27.1.4 Causative construction faccio cantare Tommaso lo faccio cantare faccio cantare la canzone la faccio cantare faccio cantare la canzone da/a Tommaso la faccio cantare da/a lui gliela faccio cantare faccio pentire Tommaso delle sue parole 27.2 I see Giuseppe go away I see the trees (being) felled I see Giuseppe regret his words I make Tommaso sing I make him sing I have the song sung I have it sung I make Tommaso sing the song or I get the song sung by Tommaso I get it sung by him I make him sing it I make Tommaso regret his words di before an inﬁnitive With di, the inﬁnitive is in the present if the action occurs at the same time or in the future with respect to the main verb; it is in the past if the action occurred prior to the main verb. (See also “Sequence of tenses,” chapter 29). E.g.: Dice di essere d’accordo. She says she agrees. Dice di essere stata d’accordo ﬁn dall’inizio. She says she has agreed from the start. 27.2.1 (a) (b) 368 The subject of certain “impersonal” verbs (cf. section 4.4) These verbs often take a che clause + subjunctive, which is the subject of the verb. They may also take an inﬁnitive clause with di when the logical subject of the two verbs is the same (see section 24.10 for this use with impersonal subjects), e.g.: Gli sembra di aver capito (= Sembra che lui abbia capito) It seems to him to have understood, i.e. He thinks he has understood. Verbs of seeming parere risultare sembrare Verbs of happening accadere capitare succedere to appear to turn out to seem to occur to happen by chance to happen 27.2 di before an inﬁnitive (c) essere dato di (R3): non mi fu dato di incontrarla venire fatto di (R3): mi venne fatto di trovare il documento cruciale Certain verbs used idiomatically andare (R1–2) non gli va di uscire stasera passare per la mente/testa (R1–2) non le è passato per la mente di chiedere scusa 27.2.2 I didn’t happen to meet her I happened to ﬁnd the crucial letter to feel like doing sth he doesn’t feel like going out tonight to enter one’s head it didn’t enter her head to apologize Verbs of saying, promising, agreeing These verbs take di + inﬁnitive when the subjects of the two verbs are the same, and a che clause when they are different. Many of these verbs may also take a che clause with the same subjects to add weight to what is said, e.g.: Gli ho promesso di farlo or Gli ho promesso che lo avrei fatto. I promised him I would do it. Gli ho promesso che il mio amico l’avrebbe fatto. I promised him my friend would do it. accennare di accettare di acconsentire di affermare di aggiungere di ammettere di annunciare di asserire di confessare di consentire di (al s o a) decidere di dichiarare di dire di esclamare di giurare di lagnarsi di lamentarsi di meritare di negare di promettere di raccontare di rischiare di rispondere di to hint that to accept to (do sth) to agree to (do sth) to state that to add that to admit that to announce that to assert that to confess that to agree to (do sth) to decide to (do sth) to declare that to say that to exclaim that to swear that to complain that to complain that to deserve to (do sth) to deny that to promise to (do sth) to relate that to risk (doing sth) to reply that 369 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives scrivere di stabilire di svelare di (R2–3) 27.2.3 (a) (b) (c) 27.2.4 (a) (b) 370 to write that to decide to (do sth) to reveal that Verbs of mental states Verbs of remembering and forgetting dimenticar(si) di to forget to (do sth) scordarsi di to forget to (do sth) ricordar(si) di to remember to (do sth) Verbs of noticing and realizing accorgersi di to notice that realizzare di (R1–2) to realize that rendersi conto di to realize that Verbs of knowing, pretending far ﬁnta di to pretend that ignorare di (R2–3) not to know that sapere di to know that scoprire di to discover that Verbs of feeling, opinion, or will Verbs of believing, doubting, hoping, suspecting aspettarsi di to expect to (do sth) contare di to count on (doing sth) credere di to believe that dubitare di to doubt that immaginare di to imagine that pensare di to think that/to think about (doing sth) ritenere di to claim that sognare di to dream of (doing sth) sospettare di to suspect that sperare di to hope to (do sth) Verbs of feeling, emotion accontentarsi di to be happy with (doing sth) aver paura di to be afraid to (do sth) aver piacere di to be pleased to (do sth) aver vergogna di to be ashamed to (do sth) offendersi di to be offended that pentirsi di to regret (doing sth) non poterne più di (R1–2) not to be able to (do sth) any more preoccuparsi di to take care to (do sth) rallegrarsi di (R2–3) to take pleasure in (doing sth) rammaricarsi di to regret (doing sth) stupirsi di to be amazed that temere di to be afraid that vergognarsi di to be ashamed to (do sth) 27.2 di before an inﬁnitive (c) Verbs of wanting, planning, trying ardire di (R3) aspettare di augurarsi di cercare di godere di (al s o a, nel) mettersi in testa di (R1–2) minacciare di parlare di progettare di proporre di riservarsi di (R3) risolvere di (R3) scegliere di sentirsela di tentare di vedere di 27.2.5 (a) (b) 27.2.6 to dare to (do sth) to wait to (do sth) to hope that to try to (do sth) to enjoy (doing sth) to get it into one’s head to (do sth) to threaten to (do sth) to talk about (doing sth in the future) to plan on (doing sth) to propose (doing sth) to reserve the right to (do sth) to resolve to (do sth) to choose to (do sth) to feel like (doing sth) to try to (do sth) to see to it that (sth happens) Other verbs Verbs of ceasing cessare di ﬁnire di (non) mancare di smettere di terminare di evitare di lasciare di (R3) riﬁutar(si) di stancarsi di trascurare di Other verbs aver bisogno di essere in grado di permettersi di sforzarsi di to cease (doing sth) to ﬁnish (doing sth) not to fail to (do sth) to stop or give up (doing sth) to stop (doing sth) to avoid (doing sth) to leave off (doing sth) to refuse to (do sth) to get tired of (doing sth) to neglect to (do sth) to need to (do sth) to be able to (do sth) to take the liberty of (doing sth) to make an effort to (do sth) Verb + direct object + di + inﬁnitive With all these verbs, the subject of the inﬁnitive is the direct object of the main verb. If this direct object is “impersonal,” it is omitted (cf. section 24.10). Li ho ringraziati di essere venuti. I thanked them for coming. Si prega di non fumare. Please do not smoke (lit. One asks [people] not to smoke). 371 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives (a) (b) 27.2.7 (a) Verbs of telling or asking sb to do sth The di + inﬁnitive may be replaced in R2–3 by a che clause with the verb in the subjunctive, e.g.: Ho pregato gli ospiti di entrare. Ho pregato gli ospiti che entrassero. I asked the guests to come in. avvertire qu di (al s o a) implorare qu di (R2–3) incaricare qu di pregare qu di scongiurare qu di (al s o a) supplicare qu di (al s o a) Verbs of accusing, thanking accusare qu di rimproverare qu di (al s o per) ringraziare qu di (al s o per) to accuse sb of (doing sth) to reprove sb for (doing sth) to thank sb for (doing sth) Verb + indirect object + di + inﬁnitive With all these verbs, the subject of the inﬁnitive is the indirect object of the main verb. If this indirect object is “impersonal,” it is omitted (cf. section 24.10). The di + inﬁnitive may be replaced in R2–3 by a che clause with the verb in the subjunctive, e.g.: Ho chiesto all’ispettore di entrare. Ho chiesto all’ispettore che entrasse. I asked the inspector to come in. note Ho chiesto che entrasse l’ispettore. I asked (someone else) for the inspector to come in, i.e. I asked for the inspector to be shown in. Verbs of telling or asking sb to do sth Note that with verbs of telling, the subject of the inﬁnitive is understood to be the same as that of the main verb when the inﬁnitive is in the past. Compare: Gli ho detto di vedere quali alternative ci fossero. I told him to see what alternatives there were. Gli ho detto di non aver mai visto l’accusato (R2–3). I told him that I had never seen the accused. accennare a qu di (R3) chiedere a qu di comandare a qu di consigliare a qu di dire a qu di domandare a qu di impedire a qu di imporre a qu di ordinare a qu di proporre a qu di raccomandare a qu di 372 to warn sb to (do sth) to implore sb to (do sth) to entrust sb to (do sth) to beg sb to (do sth) to beg sb to (do sth) to beg sb to (do sth) to beckon to sb to (do sth) to ask sb to (do sth) to order sb to (do sth) to advise sb to (do sth) to tell sb to (do sth) to ask sb to (do sth) to prevent sb from (doing sth) to force sb to (do sth) to order sb to (do sth) to suggest to sb that they (do sth) to recommend to sb to (do sth) 27.2 di before an inﬁnitive (b) 27.2.8 Verbs of allowing or forbidding concedere a qu di (R2–3) to concede permission to sb/allow sb to (do sth) permettere a qu di to permit sb to (do sth) proibire a qu di to forbid sb to (do sth) vietare a qu di to forbid sb to (do sth) le hanno vietato di they have forbidden her to go out after uscire dopo cena dinner le è stato vietato di she has been prohibited from going uscire dopo cena out after dinner but (è) vietato fumare (cf. no smoking section 27.1.1) Adjectives + di + inﬁnitive A large number of adjectives in Italian take di before a following inﬁnitive. They refer to mood or mental state, or to ability. Some of these adjectives may take per to express cause. In many cases a che clause may substitute for the di + inﬁnitive clause. ansioso di capace di certo di colpevole di compiaciuto di consapevole di contento di curioso di degno di disperato di (al s o per) dispiaciuto di (al s o per) felice di ﬁero di fortunato di (al s o a) grato di (al s o per) impaziente incapace di incaricato di irritato di libero di lieto di onorato di responsabile di riconoscente di (al s o per) sicuro di soddisfatto di (al s o per) sorpreso di anxious to (do sth) able to (do sth), capable of (doing sth) sure to (do sth) guilty of (doing sth) pleased to (do sth) aware of (doing sth) happy to (do sth) curious to (do sth) worthy of (doing sth) desperate to (do sth) sorry to (do sth) happy to (do sth) proud to (do sth/of doing sth) lucky to (do sth) grateful to (do sth) impatient to (do sth) incapable of (doing sth) charged with (doing sth) irritated at (doing sth) free to (do sth) happy to (do sth) honored to (do sth) responsible for (doing sth) grateful to (do sth) sure to (do sth) satisﬁed at (doing sth) surprised to (do sth) 373 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives tired from (doing sth) sick and tired of (doing sth) stanco di stufo di 27.3 a before an inﬁnitive In keeping with the original meanings of a (see section 25.1.1), verbs and adjectives that take a before an inﬁnitive often express some kind of movement, either physical or metaphorical, or a state or mental attitude. With a, the inﬁnitive is always in the present tense, and is understood as referring to the same time as the main verb or to a subsequent moment in time. 27.3.1 Verbs that refer to the beginning, continuing, or ending of an action  attaccare a    cominciare a (al s o col)    incominciare a to start (to do sth/doing sth) mettersi a     ricominciare a   riprendere a scoppiare a (usu piangere/ridere) continuare a persistere a (R2–3) seguitare a 27.3.2   to go on (doing sth)  Verbs that express movement (literal or ﬁgurative) affrettarsi a andare a arrivare a (ﬁg) buttarsi a (ﬁg) correre a fermarsi a giungere a (ﬁg) passare a precipitarsi a salire a scendere a tornare a venire a voltarsi a 374 to burst out (laughing, crying) to hurry to (do sth) to go to (do sth) to get to the point of (doing sth) to throw oneself into (doing sth) to run to (do sth) to stop to (do sth) to reach the point of (doing sth) to pass (by) to (do sth) to rush to (do sth) to go up to (do sth) to go down to (do sth) to go back to (doing sth) to come to do sth to turn (round) to do sth 27.3 a before an inﬁnitive 27.3.3 Verbs that express a mental attitude or disposition (e.g. state, tendency, or will) abbandonarsi a abituarsi a accingersi a (R2–3) adattarsi a allenarsi a apprestarsi a (R2–3) attardarsi a (R2–3) concentrarsi a contribuire a decidersi a divertirsi a esitare a (al s o nel [R3]) essere tenuto a far bene/male/meglio a fare presto a fare in tempo a farcela a (R1–2) faticare a imparare a impegnarsi a (al s o di) insistere a (al s o nel) limitarsi a mirare a prepararsi a prestarsi a (R2–3) provare a rassegnarsi a rinunciare a riuscire a sbrigarsi a (R1–2) stentare a tendere a 27.3.4 to give oneself to (doing sth) to get used to (doing sth) to prepare to (do sth) to adapt oneself to (doing sth) to train to (do sth) to prepare to (do sth) to linger to (do sth) to concentrate on (doing sth) to contribute to (doing sth) to make up one’s mind to (do sth) to enjoy onself (doing sth) to hesitate to (do sth) to be required to (do sth) to do well/badly/better to (do sth) to hurry to (do sth), to do sth easily to be in time to (do sth) to manage to (do sth) to have difﬁculty in (doing sth) to learn to (do sth) to commit oneself to (doing sth) to insist on (doing sth) to limit oneself to (doing sth) to aim to (do sth) to get ready to (do sth) to offer to (do sth) to try (doing sth) to resign oneself to (doing sth) to renounce (doing sth) to manage to (do sth) to hurry to (do sth) to have difﬁculty in (doing sth) to tend to (do sth) Verbs that express being or staying essere a sono tutti a dormire restare a rimanere a stare a (R1–2, cf. section 20.2) trovarsi a to be in the process of (doing sth) they are all sleeping to stay (doing sth) to stay (doing sth) to be (doing sth) to ﬁnd oneself (doing sth) 375 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives 27.3.5 Verb + direct object + a + inﬁnitive These verbs express helping, encouraging, or inﬂuencing a person (or, in some cases, thing) to do something. abituare qu a aiutare qu a autorizzare qu a chiamare qu a condannare qu a condurre qu a convincere qu a costringere qu a esortare qu a incitare qu a incoraggiare qu a indurre qu a invitare qu a mandare a mandare a chiamare qu mandare a dire a qu obbligare qu a persuadere qu a portare qu a predisporre qu a programmare qc a sﬁdare qu a spingere qu a spronare qu a (R2–3) 27.3.6 to send for sb to send word to sb to force sb to (do sth) to persuade sb to (do sth) to take sb to (do sth) to predispose sb to (do sth) to program sth to (do sth) to challenge sb to (do sth) to drive sb to (do sth) to urge sb to (do sth) Verb + indirect object + a + inﬁnitive insegnare a qu a 27.3.7 to accustom sb to (doing sth) to help sb (to) (do sth) to authorise sb to (do sth) to call sb to (do sth) to condemn sb (to do/doing sth) to lead sb to (do sth) to persuade sb to (do sth) to force sb to (do sth) to exhort sb to (do sth) to incite sb to (do sth) to encourage sb to (do sth) to induce sb to (do sth) to invite sb to (do sth) to teach sb to (do sth) Adjectives + a and inﬁnitive Most Italian adjectives take a before an inﬁnitive. abile a (al s o nel) abituato a adatto a (al s o per) addetto a affaccendato (al s o nel) attento a (al s o nel) atto a (R2–3) buono a (R1–2, al s o per, da) il cuoco è buono a fare la pasta la pasta è buona per sfamare i ragazzi 376 good at (doing sth) accustomed to (doing sth) useful for (doing sth) responsible for (doing sth) busy (doing sth) careful to (do sth) suitable for (doing sth) the cook is good at making pasta pasta is good for feeding young people 27.3 a before an inﬁnitive questa pasta è buona da this pasta is good to eat mangiare bravo a (al s o nel) good at (doing sth) costretto a obliged to (do sth) deciso a (al s o nel) determined on (doing sth) destinato a destined to (do sth) disponibile a available to (do sth) disposto a prepared to (do sth) efﬁcace a (al s o nel, per) effective at (doing sth) esitante a (al s o nel) hesitant in (doing sth) forte a (R1–2, al s o nel) strong in (doing sth) idoneo a suitable for (doing sth) incline a inclined to (do sth) intento a intent on (doing sth) interessato a interested in (doing sth) necessario a (al s o per) necessary for (doing sth) occupato a (al s o nel) busy (doing sth) preparato a (al s o per) prepared for (doing sth) pronto a (al s o da, per) ready to (do sth) prossimo a close to (doing sth) recalcitrante a (R2–3) recalcitrant to (do sth) riluttante a (R2–3, al s o nel) reluctant to (do sth) sufﬁciente a (al s o da, per) sufﬁcient for (doing sth) valido a (al s o per) valid for (doing sth) veloce a (al s o nel) quick at (doing sth) note : With the following adjectives, the verb in the inﬁnitive has a passive meaning. In higher registers the adjectives take a (with the inﬁnitive often reﬂexive), but in R1–2 the adjectives usually take da, e.g.: La sua voce era bella a udirsi/udire (R2–3). La sua voce era bella da udire (R1–2). Her voice was beautiful to hear. bello beautiful commovente moving difﬁcile difﬁcult facile easy impossibile impossible orribile horrible orribile a dirsi (R2–3) horribile dictu raro rare strano strange strano a dirsi strange to say terribile terrible 27.3.8 a + inﬁnitive in place of a che clause This usage occurs with avere, lasciare, trovare, sorprendere. Cf. verbs of perception, section 27.1.3. 377 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives Elena ha trovato Tommaso a suonare il pianoforte. = Elena ha trovato Tommaso che suonava il pianoforte. Elena found Tommaso playing the piano. It is also found in “cleft sentences” (see section 18.2). Note where the past tense is expressed: Sono stati loro a dirmelo. = Sono loro che me l’hanno detto. It was they who told me. It also occurs with il primo, ultimo, solo, unico, and with all ordinal numbers (cf. section 30.4), e.g.: Tu sarai la prima/seconda/ultima/sola/unica a saperlo. = Tu sarai la prima/seconda/ultima/sola/unica che lo saprà. You will be the ﬁrst/second/last/only one to know. It also occurs with all cardinal numbers except one and generic quantiﬁers in the expression essere (in) due (etc.) a, e.g.: Sono in quattro/mille/molti/pochi a saperlo. = Sono quattro/mille/molti/pochi a saperlo che lo sanno. There are four/a thousand/many/few people who know it. 27.4 da before an inﬁnitive Da before an inﬁnitive can follow a verb, adjective, or noun. This construction expresses a consequence or an obligation. 27.4.1 After verbs Da occurs with verbs of being and expresses compulsion. The da phrase may be the subject of the verb: non c’è da vergognarsi/ there’s nothing to be ashamed meravigliarsi of/surprised at viene da chiedersi se lei one begins to wonder if she is sta/stia dicendo la verità telling the truth mi veniva da ridere I felt like laughing or it may be the predicate of the verb: il ﬁlm è da vedere/vedersi the ﬁlm is to be seen (R2–3) restano/rimangono da three things remain to be done fare tre cose mi restano/rimangono da I still have three things to do fare tre cose For similar constructions with an indirect object, see section 32.1.1. With several common verbs, da plus inﬁnitive is used in such a way that a generic noun may be understood. This noun must sometimes be added to the English equivalent expression: ho da fare I have work/things to do, I am busy ci ha dato da pensare she gave us something to think about 378 27.5 per before an inﬁnitive sta facendo da mangiare che c’è da mangiare/bere? 27.4.2 he’s cooking what is there to eat/drink? After adjectives or adverbs Da normally combines with cosı̀, sı̀ (R3), tale, talmente, tanto, abbastanza. These words can sometimes be understood. la proposta fu cosı̀/tanto intelligente da convincere tutti ha agito in maniera strana, sı̀ da destare sospetti (R3) c’era una folla (tale) da farti star male è talmente evidente da non ammettere dubbi era abbastanza grande da/per capire certe cose faceva un caldo da morire 27.4.3 the proposal was so intelligent as to convince everyone he acted strangely, such as to arouse suspicion there was a crowd such as would make you feel unwell it was so obvious as not to allow doubts he was big enough to understand certain things it was terribly hot After nouns The expression da + inﬁnitive may also be used as an adjective, immediately after a noun, e.g.: è un ﬁlm da vedere/vedersi (R2–3) it’s a ﬁlm to see/be seen 27.5 per before an inﬁnitive Per before an inﬁnitive can follow a verb, adjective or noun. It expresses purpose or cause. 27.5.1 After verbs Per before an inﬁnitive may occur after any verb, to express the purpose of the main verb. It corresponds to English to, in order to: lavora per mantenere la she works to support her family famiglia With verbs of movement which take a before an inﬁnitive, a phrase with a implies that the two actions both took place, but a phrase with per is ambiguous as to whether the aim was realized or not. A change of auxiliary is also required with certain verbs (cf. section 22.4): sono corso a vederla I ran and saw her ho corso per vederla I ran to see her With a past inﬁnitive, per expresses cause, and corresponds to English because or through: 379 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives si è ammalato per aver inalato gas tossici si è lamentato per/di non aver ricevuto l’invito 27.5.2 he fell ill through inhaling toxic gasses he complained because he had not received the invitation After adjectives or adverbs Per combines with troppo: ho mangiato troppo per poter dormire subito lui è troppo giovane per capire 27.5.3 I’ve eaten too much to go to sleep immediately he is too young to understand After nouns Per is often equivalent to da (see section 25.12). However, stock phrases with da cannot be modiﬁed, whereas with per the verb can be modiﬁed as if in a normal sentence. una macchina da/per cucire una macchina per cucire con il ﬁlo d’oro una macchina per cucire lentamente 27.6 a sewing machine a machine for sewing with gold thread a machine for sewing slowly con, da, in + article before an inﬁnitive When con and in come before an inﬁnitive, they always combine with the deﬁnite article (masculine singular: il or lo); da also has this usage, with certain meanings. There are a few verbs that can only take one of these prepositions before an inﬁnitive, but in most cases these articulated prepositions are an alternative to other constructions, and are used in higher registers. For the use of the inﬁnitive with articulated prepositions to form subordinate clauses, see section 32.2.1. 27.6.1 con Con followed by an inﬁnitive may usually be replaced by a gerund, and tends to occur with the pair of verbs indicated below. It corresponds to English by + gerund. (in)cominciare col (al s o per) fare qc ﬁnire col (al s o per) fare qc 380 to begin by (doing sth) to end up by (doing sth) 27.6 con, da, in + article before an inﬁnitive 27.6.2 da In keeping with the original meanings of da (see section 25.5), verbs and adjectives that take da before an inﬁnitive often express some kind of distance, or beginning (i.e. moving away from something). Verbs astenersi dal desistere dal difﬁdare qu dal (al s o a) dissuadere qu dal guardarsi bene dal morire dal ridere scoraggiare qu dal trattenersi dal to abstain from (doing sth) to desist from (doing sth) to warn sb not to (do sth) to dissuade sth from (doing sth) to be careful not to (do sth) to die laughing to discourage sb from (doing sth) to stop oneself from (doing sth) Adjectives alieno dal often used in the negative, e.g.: non sono alieno dal consentire lontano dal sono ben lontano dal credere che lungi dal sono lungi dal pensare una cosa simile 27.6.3 I’m inclined to agree I certainly don’t believe that . . . I wouldn’t dream of thinking such a thing in Out of the three prepositions included here, this is the most commonly used in this construction. It corresponds to English in, at, on + gerund. The verbs, adjectives and nouns which take in express unity or skill or, rarely, state of mind: Verbs consistere nel essere nel esitare nel (al s o a) stare nel to consist of /lie in (doing sth) to lie in (doing sth) to hesitate (to do/in doing sth) to consist of /lie in (doing sth) Adjectives abile nel (al s o a) bravo nel (al s o a) concorde nel clever at (doing sth) good at (doing sth) in agreement in (doing sth) 381 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives consistente nel fare which consists in doing sth qc gentile nel kind in (doing sth) il primo/ultimo nel the ﬁrst/last to (do sth) (al s o a) Also the expressions: essere d’accordo to agree on doing sth nel fare qc essere maestro/ to be a maestro/specialist in doing sth specialista nel fare qc Nouns difﬁcoltà, fantasia, godimento, impassibilità, letizia, ritardo, sorpresa, etc., e.g.: Non ho avuto nessuna difﬁcoltà nel chiedergli di restituirmi le chiavi. I had no problem in asking him to give back the keys. 27.7 Prepositional constructions This section includes verbs followed by another verb, where different prepositions (or no preposition) are associated with different meanings of the main verb. accennare ammonire (R3) apprendere (R2–3) aspettare 382 mi accennava di avvicinarmi she was beckoning to me to come nearer non accennava a cambiare idea (R2–3) she was showing no signs of changing her mind ammonı̀ suo ﬁglio di non frequentare più quella casa he advised his son not to frequent that house any more ammonı̀ il suo amico a essere più pratico he exhorted his friend to be more practical ho appreso di essere stato proposto per il comitato I found out I had been nominated for the committee il bambino ha appreso a leggere e a scrivere the child has learned to read and write aspetta di vederlo! wait until you see him! aspetta a partire! 27.7 avere aver paura/ vergogna badare bastare cominciare compiacersi (R3) consentire Prepositional constructions don’t leave yet! mi aspetto di vedervi alla cena I expect to see you at the dinner ho da fare I’m busy (lit I have [things] to do) ho da dirti una cosa I must tell you something ho una cosa da dirti I have something to tell you ebbe a dire che si dimetteva (R3) (note : passato remoto only) he happened to say that he was resigning avevo paura/vergogna di chiedergli i soldi che mi deve I was afraid/ashamed to ask him for the money he owes me avevo paura/vergogna a chiedergli i soldi che mi deve I felt afraid/ashamed as I asked him for the money he owes me bada di ﬁnire in tempo make sure you ﬁnish on time bada a fare il tuo lavoro you just get on with your work per contattarmi, basta telefonare a questo numero to contact me, just phone this number è molto triste, e una cena fuori non basterà a rallegrarlo he is very sad and a dinner out won’t be enough to cheer him up ha cominciato a servire il primo piatto alle otto he began to serve/serving the ﬁrst course at eight ha cominciato col servire il primo piatto he began by serving the ﬁrst course si compiaceva a stuzzicarlo she enjoyed teasing him il ministro si è ﬁnalmente compiaciuto di riceverci the minister ﬁnally deigned to receive us questo gli consente di rimanere inattivo this allows him to remain inactive 383 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives convenire decidere determinare (R3) disporre (R3) fare ﬁnire insistere 384 il comitato ha consentito a rivedere il caso the committee agreed to review the case gli conviene tacere it is better for him to keep silent abbiamo convenuto di partire alle sette (R2–3) we agreed to leave at seven Chiara ha deciso di partire Chiara has decided to leave Chiara si è decisa a partire Chiara has made up her mind to leave ha determinato di perseverare he has resolved to persevere l’infarto ha determinato Giuseppe a cambiare vita the heart attack led Giuseppe to change his lifestyle mi sono determinato a confessare tutto I resolved to confess everything il comandante dispose di partire (R3) the commandant decided to leave ha disposto i genitori a sentire la brutta notizia (R3) he prepared his parents to hear the bad news si è disposta a partire she prepared to leave in the expression Come fare a . . . , e.g.: come fai a conoscerlo? (R1–2) how come you know him? fece per uscire, ma lei lo fermò con lo sguardo he made as if to leave, but she stopped him with a look alle otto ho ﬁnito di mangiare at eight I ﬁnished eating c’era troppa gente in casa, e sono ﬁnito a studiare in giardino there were too many people inside, and I ended up studying in the garden ﬁnirai per farlo arrabbiare / ﬁnirai col farlo arrabbiare you’ll end up (by) making him angry insisteva di non conoscere nessuno degli imputati (R2–3) he insisted (that) he knew none of the accused 27.7 intendere interessare lasciare mancare pensare persuadersi risolvere (R3) riuscire Prepositional constructions ha insistito a salutare tutti: c’è voluta un’ora he insisted on saying goodbye to everyone: it took an hour insisteva per incontrarmi appena possibile (R3) he insisted he should meet me as soon as possible ha institito nel dire che . . . he kept on saying that . . . intendevo di trovarmi tra persone amiche (R3) I understood that I was among friends intendevo parlare con un amico I intended to speak with a friend non mi interessa parlare del passato talking about the past doesn’t interest me sono interessato a lavorare con voi I’m interested in working with you l’ho interessato a scrivere per quella facenda (R3) I interested him in writing about that affair ho lasciato giocare i bambini tutta la mattina I let the children play all morning il tuo comportamento lascia a desiderare your behaviour leaves something to be desired ho mancato a non dirtelo (R2–3) I was wrong not to tell you ho mancato di dirtelo I forgot to tell you non pensa a sposarsi she is not thinking of/about marrying non pensa di sposarsi she doesn’t think she will marry si persuase di essere trascurato he became convinced that he was being ignored mi sono persuaso a comprarla I made up my mind to buy it ha risolto di raccontare tutto he resolved to tell everything si è risolto a raccontare tutto he came to the decision to tell everything non sono riuscito a ﬁnire il lavoro I couldn’t (manage to) ﬁnish the job 385 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives sbagliare servire stare tentare vedere venire 386 non mi è riuscito di ﬁnire il lavoro it wasn’t possible for me to ﬁnish the job ho sbagliato a seguire le tue indicazioni e i th e r I was wrong to follow your instructions (i.e. I shouldn’t have followed them) or I followed your instructions incorrectly ho sbagliato nel seguire le tue indicazioni I followed your instructions incorrectly non serve gridare there’s no point shouting questo bottone serve a chiudere il programma this button is for closing the program che stai a dire? (cf. section 20.2) what are you saying? non posso parlare adesso: sto per partire I can’t talk now: I am about to leave ho tentato di aprire il ﬁle, ma era corrotto I tried to open the ﬁle, but it was corrupt mi ha tentato a fermarmi un’altra settimana he tempted me to stay another week ho visto quell’uomo prendere soldi dall’imputato I saw that man taking money from the accused non ce lo vedo proprio, Matteo, a lavorare senza paga (R1) I really can’t see Matteo working for nothing vedrò di mandarti l’indirizzo in settimana I’ll make sure I send you the address within the week se compri tutto, ti viene a costare un occhio if you buy everything, it will cost you an arm and a leg mi viene da piangere I feel like crying 27.7 27.7.1 Prepositional constructions No preposition in Italian: preposition in English Verbs not listed above which take no preposition before a following noun but correspond to English verbs that do (cf. chapter 4): approfondire qc approvare qc/qu ascoltare qc/qu aspettare qc/qu calpestare qc cercare qc/qu chiedere qc (a qu) commentare qc compensare qc but compensare qu di/per qc disapprovare qc/qu domandare qc (a qu) guardare qc/qu but guardare a qc/qu (R2–3) incendiare qc operare qu pagare qc but pagare qu ho pagato questa giacca cinquanta euro or ho pagato cinquanta euro per questa giacca pregare Dio, la Madonna, i santi but pregare qu piangere qc/qu presiedere qc sbagliare qc soffrire qc (e.g. caldo, fame) but soffrire di una malattia sognare qc/qu tacere qc vegliare qu but vegliare su qc/qu votare qc/qu but votare per qc/qu (R1–2) to go deeply into sth to approve of sth/sb to listen to sth/sb to wait for sth/sb to trample on sth to look for sth/sb to ask (sb) for sth to comment on sth to compensate for sth to compensate sb for sth to disapprove of sth/sb to ask (sb) for sth to look at sth/sb to look to sth/sb to set ﬁre to sth to operate on sb to pay for sth (i.e. the thing bought), or to pay sth (e.g. an account) to pay sb I paid 50 euro for this jacket to pray to God, the Virgin, the saints to beg sb to weep for/over sth/sb to preside over sth to make a mistake about sth to suffer from sth (e.g. heat, hunger) to suffer from an illness to dream of sth/sb to keep silent about sth to keep vigil over sb (sick or dead) to keep watch over sth/sb to vote for sth/sb to vote for sth/sb 387 27 Prepositional constructions with verbs and adjectives 27.7.2 Preposition in Italian: no preposition in English Italian verbs which take a preposition before a following verb or noun but correspond to English verbs that do not: abusare di qc abusare di qu, (see section 2.2) accorgersi di qc/qu adempiere a qc (R2–3) al s o adempiere qc appropriarsi di qc assistere a qc chiedere qc a qu congratularsi con qu (di qc) contravvenire a qc (R2–3) disporre di qc/qu domandare qc a qu dubitare di qc/qu esercitarsi a fare qc fare bene a qc/qu fare male a qc/qu ﬁdarsi di qc/qu giocare a qc (sport/game) giovare a qc/qu inﬂuire su qc/qu but inﬂuenzare qu/qc rispondere a qc/qu servirsi di qc somigliare a qc/qu al s o assomigliare, rassomigliare telefonare a qu ubbidire a qc/qu volere bene a qu 27.7.3 to notice sth/sb to fulﬁl sth to appropriate sth to witness sth to ask sb for sth to congratulate sb (for/on sth) to contravene sth to have sth/sb at one’s disposal to ask sb for sth to doubt sth/sb to practice doing sth to beneﬁt sth/sb to hurt sth/sb to trust sth/sb to play sth to beneﬁt sth/sb to inﬂuence sth/sb to inﬂuence sth/sb to answer sth/sb to use sth to resemble sth/sb to telephone sb to obey sth/sb to love sb Some prepositions which do not correspond in Italian and English accontentarsi di qc chiedere di qu dipendere da qc/qu perdonare qc a qu ricordare qc a qu togliere qc a qu 388 to abuse sth to make do with sth to ask after sb to depend on sth/sb to forgive sb for sth to remind sb of sth to take sth from sb 28 Use of tenses The main functions of the tenses in Italian are listed here under two major types of meaning: (i) temporal, referring to time – past, present, future; (ii) modal, referring to the speaker’s attitude to what s/he is saying (command, opinion, politeness, etc.). The category of aspect, referring to how an action is viewed, relates only to certain tenses and will be discussed as necessary. 28.1 Present tense (faccio, vado) Temporal functions Any kind of p re se nt , including reference to a general state of affairs which includes the p re se nt , e.g.: Ti ascolto. I’m listening to you. Accetto con piacere. I accept with pleasure. Adesso so che fare. Now I know what to do. Oggi fa freddo. It’s cold today. Modal functions i nte nt i on in f uture , e.g.: Se mi scassi la macchina, ti picchio. If you smash my car, I’ll hit you. Mi fai un caffé? Will you make me a coffee? ab i l i ty in general present, e.g.: Parla tre lingue. She speaks three languages. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 389 28 Use of tenses Temporal functions Arrivo sempre alle cinque. I always arrive at ﬁve. Il Po è il ﬁume più lungo d’Italia. The Po is the longest river in Italy. Come dice Dante nel De Vulgari Eloquentia, . . . As Dante says in the De Vulgari Eloquentia, . . . F uture (R1–2), e.g.: Domani andiamo al lago. Tomorrow we’re going to the lake. L’anno prossimo ricorre il centenario della nascita dell’artista. Next year the artist’s centenary will be/is being celebrated. i m m e d i ate past (especially R1), e.g.: Arrivo proprio adesso: cos’è successo? I’ve arrived just now: what’s happened? past in narratives (“Historic Present”), e.g.: Ieri sera vado al cinema e chi vedo? Emilia! Last night I go to the movies and who do I see? Emilia! Ero fermo al semaforo, di colpo si avvicina uno, e fa “Dammi i soldi!” I was stopped at the trafﬁc lights, suddenly a man comes up, and he goes “Give me your money!” past continuing to p re se nt ( see section 25.5.2), e.g.: Vivo qui da due mesi. I’ve been living here for two months. 390 Modal functions Da questa ﬁnestra si vedono le montagne. From this window you can see the mountains. i m pe rat ive (see also section 28.2 and chapter 30), e.g.: Adesso tu torni a casa e mi riporti le chiavi, capito? Now you go back home and bring me the keys, is that clear? 28.2 Temporal functions past in minutes of meetings, e.g.: La riunione ha inizio alle 11.25. Il presidente dà il benvenuto ai nuovi componenti del comitato . . . The meeting opened at 11.25am. The Chair welcomed the new members of the commmitee . . . Future Modal functions past in curriculum vitae, e.g.: Maria Rossi studia all’università di Roma dove si laurea nel 2002 con una tesi su . . . Maria Rossi studied at the university of Rome where she graduated in 2002 with a thesis on . . . 28.2 Future tense (farò, andrò) Temporal functions f uture (but increasingly rare in R1), e.g.: Lo sapremo domani. We’ll ﬁnd out tomorrow. Modal functions i nte nt i on , e.g.: Domani verrò senz’altro. I’ll come tomorrow for sure. f uture in past (R3), e.g.: Conobbe un giovane deputato. Dieci anni dopo, egli diventerà Presidente del partito. He met a young member of parliament. Ten years later, he was to become President of the Party. i m pe rat ive (see also section 28.1 and chapter 30), e.g.: Lo farai quando te lo dico io. You’ll do it when I tell you. Non ucciderai (= non uccidere). Thou shalt not kill. sup p o s i t i on in the p re se nt , e.g.: A quest’ora sarà a casa. At this hour he must be at home. 391 28 Use of tenses 28.3 Future Perfect tense (avrò fatto, sarò andato) Temporal functions Anteriority in f uture , e.g.: Quando lo vedremo, avrò ﬁnito il lavoro. When we see him, I will have ﬁnished the job. Chiuderanno la sala dopo che tutti saranno usciti. They will lock the room after everyone has gone out. Modal functions sup p o s i t i on anterior to the p re se nt , e.g.: A quest’ora sarà già uscito di casa. At this hour he must have left the house already. 28.4 Present Conditional tense (farei, andrei) Modal functions p ol i te ne s s , e.g.: Vorrei due francobolli per l’Australia. I would like two stamps for Australia. Potresti prestarmi la penna? Could you lend me your pen? al le gat i on of p re se nt action (made by third party, the speaker is non-committal), e.g.: Il Presidente sarebbe pronto a dimettersi. The President is said to be ready to resign. hy p oth e s i s in p re se nt or f uture (see section 31.1), e.g.: Ti aiuterei volentieri se potessi, ma . . . I would gladly help you if I could, but . . . 392 28.6 Passato Prossimo and Passato Remoto 28.5 Conditional Perfect tense (avrei fatto, sarei andato) Temporal functions f uture in past , e.g.: Il dottore ha detto che sarebbe tornato domani. The doctor said he would come back tomorrow. Mi aveva promesso che sarebbe venuto ieri, ma non si è fatto vedere. He promised he would come yesterday, but he didn’t show himself. Modal functions al le gat i on of past action (made by third party, the speaker is non-committal), e.g.: Il Presidente avrebbe consultato i leader di tutti i partiti. The President is said to have consulted the leaders of all parties. hy p oth e s i s in past (see section 31.1), e.g.: Ti avrei mandato l’invito, ma ho perso il tuo indirizzo. I would have sent the invitation, but I lost your address. 28.6 Perfect tenses – Passato Prossimo and Passato Remoto (i) (ii) (iii) The Passato Prossimo (PP) and Passato Remoto (PR) are both Perfect tenses (see section 28.7). In general PR is being used less and less, especially in speech, and is being replaced by PP. The difference between these two tenses is complex and often subtle and cannot be explained by any single criterion. There are four parameters that may bear on the choice of tense. Regional differences In R1–2 speech, the two tenses are both in use in Central and Southern Italy, especially Tuscany. In the North, only PP is used (as the dialects have not used PR for some centuries); in the far South – Sicily, southern Calabria and southern Puglia – PR is in common use, though PP is gaining ground. Type of language use PR is used more in writing than in speech. In a novel, PR may be used for the narrative and PP for direct speech. Formality The more formal the situation, the more likely is the use of PR. Thus PR is widely used in R3 writing, and also in R2 but not if the writing is based on, or imitates, speech. In the spoken language, PR is generally used in the third person, to “tell the story,” while PP is used in the ﬁrst and second persons, for reference to the people involved in the conversation. 393 28 Use of tenses (iv) Distance in the past In general PR is used for events that are actually in the distant past or are felt as distant. In R3 writing, PR is used for actions considered as past events without any connection to the present, while PP is used for actions in a more recent time frame that includes the present. In central Italy, the two tenses may be used to express the “psychological” distance that the speaker feels from the events, e.g.: Feci un colloquio ma non ebbi il posto. I had an interview but I didn’t get the job. Ho fatto un colloquio e mi hanno assunto. I had an interview and they hired me. In the far South regions, PR was, until recent times, the only perfect tense in the dialects and so was used in Italian for all past actions, even in the very recent past. An oft-cited example is: Dormisti bene? (ﬁrst thing in the morning) Did you sleep well? This usage is receding. Switching between the tenses It is wrong to switch indiscriminately between the two perfect tenses. Whichever tense is chosen in a given situation must be maintained and should be changed only if there is some change in meaning, e.g.: Lo conobbi a un ricevimento nel ’68 e ieri, dopo tutti questi anni, l’ho rivisto per caso. I met him at a party back in 1968 and yesterday, after all these years, I saw him again by chance. 28.7 Imperfect and Perfect The term “Perfect” covers Passato Prossimo and Passato Remoto, since there is no difference between them in terms of their opposition to the Imperfect. The distinction between the Imperfetto and the two Perfect tenses is one of aspect, i.e. it concerns not the action in itself but how it is presented. Most actions or states can be referred to by either tense, depending on how the speaker views them or wishes to present them. Verb forms in English do not mark the distinction so clearly as in Italian, e.g. would do, used to do, was doing are imperfect, but did can be either perfect or imperfect. Compare the two meanings of was in the following: Chi ha mangiato il Panettone? – Sono stato io. Who ate the Panettone? – It was me. Chi suonava il pianoforte stamattina alle 10? – Ero io. Who was playing the piano this morning at 10? – It was me. The Perfect expresses actions or states as individual, closed events in the past, irrespective of how long they took. The Imperfect expresses actions or states that happened in the past at the same time as something else, 394 28.7 Imperfect and Perfect stated or implied in the text: it says simply that they were taking place at a certain moment, without regard to their beginning or end. Compare: La dominazione araba della Sicilia durò 250 anni, ﬁno alla conquista normanna. The Arab domination of Sicily lasted for 250 years, until the Norman conquest. In quell’istante ho visto una donna davanti a casa mia. Stava in piedi e cantava . . . In that instant I saw a woman outside my house. She was standing and singing . . . In telling a story, the Perfect says what happened next, in the foreground, and moves the story forward. The Imperfect sets the scene and the background, and then interrupts the narrative ﬂow to ‘pause’ the action for comment or descriptions, e.g.: C’era una volta un pezzo di legno. Un giorno Mastro Ciliegia cercò di tagliarlo, ma il pezzo di legno pianse e si lamentò. Cosı̀ lo regalò al suo amico Geppetto, che era molto povero e voleva farne un burattino. Quella sera anche lui cercò di tagliarlo . . . Once upon a time there was a piece of wood. One day Maestro Ciliegia tried to cut it but the piece of wood wept and complained. So he gave it to his friend Geppetto, who was very poor and wanted to make a puppet out of it. That evening he too tried to cut it . . . Two or more verbs in the Perfect usually refer to successive events. A verb in the Imperfect is usually understood as simultaneous to another verb, whether in the Imperfect or Perfect. Compare: Quando Matteo è entrato, Chiara è uscita. (Implies she left because he came in.) Quando Matteo è entrato, Chiara usciva. (Means that she was already leaving when he arrived.) The Imperfect may express habitual actions, e.g.: Quando Matteo entrava, Chiara usciva. Whenever Matteo came in, Chiara would go out. Tutte le domeniche, Tommaso si alzava tardi e faceva colazione al bar. Every Sunday, Tommaso used to get up late and have breakfast at the bar. With verbs of knowing, the meaning changes radically according to the choice of past aspect, e.g.: Ho saputo la verità. I learned/found out the truth. Sapevo la verità ma ho taciuto. I knew (was aware of) the truth but I kept silent. Ho conosciuto tuo fratello ieri sera. I met your brother last night (for the ﬁrst time). Conoscevo già tuo fratello ma non tua sorella. I already knew your brother but not your sister (i.e. I was acquainted with him). 395 28 Use of tenses 28.7.1 Imperfect tense: other uses Temporal functions past continuing to some point in the past (see section 25.5.2), e.g.: Vivevo lı̀ da due mesi. I had been living there for two months. f uture in past (R1–2, cf. section 28.5), e.g.: Il dottore ha detto che tornava il giorno dopo. The doctor said that he was coming back the next day. Mi ha promesso stamattina che telefonava domani. He promised me this morning that he would phone tomorrow. Modal functions p ol i te ne s s , e.g.: Volevo chiedere una informazione. I would like to ask for some information. . . ., volevo dire, . . . . . ., I mean, . . . hy p oth e s i s in past (cf. section 31.1), e.g.: Potevi dirle tutto: ormai è troppo tardi. You could have told her everything: now it’s too late. Se lo sapevo non ci andavo (R1). If I had known, I wouldn’t have gone. hy p oth e s i s , esp in games (R1), e.g.: Facciamo che io ero il re e tu eri la regina. past in R3 instead of Perfect, to confer high Let’s say I am the king and you are the queen. status to events so described, e.g.: Dante nasceva nel 1265. Dante was born in 1265. al s o in sports journalism: Maldini pareggiava all’89◦ . Maldini equalized in the 89th minute. 28.8 Pluperfect tense (Trapassato Prossimo – avevo fatto, ero andato) Temporal functions ante ri ori ty to past , e.g.: Dopo che tutti avevano mangiato, l’orchestra ha cominciato a suonare. After everyone had eaten, the orchestra began to play. Modal functions hy p oth e s i s in past (cf. section 28.5), e.g.: Senza quell’incidente, a quest’ora eravamo arrivati. Without that accident, we would have arrived by now. past in past , e.g.: Ha detto che l’aveva già fatto. He said he had already done it. past in p ol i te re que st s (R1, replaces the Perfect), e.g.: Ti ricordi che ti avevo chiesto (= ho chiesto) la macchina per oggi? Potrei averla? You remember I asked you for the car today: could I have it? 396 28.10 Modals 28.9 Past Anterior tense (Trapassato Remoto – ebbi fatto, fui andato) Temporal functions Temporal function Very rare, even in R3: in a temporal subordinate clause, ante ri ori ty to past expressed by Passato Remoto, e.g.: Quando tutti ebbero mangiato, l’orchestra cominciò a suonare. When everyone had eaten, the orchestra began to play. The following construction is restricted to literary ﬁction: Arrivata che fu, si sedette a capotavola. When she had arrived, she sat at the head of the table. Mangiato che ebbe la carne, bevve un calice di vino. When she had eaten the bread, she drank a goblet of wine. 28.10 Modals The modal verbs dovere, potere and volere express a variety of nuances which correspond to different English expressions. Here are some of the most important. deve dormire deve aver dormito ha dovuto dormire doveva dormire doveva aver dormito aveva dovuto dormire dovrà dormire dovrebbe dormire avrebbe dovuto dormire può farlo può averlo fatto ha potuto farlo she must/has to sleep she must have slept she had to sleep (= was obliged to sleep) she had to sleep/used to have to sleep R1–2: she should have slept she had to have slept she had had to sleep, she had been obliged to sleep she will have to sleep she should/ought to sleep, she should be asleep she should have slept he can/may do it he may have done it he managed to do it 397 28 Use of tenses poteva farlo poteva averlo fatto aveva potuto farlo potrà farlo potrebbe farlo potrebbe averlo fatto avrebbe potuto farlo vuole lavorare vorrà lavorare ha voluto lavorare non ha voluto lavorare voleva lavorare vorrebbe lavorare avrebbe voluto lavorare vorrebbe aver lavorato 398 he could do it, he used to be able to do it R1–2: he could have done it he could have done it (= it was possible that he did it) he had been able to do it he will be able to do it he could/might be able to do it he could have done it (= it could be that he did it) he could have done it/he would have been able to do it she wants to work she will want to work she insisted on working she refused to work she wanted to work, she used to want to work she would like to work she would have liked to work she would like to have worked/she wishes she had worked 29 Sequence of tenses The term “sequence of tenses” – Italian grammars traditionally use the Latin expression consecutio temporum – covers the relationship between the tense of the verb in the main clause and the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause. In some cases the subordinate verb may be in the same tense as it would be if it were in a main clause, i.e. it simply refers to the time of the action or state being indicated. But in other cases the subordinate tense must be selected according to whether the action or state it refers to is simultaneous, preceding, or following, with respect to the action or state of the main verb. 29.1 Sequence of tenses in the indicative (i) When the verb of the subordinate clause is in the indicative, in most cases it may be in the same tense as if it were in a main clause (as is the case in English), e.g.: La mostra aprirà all’inizio dell’anno prossimo. The exhibition will open at the beginning of next year. Il comitato ha deciso due anni fa che la mostra aprirà all’inizio dell’anno prossimo. The committee decided two years ago that the exhibition will open at the beginning of next year. The following exceptions should be noted: When the main verb is in the Passato Remoto, the subordinate verb cannot normally be in the Passato Remoto but must be in a pluperfect tense, either Trapassato Prossimo or Trapassato Remoto (cf. section 28.8). However, the Passato Prossimo may be found in both clauses, e.g.: R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 399 29 Sequence of tenses (ii) (iii) Allora Carlo ammise che Lucia non lo aveva insultato (not insultò). Then Carlo admitted that Lucia had not insulted him/did not insult him. Allora Carlo ha ammesso che Lucia non lo aveva insultato (or ha insultato). Then Carlo admitted that Lucia had not insulted him/did not insult him. The “future in the past” must be expressed by the Past Conditional, not the Present Conditional. It is important to note that while English uses both these tenses after a main verb in the past, with different meanings, the Past Conditional must always be used in Italian, e.g.: Matteo ha detto che sarebbe venuto a trovarmi. Matteo said that he would come to see me (implying the speaker believes Matteo will or might carry out his promise). Matteo said that he would have come to see me (implying that it is no longer possible). The future in the past may also be expressed by the Imperfect, especially in R1–2, and by the imperfect of dovere, eg: Matteo ha detto che veniva a trovarmi. Matteo said he was coming to see me/would come to see me. Ho riﬂettuto a lungo su ciò che doveva succedere. I thought for a long time about what was (about) to happen. In object clauses, the Imperfect is sometimes used, after a main verb in the past, to refer to situations that are true in the present, e.g.: Allora è vero! Me l’aveva detto, Elena, che eri/sei malato. So it’s true! Elena had told me you were/are sick. 29.2 Sequence of tenses in the subjunctive The choice of tense for verbs in the subjunctive in subordinate clauses depends on (i) the tense of the main verb (past or present/future) and (ii) whether the action or state of the subordinate clause is simultaneous, preceding, or following with respect to the main clause. 29.2.1 Main verb in the Present or Future All four tenses of the subjunctive may be used, according to the meaning of the subordinate clause, e.g.: Immagino che tu sia stanco. I imagine you are tired. Suppongo che Giuseppe conoscesse bene il problema. I suppose Giuseppe understood the issue well. Non so proprio dove sia andato mio fratello. I really don’t know where my brother has gone/went. Mi domando ora dove Tommaso avesse conosciuto quel tipo. I wonder now where Tommaso had met that bloke. 400 29.2 Sequence of tenses in the subjunctive For reference to the future the Present Subjunctive or Future Indicative is used, e.g.: Credo che Tommaso vada/andrà dal dentista domani. I think Tommaso is going to the dentist tomorrow. However, with main verbs which can imply only a future event, the Future is not used, e.g.: Voglio che Tommaso vada dal dentista domani (not andrà). I want Tommaso to go to the dentist tomorrow. 29.2.2 (i) (ii) (iii) Main verb in the Past or Conditional The Present and Perfect Subjunctive may not be used. If the action or state of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the main clause, the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, e.g.: Non sapevo dove andassero i miei amici. I didn’t know where my friends were going. If the subordinate clause follows the main clause in time, the Past Conditional or Imperfect Subjunctive may be used, e.g.: Non sapevo dove sarebbero andati/andassero i miei amici. I didn’t know where my friends would go. If the subordinate clause precedes the main clause in time, the Pluperfect Subjunctive is used: Non sapevo dove fossero andati i miei amici. I didn’t know where my friends had gone. Note the following particular usages: The Passato Prossimo acts like a true past tense if it refers to events or actions in speciﬁc moments in the past, but acts like a present tense if it refers to states set in periods of time which include the present, e.g.: In quel momento ho sospettato che lei sapesse la verità. At that moment I suspected that she knew the truth. Ho sempre sospettato che lei sappia la verità. I have always suspected that she knows the truth. The Present Conditional in a main clause requires the Imperfect Subjunctive in the subordinate clause. The Present Subjunctive is also often used and, though frowned on by critics, is becoming more common in R2, e.g.: Non vorrei che domani ci fosse una barriera tra i due gruppi. Non vorrei che domani ci sia una barriera tra i due gruppi (R1–2). I wouldn’t want there to be a barrier between the two groups tomorrow. After come se, only the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used, regardless of the tense of the main clause (cf. section 30.4.10), e.g.: Parla come se non fosse convinta di quel che dice. She is speaking as if she is/was/were not convinced of what she’s saying. Ti tratteranno come se non ti avessero mai conosciuto. They will treat you as if they had never met you. 401 30 The Subjunctive The Subjunctive mood is alive and well in contemporary Italian. Although in R1 and casual conversation it is often replaced by the Indicative, in more formal styles it is often compulsory (and its imperfect tense endings are very distinctive), and it must be mastered by the student at an advanced level. It appears to be used somewhat more in the North than in the South. The Subjunctive appears both in subordinate clauses (as its English name suggests, though in Italian it is congiuntivo) and also in main clauses of many different types. In some cases the Subjunctive is compulsory and thus conveys no extra meaning in the sentence, while in others, the Subjunctive and Indicative express different meanings. In many other cases, both moods are possible and the difference between them is one of nuance or register. It is impossible to give a deﬁnition of the Subjunctive that covers all its various uses. However, there are some features that account for the majority of uses and will help the student acquire a more conﬁdent mastery of this mood. The Subjunctive is, in many ways, the opposite or complement of the Indicative mood. Verbs in the Indicative usually make statements and denials and ask questions about matters that are assumed to relate to the world of reality. Verbs in the Subjunctive, on the other hand, may refer to exactly the same events or facts but not to these events or facts in themselves. They may be referred to as being part of the background reason why something else happened (usually in a subordinate clause); or they may be referred to as being presented from some particular point of view, that of the speaker or someone else; or they may not be real events or facts but rather wishes or imaginings on the part of the speaker. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 402 30.1 The Subjunctive in main clauses The many uses of the Subjunctive are grouped here according to the grammatical structure in which they occur and according to the meaning of those structures. Cases where the choice between Indicative and Subjunctive expresses different meanings are explained in full. Alternatives to the Subjunctive – especially the use of the inﬁnitive – are also indicated. 30.1 The Subjunctive in main clauses The Subjunctive is used in main clauses to express wishes, commands, and incredulous questions. 30.1.1 Wishes Dio vi benedica! (May) God bless you! (Che) possiate avere tutto il successo che meritate! May you have all the success you deserve! Vinca il migliore! May the best one win! (Se) vedessi che roba! If you could only see what it is! (Magari) non l’avessi mai detto! If only I had never said it! 30.1.2 Third person imperative The subjunctive is used as the imperative with the Lei and Loro form of address, though Loro is rapidly being replaced by voi in modern Italian (cf. section 16.5), e.g.: Dottoressa Rossi, venga (pure), s’accomodi! (Please) come in, Ms Rossi, take a seat! Dottori, vengano (pure), s’accomodino! (R3) = Venite, accomodatevi! (Please) come in, take a seat! 30.1.3 Third person exhortations The subjunctive is also used in exhortations said of a third person, including generic or impersonal subjects, e.g.: Se non sono convinti, lo dicano! If they are not convinced, let them say so! Chi non ha ancora comprato il libro, venga avanti! All those who have not yet bought the book, come to the front! Che non si ripeta! Let it not be repeated! 403 30 The Subjunctive Costi quel che costi! Whatever it costs! 30.1.4 Questions The Subjunctive expresses surprise or scepticism, e.g.: Che sia ﬁnito? Is it over (I wonder)? Che fosse geloso? Could it be that he was jealous? 30.2 The Subjunctive in noun clauses The Subjunctive may be used in noun clauses, depending on the meaning of the main clause. This meaning may be expressed in a verb or verbal expression or some other component of the main clause. This occurs with both subject and object noun clauses. In many cases, these noun clauses are replaced by di + inﬁnitive when the subjects of the two clauses are the same, e.g.: Temo che tu l’abbia offeso. I am afraid you have offended him. Temo di averlo offeso. I am afraid I have offended him. 30.2.1 (i) With main clauses expressing emotion The Subjunctive is used after main clauses expressing emotion, regardless of the truth or otherwise of the subordinate clause. If the two subjects are the same, an inﬁnitive is used, preceded by di. Verbs/expressions essere contento/scontento che (ii) 404 essere felice/infelice che essere deluso che essere sorpreso/stupito che aver paura che meravigliarsi che rammaricarsi che dispiacere, rincrescere che mi dispiace/rincresce che . . . stupirsi che temere che Expressions meno male che (Indicative in R1–2) che peccato che to be pleased/displeased that to be happy/unhappy that to be disappointed that to be surprised that to be afraid that to be amazed that to regret that to be sorry that I am sorry that to be surprised that to fear that just as well that what a pity that 30.2 30.2.2 (a) The Subjunctive in noun clauses With main clauses expressing opinion, doubt, uncertainty, or certainty With verbs and expressions of opinion and belief The Subjunctive is usual, though the Indicative is often used in casual speech. The Subjunctive is even more likely to be used if the verbs are in the negative. ammettere che to suppose that credere che to believe that desumere che (R3) to infer that essere certo/sicuro che to be sure/certain that essere convinto che to be convinced that immaginar(si) che to imagine that intuire che to intuit that pensare che to think that ritenere che to maintain that sembrare to seem that mi sembra che it seems to me sostenere che to claim that supporre che to suppose that note Statements of religious belief usually take the Indicative, but in the negative take the Subjunctive, e.g.: Credo che Dio esiste. I believe that God exists. Non credo che Dio esista. I do not believe that God exists. (b) With verbs and expressions of certainty and conviction The Subjunctive is used with such expressions in the negative and interrogative, and in the afﬁrmative is often used, in R3, when the subject of the verb is the ﬁrst person, e.g.: Non sono convinto che la sua interpretazione sia giusta. I am not convinced that her interpretation is right. Sono convinto che volessero solo scherzare (R3). I am convinced they only wanted to play a joke. essere sicuro/certo che essere convinto che non aver dubbi che 30.2.3 to be sure that to be convinced that to have no doubt that With main clauses expressing knowing and understanding The Subjunctive is often used in the negative, and especially with reference to the past, e.g.: Non sanno che Elena è già partita. They don’t know that Elena has already left. Non sapevano che Elena fosse già partita. They didn’t know that Elena had already left. 405 30 The Subjunctive capire/comprendere che to understand that rendersi conto che to realize that sapere che to know that With the following “negative” verb, the Subjunctive is always used: ignorare che to be unaware that note when capire and comprendere mean “quite understand” they take the Subjunctive, even in the afﬁrmative, e.g.: Capisco che Matteo sia molto impegnato, ma non può liberarsi per almeno mezz’ora? I perfectly appreciate that Matteo is very busy, but can’t he get away for at least half an hour? 30.2.4 Saying The Subjunctive may be used (especially in R3) after verbs of saying in the negative, e.g.: Il ministro non ha dichiarato che le sculture debbano essere restituite. The minister did not declare that the sculptures must be returned. affermare che to state that asserire che (R3) to assert that dichiarare che to declare that dire che to say that With the following “negative” verbs of saying, the Subjunctive is always used: escludere che (R2–3) to refuse to admit that negare che to deny that riﬁutare che to reject that note With si dice, the Subjunctive expresses hearsay, while the Indicative merely reports that something is being said: Si dice che il ragazzo si sia messo con una brutta compagnia. It is said that the boy has got into bad company. 30.2.5 Illusion, dream, and pretense far ﬁnta/ﬁngere che (R3) illudersi che immaginarsi che mettere il caso che sognare che 30.2.6 to pretend that to delude oneself that to imagine that to suppose that to dream that With main clauses expressing wanting If the subjects of the two clauses are the same the verb in the subordinate clause will be in the inﬁnitive; if they are different the subjunctive is used, e.g.: 406 30.2 The Subjunctive in noun clauses Volete che vengano a trovarci? Do you want them to come and see us? Tommaso non vedeva l’ora che cominciassero le vacanze. Tommaso couldn’t wait for the holidays to begin. to want to want to prefer to be unable to wait (for) volere desiderare preferire non vedere l’ora 30.2.7 Permission and prohibition permettere che or permettere a qu di + inﬁnitive evitare che vietare che or vietare a qu di + inﬁnitive impedire che or impedire a qu di + inﬁnitive proibire che or proibire a qu di + inﬁnitive 30.2.8 to permit to avoid to forbid to prevent to prohibit With impersonal verbs Most impersonal expressions require a following Subjunctive if followed by a che clause. This construction is common when referring to a speciﬁc person. When making general statements, or when it is clearly understood who is being referred to, they often take an inﬁnitive (cf. section 27.1). In this case, all the verbs in the following list may be used with an indirect object pronoun specifying the person concerned, with the exception of bisogna and vale la pena, which are only used for general statements, e.g.: Conviene viaggiare in prima classe se uno se lo può permettere. It is better to travel ﬁrst class, if one can afford it. Conviene che tu prenda il treno delle quattro (R2–3). Ti conviene prendere il treno delle quattro (R1–2). It is better for you to catch the four o’clock train. Bisogna che tu dica qualcosa per spiegare le tue azioni. You must say something to explain your actions. Bisogna dire qualcosa (not ti bisogna dire qualcosa). Something must be said, lit it is necessary to say something. basta che bisogna che conviene che dà fastidio che dispiace che it is enough that it is necessary that it is opportune that it gives annoyance that it gives displeasure that 407 30 The Subjunctive mi dispiace che il lavoro I am sorry the work is not non sia pronto ready far piacere che it gives pleasure that mi fa piacere che tu sia qui I am pleased that you are here importa che it is of importance that infastidisce che it gives annoyance that occorre che it is necessary that piace che it gives pleasure that non mi piace che tu vada lı̀ I don’t like your going there può darsi che maybe rincresce che it gives sorrow that secca che it gives annoyance that sembra che it seems that sorprende che it is surprising that vale la pena che it is worthwhile that Many expressions with essere + noun or adjective usually take the Subjunctive after che, but may take an inﬁnitive, especially where no person is speciﬁed, e.g.: è (un) peccato che it is a pity that è ora/tempo che it is a time that è una vergogna che it is a disgrace that è necessario che it is necessary that è ridicolo che it is ridiculous that è vietato che it is forbidden that è possibile/impossibile che it is possible/impossible that è probabile/improbabile che it is probable/improbable that è facile/difﬁcile che it is likely/unlikely that è utile/inutile che it is useful/useless that è naturale che it is natural that è inevitabile che it is inevitable that Impersonal expressions expressing “evident” or “certain” usually take the Indicative, but may take the Subjunctive in higher registers. The Subjunctive is especially common in negative sentences (even when the meaning is positive) and in questions, e.g.: Ormai era ovvio che Elena fosse scappata (R3). By now it was clear that Elena had run away. Non è vero che si mangi sempre meglio nei ristoranti di lusso. It is not true that you always eat better in luxury restaurants. Non c’è dubbio che il colpevole sia lui. There is no doubt that he is the guilty one. Ma è davvero cosı̀ evidente che abbiano copiato? Is it really so obvious that they cheated? With impersonal verbs meaning “to happen,” the Subjunctive is more likely if the “happening” verb is in the present or imperfect, less likely if it is in a perfect tense, e.g.: Spesso capitava che si trovassero soli ma senza niente da dirsi. It often happened that they ended up alone but with nothing to say. 408 30.2 The Subjunctive in noun clauses Capitò che scambiai (or scambiassi) qualche parola con lui durante una pausa dei lavori. It so happened that I exchanged a few words with him during a break in the job. The expression non è che or non che usually takes the subjunctive, and is often followed by a second clause in the afﬁrmative with the verb in the indicative (cf. non perché, section 30.4.3), e.g.: Non è che il bambino sia cattivo, è semplicemente vivace. It’s not that the child is naughty, he’s just lively. 30.2.9 The verb aspettare Aspettate che piova! Wait until it rains! Aspettate che piove! Wait! It’s raining! 30.2.10 The position of the noun clause When a noun clause is moved from its usual position for emphasis (cf. section 18.2), whether it is subject or object of the verb, it requires the Subjunctive in higher registers, e.g.: Che fosse medico lo sapevamo già. Lo sapevamo già, che fosse medico. Cf. Sapevamo già che era medico. We already knew he was a doctor. Che fosse medico si sapeva. Cf. Si sapeva che era medico. It was well known that he was a doctor. 30.2.11 il fatto che A noun clause introduced by il fatto che is often in the Subjunctive, especially if it comes before the main verb of the sentence, e.g.: Il fatto che Giovanni sappia tutto non cambia niente. The fact that Giovanni knows everything doesn’t change a thing. 30.2.12 come meaning che The Subjunctive is used with come when it means “that” rather than “how” (a usage typical of higher registers), e.g.: Il ministro fece notare come governo e opposizione fossero d’accordo sui principi di base della riforma. Cf. Il ministro fece notare che governo e opposizione erano d’accordo sui principi di base della riforma. The Minister observed that the government and the opposition were in agreement on the basic principles of the reform. 409 30 The Subjunctive 30.2.13 Modal attraction The Subjunctive may be used in a noun clause which follows another subordinate containing a Subjunctive. This is only usually found in higher registers and should be imitated with caution, e.g.: Se tu sapessi che io fossi in bisogno, mi aiuteresti? If you knew I was in need, would you help me? 30.3 Indirect questions The Subjunctive is used in higher registers, e.g.: Gli chiesi se ci avesse pensato sopra. I asked him if he had thought about it. Non sappiamo se ci abbiano visti o meno. We don’t know if they have seen us or not. Le ho domandato dove avessero trovato le castagne. I asked her where they had found the chestnuts. Non è chiaro che cosa abbia spinto il comune a comportarsi in questa maniera. It is not clear what led the Council to behave like this. Non so che faccia abbia. I don’t know what she looks like. The Subjunctive is also frequent with quanto, e.g.: Fece cosı̀ per ricordare a Peppone quanto forti fossero le sue mani (Guareschi). He acted like that to remind Peppone how strong his hands were. The Subjunctive is also used in higher registers for reported or indirect commands, e.g.: Rispose che venissi subito. He answered that I should come immediately. Gli fece cenno che si sedesse. She gestured to him to sit down. 30.4 Subordinating conjunctions With a large number of conjunctions, the Subjunctive is compulsory in higher registers. In R1, some of these conjunctions are rarely heard, and when they are they may be found with the Indicative. 30.4.1 although, however Subjunctive after benché, sebbene, quantunque (R3), con tutto che (R3); Indicative after anche se, e.g.: Sebbene non possedesse un orologio, sembrava sapere sempre l’ora esatta. 410 30.4 Subordinating conjunctions Although he didn’t own a watch, he always seemed to know the right time. Subjunctive after per quanto meaning however, and with (per) + adj + che: Per quanto gridasse, nessuno l’ha sentito. No matter how much he shouted, no one heard him. Un vino Chianti, (per) cattivo che sia, è sempre un piacere. A Chianti wine, bad as it may be, is always a pleasure. Subjunctive or Indicative after per quanto meaning “as far as,” Indicative after per quel che, e.g.: Per quanto ne sappia (R2–3)/ so (R1–2) io, non hanno intenzione di vendere. As far as I know, they have no intention of selling. Per quanto mi riguarda/ per quel che mi riguarda . . . As far as I am concerned . . . Note this expression: che io sappia as far as I know 30.4.2 before Subjunctive after prima che if subjects of the two clauses are different; if they are the same, prima di + inﬁnitive, e.g.: Mi tradirai tre volte prima che il gallo canti. You will deny me three times before the cock crows. Ha letto il contratto prima di ﬁrmarlo. He read the contract before he signed it/before signing it. 30.4.3 in order that, such that Subjunctive after perché, afﬁnché, tale che; in modo (tale) che, in maniera (tale) che. Indicative after perché meaning “because”. Subjunctive after non perché. If subjects of the two clauses are the same, per, al ﬁne di, tale da, cosı̀ da, in modo (tale) da, all + inﬁnitive, e.g.: Parlo cosı̀ perché gli studenti mi capiscano. I’m speaking like this so the students (will) understand me. Parlo cosı̀ perché gli studenti lo preferiscono. I’m speaking like this because the students prefer it. Devi ﬁrmare qui, non perché io non mi ﬁdi di te, ma perché è la legge. You have to sign here, not because I don’t trust you, but because it is the law. Si comporta in maniera (tale) che tutti lo guardino. He is behaving in such a way that everyone will look at him. 411 30 The Subjunctive Si comporta in maniera (tale) che tutti lo guardano. He is behaving in such a way that everyone is looking at him. Si comporta in maniera (tale) da provocare uno scandalo. He is behaving in such a way as to cause a scandal. Verbs and expressions of making something happen also require the Subjunctive, e.g.: Il terremoto fece sı̀ che il palazzo crollasse. The earthquake led to the palace collapsing. 30.4.4 unless, except Subjunctive after a meno che, salvo che, tranne che, eccetto che; if subjects of the two clauses are the same, a meno di + inﬁnitive (in both cases the use of pleonastic non is typical of higher registers), e.g.: Andate, allora, a meno che (non) abbiate cambiato idea di nuovo. Off you go, then, unless you’ve changed your minds again. Non lo farò, a meno di (non) capire il perché. I won’t do it, unless I understand the reason why. 30.4.5 until Subjunctive after ﬁnché non meaning “until” in the past; Indicative after ﬁnché non meaning “until” in the present or future; Indicative after ﬁnché meaning “as long as,” e.g.: Il dottore mi ordinò riposo assoluto ﬁnché non mi fossi sentito meglio. The doctor ordered me to have total rest until I felt better. Non uscirai ﬁnché non avrai lavato i piatti. You’re not going out until you’ve washed the dishes. Il dottore mi ordinò riposo assoluto ﬁnché continuava il dolore. The doctor ordered me to have total rest as long as the pain continued. 30.4.6 without Subjunctive after senza che; if subjects of the two clauses are the same, senza + inﬁnitive, e.g.: Uscı̀ senza che nessuno la vedesse. She went out without anyone seeing her. Uscı̀ senza salutare nesssuno. She left without saying goodbye to anyone. 30.4.7 provided that Subjunctive after purché, a patto che, a condizione che. If subjects of the two clauses are the same, a patto di + inﬁnitive, e.g.: Lo farò, a patto che tu dia una mano. I’ll do it, provided you give me a hand. 412 30.5 Relative clauses Accetto, a patto di cominciare subito. I accept, provided I start immediately. Note this construction: Andiamo a mangiare la pizza? Ma mi raccomando: una pizza che sia una pizza! Shall we go and have a pizza? Yes, but provided it’s a real pizza! 30.4.8 in case, in case that Subjunctive after caso mai (usually Imperfect or Pluperfect); nel caso che, per il caso che, qualora, e.g.: Prendi un ombrello, caso mai piovesse. Take an umbrella, (just) in case it rains/should rain. Nel caso che tu non possa venire, avvertimi. If (it happens that) you can’t come, let me know. 30.4.9 when Subjunctive to express hypothetical situation (cf. section 31.1.2). Only in higher registers, e.g.: La notizia diffamatoria, pubblicata a mezzo stampa, può non costituire illecito quando prevalga l’interesse pubblico . . . A defamatory news item, when published in the press, may not constitute an offense, when the public interest prevails . . . 30.4.10 as if Subjunctive after come se, quasi che (R2–3), come (R3), quasi (R3). Only the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive are generally used (cf. section 29.2.2), e.g.: Ci tratta come se fossimo ragazzini. He treats us as if we were kids. Erano spaventati come se avessero visto un fantasma. They were frightened as if they had seen a ghost. “As if to” = come per + inﬁnitive, e.g.: Aprı̀ la bocca come per parlare. He opened his mouth as if to speak. 30.5 Relative clauses 30.5.1 After an indeﬁnite antecedent The Subjunctive accentuates the doubt that such a situation may in fact exist: Cercano un albergo che costi meno di 100 euro a notte (R2–3). Cercano un albergo che costa meno di 100 euro a notte. They are looking for a hotel that costs less than 100 euro a night. 413 30 The Subjunctive The Indicative is used to refer to real situations: Hanno trovato un albergo che costa meno di 100 euro a notte. They have found a hotel that costs less than 100 euro a night. 30.5.2 After a negative or non-existent antecedent The Subjunctive is required, especially in higher registers, e.g.: Non c’è nessuno che s’intenda di queste cose. There is no one who understands this stuff. Conoscete qualcuno che sia veramente felice? Do you know anyone who is truly happy? Una persona che passasse in macchina a quell’ora vedrebbe tutto. Someone (anyone) who drove by at that time would see everything. 30.5.3 After unique and superlative antecedents The Subjunctive is required in higher registers, while the Indicative is increasingly common in R1–2, e.g.: Giuseppe è il solo/l’unico che capisca la mia situazione. Giuseppe is the only person who understands my situation. Elena è la persona più affascinante che io abbia mai conosciuto. Elena is the most fascinating person I have ever met. 30.5.4 Expressing a hypothesis (cf. section 31.1.2) Un mondo in cui/dove tutti fossero uguali sarebbe il paradiso. A world in which/where everybody was equal would be paradise. 30.5.5 “Modal attraction” The Subjunctive may be used in a relative clause which follows another subordinate containing a Subjunctive. This is usually found only in higher registers and should be imitated with caution, e.g.: Credo che vi siano poche persone che possano capirmi meglio di voi. I believe there are few people who can understand me better than you [do]. 30.6 Comparatives The Subjunctive is used is comparative clauses, especially after certain conjunctions of comparison (cf. section 17.3), e.g.: Tommaso sa più di quanto (non) mi abbia detto (R2–3)/ di quanto mi ha detto. Tommaso knows more than what he has said to me. Sembrava più vecchio che non fosse in realtà (R3). He looked older than he actually was. 414 30.7 Conditional sentences 30.7 Conditional sentences The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in the if-clause (the “protasis”) of hypothetical conditional sentences when the conditional is used in the main clause (cf. section 31.1.1), e.g.: Se io parlassi quattro lingue, avrei avuto quel lavoro. If I spoke four languages, I would have got that job. Se tu mi avessi scritto quella lettera, io sarei già in vacanza. If you had written that letter for me, I would already be on holiday. An if-clause may used alone, in certain expressions, when the main clause is understood, e.g.: Che emozione, manco avessi visto Maldini! (R1–2). What a thrill, it was better than seeing Maldini! (lit [it would not have better if ] I had seen Maldini). 415 31 Conditional sentences Conditional sentences consist basically of an if-clause (or “protasis”) and a main clause (or “apodosis”), although many variations are possible. It is more common for the if-clause to come ﬁrst, as in the examples below, but in principle the two clauses may occur in either order. Conditional sentences can be divided into hypothetical conditionals and factual conditionals. 31.1 Hypothetical conditionals These sentences express a hypothesis, consisting of a condition and a consequence resulting from the fulﬁllment of that condition: “if x, then y.” The choice of mood and tense of the verbs in the two clauses reﬂects the degree of probability the speaker attaches to the likelihood that the hypothesis may come true. The indicative emphasizes that the hypothesis is in fact possible, while the subjunctive and conditional highlights the speculative or unreal nature of the hypothesis. 31.1.1 Verb mood and tense Indicative in both clauses The present, future, and passato prossimo may be used to express a hypothesis about present, future or past, e.g.: Se compri il giornale, possiamo vedere cosa c’è alla televisione. If you buy the newspaper, we can see what’s on TV. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 416 31.1 Hypothetical conditionals Se domani ci sarà (c’è, R1–2) bel tempo, andremo (andiamo, R1–2) al mare. If it’s ﬁne tomorrow, we’ll go to the beach. Se Chiara non è venuta all’appuntamento stamattina, allora è già partita per le vacanze. If Chiara didn’t keep the appointment this morning, then she has already gone on holiday. Subjunctive/conditional (i) (ii) If-clause i m pe r f e c t sub j unc t ive expresses a hypothesis about the present or future, e.g.: Se io non fossi cosı̀ testardo . . . If I weren’t so stubborn . . . Se piovesse domani . . . If it rained tomorrow . . . Dovere may be used to underline the hypothetical nature of the clause, especially R2–3, e.g.: Se dovesse piovere domani . . . If it were to rain tomorrow . . . p lupe r f e c t sub j unc t ive expresses a hypothesis about the past (therefore usually something that can no longer be true), e.g.: Se tu fossi stata qui . . . If you had been here . . . Main clause p re se nt cond i t i onal expresses a consequence in the present or future, e.g.: . . . non mi troverei in questo pasticcio. . . . I wouldn’t be in this mess. past cond i t i onal expresses a consequence in the past, e.g.: . . . avrei accettato l’invito . . . I would have accepted the invitation. These two pairs may be combined freely, according to the meaning, e.g.: Se io non fossi cosı̀ testardo, non mi troverei in questo pasticcio. If I weren’t so stubborn, I wouldn’t be in this mess. Se io non fossi cosı̀ testardo, avrei accettato l’invito. If I weren’t so stubborn, I would have accepted the invitation. Se tu fossi stata qui, non mi troverei in questo pasticcio. If you had been here, I wouldn’t be in this mess. Se tu fossi stata qui, avrei accettato l’invito. If you had been here, I would have accepted the invitation. In R1–2, the imperfect indicative may replace the pluperfect subjunctive and/or the past conditional, e.g.: Se (tu) eri qui, non accettavo l’invito. If you had been here, I wouldn’t have accepted the invitation. 417 31 Conditional sentences In very colloquial R1 speech, the imperfect indicative may replace the imperfect subjunctive and/or present conditional. Dialect grammar rules transferred to Italian may produce sentences with both clauses in the subjunctive (especially in the South) or both in the conditional (especially in the North and also in Tuscany). All these usages are considered ungrammatical: Se io non ero cosı̀ testardo, non mi trovavo in questo pasticcio. Se io non fossi cosı̀ testardo, non mi trovassi in questo pasticcio. Se io non sarei cosı̀ testardo, non mi troverei in questo pasticcio. The imperative may occur in the main clause, e.g.: Se avessi bisogno di me, chiamami a casa. If you should need me, ring me at home. 31.1.2 Other ways of saying “if” The conjunction may simply be omitted (in R2–3). If the subject is expressed, it follows the verb, e.g.: Succedesse a me sarei rovinato (Pratolini). Were it to happen to me, I would be ruined. Me l’avesse detto lui, non l’avrei fatto. Had he told me, I wouldn’t have done it. Fosse entrato in campo Maldini, si sarebbe potuta rinsaldare la difesa. Had Maldini come on, the defence could have been consolidated. With the same subject in the two clauses, an inﬁnitive or gerund may be used in certain cases. A present inﬁnitive may be used with pur di, a patto di, a condizione di, and with a, e.g.: Pur di/A patto di/A condizione di ottenere un lavoro, mi trasferirei in qualsiasi città. I would move to any city, provided I could get a job (just to get a job). A pensarci bene, non avrei dovuto farlo. Come to think of it, I shouldn’t have done it. A gerund may also be used, e.g.: Lavorando sodo, potresti ripagare il prestito in un anno. By working hard (= If you worked hard), you could repay the loan in a year. Avresti imparato di più leggendo i testi nell’originale. You would have learned more by reading the texts in the original. Studiando tanto, avresti potuto certamente superare quell’esame. If you had studied hard, you could certainly have passed that exam. An adjective, adjectival phrase, or past participle may be used without a verb, e.g.: Di ruolo, avrebbe guadagnato di più. She would have earned more (if she had been) in a permanent position. 418 31.2 Factual conditionals (Se) presa in tempo, la malattia è curabile. If caught in time, the disease can be treated. Other conjunctions may be used, usually in R2–3, e.g.: qualora (R2–3), quando (R3), ove (R3), laddove (R3); ammesso che, supposto che, nell’ipotesi che, nell’eventualità che (all R3) express greater improbability; ammettiamo che, mettiamo (il caso) che, supponiamo che (all R2–3); purché, a patto che, a condizione che (all R2–3) express “provided that.” note the use of quando with the subjunctive to express “if and when,” e.g.: In base all’apertura dei Medici, Michelangelo avrebbe potuto tornare quando avesse voluto (R3). On the basis of the open attitude of the Medici, Michelangelo could have returned if and when he wanted. Relative clauses can also act as hypothetical conditionals. The verb in the relative clause is in the subjunctive (cf. section 30.5.4), e.g.: Uno che avesse obiettivi chiari, non perderebbe tempo cosı̀. If someone had clear objectives, they wouldn’t waste time like that. (= Anyone who had clear objectives wouldn’t waste time like that.) 31.2 Factual conditionals In these sentences, the two clauses do not express a hypothetical situation, but refer to some aspect of reality and establish a connexion between two states or events. The indicative is usually used in both clauses. With both clauses in the imperfect the sentence describes a habitual event in the past, e.g.: Se non avevamo i soldi per pagare, lavoravamo in cucina la domenica. If/When we didn’t have the money to pay, we would work in the kitchen on Sundays. With both clauses in the present or perfect, the sentence expresses two ideas that are logically linked in some way. This rhetorical use of the conditional construction is more common in Italian (especially R3) than in English, and may be best rendered in English by some other type of clause, e.g.: Se la situazione internazionale è preoccupante, quella nazionale non è certo tranquilla. If the international situation is worrying, the domestic situation is certainly not calm or The international situation is worrying, but the domestic situation is certainly not calm. 419 31 Conditional sentences Se (è vero che) Caravaggio rimase sempre debitore alla sua formazione lombarda, tuttavia ebbe il maggior inﬂusso sulla pittura del Meridione (R3). While (it is true that) Caravaggio always remained in debt to his Lombard training, he had the greatest inﬂuence on painting in the South. note these colloquial usages, which have parallels in English: Se hai sete, c’è una birra nel frigo. If you’re thirsty, there’s a beer in the fridge. Se lui canta bene, io sono Pavarotti. If he is a good singer, I’m Pavarotti. 420 32 Subordinate clauses Subordinate clauses can be thought of in two categories. “Explicit” clauses have the verb in a ﬁnite, conjugated form (this is normally what is meant by the term “subordinate clause”). “Implicit” clauses have the verb in a non-ﬁnite form: inﬁnitive, gerund, or participle. Compare the following sentences. The ﬁrst contains an explicit subordinate clause, the second an implicit clause: Mi sono addormentato mentre guardavo la televisione. I fell asleep while I was watching television. Mi sono addormentato guardando la televisione. I fell asleep watching television. As these examples show, the same meaning can often be expressed by either an implicit clause or an explicit clause. The difference is usually one of register: implicit clauses are more common in higher registers and particularly in writing. 32.1 Explicit subordinate clauses (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Explicit subordinate clauses usually come after the main clause, although in most instances the choice is free and a question of style or emphasis. The following types of subordinate clauses tend to come before the main clause: Temporal clauses Quando lo vedrò, gli racconterò tutto. When I see him, I will tell him everything. Concessive clauses (expressing “although”: cf. section 30.1.4), e.g.: Benché la scadenza sia già passata, accetteremo la Sua domanda. Although the deadline has already passed, we will accept your application. If-clauses (cf. chapter 31), e.g.: Se ci sei, batti un colpo! If you’re there, knock! Limitative clauses, e.g.: Per quanto ne so, non c’è un numero chiuso in questa Facoltà. As far as I know, there is no quota in this Faculty. 421 32 Subordinate clauses (v) 32.1.1 Note that clauses beginning with perché meaning “because” may only follow the main clause (cf. the similar restriction on English “for”). A “because” clause which comes before the main clause must begin with some other conjunction, such as siccome, poiché, giacché, e.g.: Ho dovuto prendere un taxi perché non c’erano più tram a quell’ora. I had to take a taxi because/for there were no more trams at that hour. Siccome non c’erano più tram a quell’ora, ho dovuto prendere un taxi. Because there were no more trams at that hour, I had to take a taxi. Relative clauses When the relative pronoun is the subject or direct object of its clause, che is used. The relative pronoun is compulsory, unlike in English. Compare: Il computer che ho comprato ha un difetto. The computer (that) I bought has a fault. In R2–3 a form of il quale may be used in place of che, usually when it is the subject of its clause. Il quale is used in a “descriptive” relative clause, i.e. one that does not identify its antecedent but adds information to something already known. It is also used to clarify potential ambiguity, e.g.: Ho discusso il problema con la signora Brambilla, la quale (or che) ne è rimasta entusiasta. I discussed the problem with Mrs Brambilla, who was enthusiastic about it. Ho discusso il problema con la signora che abita al piano di sopra. I discussed the problem with the lady who lives upstairs. L’amica di Matteo, la quale lavora in centro, ha avuto un incidente. Matteo’s girlfriend, who works in the city, has had an accident. When the relative pronoun is the indirect object of its clause, the preposition is used with cui or il quale (R2–3, also used to avoid ambiguity), e.g.: Ti voglio far vedere la casa davanti a cui/davanti alla quale eravamo parcheggiati. I want to show you the house we were parked in front of. In higher registers, cui may be used to mean a cui, but not with compound prepositions (e.g. davanti a cui cannot be replaced by davanti cui), e.g.: L’autore cui è stato assegnato il premio darà una conferenza stampa (R3). The author to whom the prize has been awarded will give a press conference. 422 32.1 Explicit subordinate clauses Relative expressions of time and place may use a relative pronoun, or an adverb, or che (this is becoming common for time but still frowned on for place), e.g.: Non dimenticherò mai il giorno in cui/quando/che (R1–2) ti ho conosciuto. I will never forget the day I met you. Non dimenticherò mai il luogo in cui/dove (R1–2)/che (R1) ti ho conosciuto. I will never forget the place I met you. In higher registers, the noun may be repeated together with the relative pronoun, and the relative clause may be written as a separate sentence, e.g.: Tommaso scrisse almeno quattro volte al direttore. Il quale direttore gli aveva promesso di aiutarlo in qualche modo. Tommaso wrote to the director at least four times. Who had promised him help in some form. In speech, a pronoun is sometimes used to refer back to the antecedent. This may occur with a relative pronoun plus preposition (and may cause some uncertainty even among educated speakers), or with che, which is considered ungrammatical, e.g.: E’ un tipo a cui gli piacciono le donne (R1–2). E’ un tipo che gli piacciono le donne (R1). He’s a type that women like. Il che or cosa che are used to refer to an entire clause, e.g.: Hanno telefonato più volte per salutarti, il che vuol dire che ti vogliono bene. They have phoned several times to say hello, which means they are fond of you. Sono partiti di notte, cosa che non avevano mai fatto prima. They left at night, something they had never done before. “Whose” may be expressed in a variety of ways, e.g.: Si tratta di una malattia i cui sintomi sono difﬁcilissimi da individuare. Si tratta di una malattia i sintomi della quale sono difﬁcilissimi da individuare (R2–3). Si tratta di una malattia della quale i sintomi sono difﬁcilissimi da individuare (R3). This is a disease whose symptoms are very difﬁcult to identify. “What” may be expressed by quello che, quel che, ciò che (R2–3), or quanto (R2–3), e.g.: Non ha voluto ripetere quello che/ciò che/quanto aveva detto ai giornalisti. He declined to repeat what he had said to the journalists. “Whoever” or “those who” may be expressed by chi, quelli che, coloro che (R2–3), coloro i quali (R3), quanti (R2–3). Chi is very common in proverbs, e.g.: Chi tardi arriva male alloggia. First come ﬁrst served (lit S/he who is late ﬁnds bad lodgings). 423 32 Subordinate clauses Il libro è scritto per chi desidera conoscere meglio se stesso/per quelli che desiderano conoscere meglio se stessi. The book is written for those who wish to know themselves better. Relative expressions with an inﬁnitive require special care. When the antecedent is the direct object of the inﬁnitive, da is used (cf. section 27.4.1), e.g.: E’ un libro da leggere/leggersi (R3) attentamente. It is a book to be read, i.e. a book which one must read carefully. If the antecedent is an indirect object, a relative pronoun (including preposition) is used before the verb, e.g.: Cerco qualcuno con cui giocare a tennis. I’m looking for someone to play tennis with. E’ una proposta su cui riﬂettere. It’s a proposal to think about. 32.2 Implicit subordinate clauses Implicit subordinate clauses almost always require the non-ﬁnite verb to have the same subject as the main verb. Most exceptions to this are restricted to R3 and are explained below. 32.2.1 Inﬁnitive In Italian the inﬁnitive is used more widely than in English to replace object clauses beginning with che, e.g.: Credo di aver portato tutti i documenti richiesti. I believe (that) I have brought all the required documents. However, it is more restricted in only being used when the subjects of both clauses are the same (see chapter 27). Compare: Voglio che tu stia tranquillo. I want you to be happy. The following construction, with different subjects, is now restricted to extremely formal styles: Affermava infatti esser la famiglia, e in particolare la sua, la maledizione dell’uomo (R3, Morante). He claimed indeed that the family, and his in particular, was the curse of mankind. The inﬁnitive is used with in and con plus the deﬁnite article (always masculine singular) to form implicit subordinate clauses: in expresses a contemporaneous action (equivalent to the gerund), e.g.: Nel vederlo, gli ha gettato le braccia al collo. (= Vedendolo, . . .) On seeing him, she ﬂung her arms around his neck. con is only usually found with verbs of beginning and ending, e.g.: Cominciò/Finı̀ col ringraziare tutti per essere venuti. He started/ended up by thanking everyone for coming. 424 32.2 Implicit subordinate clauses The inﬁnitive is also used with other prepositions, but in modern Italian this only occurs in a number of set phrases, most of which are expressions of time, e.g.: al sorgere del sole at the rising of the sun con il passar del tempo with the passing of time sul far del giorno/sul far della sera at daybreak/at nightfall. 32.2.2 Gerund The use of the present gerund (e.g. facendo, arrivando) is growing in contemporary Italian, while the past gerund (avendo fatto, essendo arrivato) is becoming restricted to higher registers. Meanings of the gerund (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) The implicit gerund clause can express a number of meanings: temporal If the time of the gerund verb precedes or includes the main verb, the gerund usually comes before the main verb, e.g.: Arrivando a Milano, mi recai a Piazza del Duomo. On arriving in Milan, I went to Piazza del Duomo. Passeggiando, Elena ha incontrato Tommaso. While walking, Elena met Tommaso. If the time of the gerund verb covers the same time period or one subsequent to that of the main verb, the gerund usually comes after the main verb, e.g.: Emilia lo guardò sorridendo. Emilia looked at him (while) smiling. L’auto ha sbandato violentemente, scontrandosi con un camion. The car skidded violently, crashing into a truck. “Since” or “because” This is the most common usage of the past gerund, e.g.: Il magistrato, non avendo riscontrato prove concrete, chiuse l’indagine. The magistrate, having found no concrete evidence (= since he had found . . .), closed the investigation. “although”: the gerund is usually preceded by pur(e) or anche (R1–2), e.g.: Pur non essendo d’accordo, rispetterò la decisione del comitato. Although I do not agree (with it), I shall respect the committee’s decision. “if” Only the present gerund is used in this sense (cf. section 31.1.2), e.g.: 425 32 Subordinate clauses (v) Usando un tono più rispettoso, avresti potuto ottenere quello che cercavi. By using a more respectful tone, you could have got what you were looking for. “how”, e.g.: Ha superato l’esame studiando giorno e notte per un mese intero. She passed the exam by studying night and day for a whole month. Note that many of the English translations above have a preposition before the verb in -ing, to specify the meaning, e.g. “on doing,” “while doing,” “by doing,” etc. In modern Italian no preposition may ever be used before a gerund. If a preposition is used to express a precise meaning, the verb must be in the inﬁnitive, e.g.: Nell’entrare [= Entrando] nella stanza, Chiara ha capito l’umore dei presenti. On entering the room, Chiara understood the mood of those present. Adverbs, however, may be used before a gerund, especially pur and anche. See example (iii) above. The subject of the verb in the gerund The verb in the gerund usually takes as its subject the subject of the ﬁnite verb on which it depends, but in certain cases it may refer to an indirect object or to some other person clearly identiﬁable in the context, e.g.: Mi è successo sciando. It happened to me while (I was) skiing. Siamo rimasti in piedi davanti al bar. Chiacchierando del più e del meno, si fece notte. We stood outside the bar. While we chatted about this and that, night fell. In higher registers, the gerund is sometimes used to refer to a direct object of the ﬁnite verb, but this usage should be avoided by the student, e.g.: Luis studiò dai gesuiti: pur staccandosi dalla fede, il problema religioso lo tormentò per tutta la vita (Messori). Luis studied with the Jesuits: though he left the faith, the issue of religion tormented him throughout his whole life. The gerund is used in a number of set expressions, regardless of the subject, e.g.: e via dicendo, a Dio piacendo, tempo permettendo and so on, God willing, weather permitting In higher registers the gerund may be used with a different subject from that of the ﬁnite verb. The subject is placed after the gerund, or after the auxiliary with the past gerund, e.g.: Avendo la testimone ritirato le dichiarazioni rese durante l’istruttoria, la sentenza è confermata. Since the witness has withdrawn her statements made during the enquiry, the decision is conﬁrmed. 426 32.2 Implicit subordinate clauses The position of the gerund in the sentence A gerund may occur in virtually any place in the sentence. Gerunds expressing “why,” “if,” or “although” often come at the beginning; gerunds expressing “how” or “when” often come at the end of the sentence. See above for the usual position of temporal gerunds according to their meaning. Gerunds are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma (representing a pause in speech), with one exception: when the gerund comes at the end of the sentence and expresses “how” or “when,” no comma is used. If it expresses other meanings, the comma tends to be used. Note the punctuation in the following: Sorridendo, Matteo si è ritirato dall’esame. Matteo si è ritirato dall’esame sorridendo. Matteo left the exam smiling. Giudicandosi impreparato, Matteo si è ritirato dall’esame. Matteo si è ritirato dall’esame, giudicandosi impreparato. Matteo left the exam considering himself unprepared. 32.2.3 Participles Present participle The present participle is seldom used with a verbal meaning to join clauses. In modern Italian it is usually found as an adjective or noun, with little or no verbal force, e.g.: importante, splendente; insegnante, dirigente, amante, stampante important, shining; teacher, manager, lover, computer printer In very formal writing, however, the present participle is increasingly being used as a verb, although it must agree, like an adjective, with the noun to which it refers. This usage should be imitated only with great caution, e.g.: Due associazioni del settore hanno fatto ricorso contro le decisioni del Consiglio dei Ministri approvanti una convenzione tariffale relativa agli ospedali universitari (R3). Two professional associations have appealed against the decisions by the Cabinet approving (which approved) a fee agreement relating to university hospitals. The following type of usage is particularly restricted to bureaucratic and formal language: i componenti la commissione, i richiedenti asilo (R3) the members of the commission (lit the persons making up the commission); asylum seekers Past participle The past participle is also used as an adjective or noun, e.g.: innamorato; laureato, sopravvissuto, signiﬁcato in love; graduate, survivor, meaning 427 32 Subordinate clauses (i) (ii) (iii) 32.2.4 It is often used, without any auxiliary verb, to join clauses. Usually the participle is associated with a noun in the main clause and thus acts as a kind of implicit relative clause. The type of meaning of the participle depends on the auxiliary the verb takes (cf. chapter 22): for transitive verbs, the past participle has a passive meaning, e.g.: Ho ricevuto ieri una lettera speditami evidentemente da una persona analfabeta. Yesterday I received a letter obviously sent to me by an illiterate person. for intransitive verbs which take essere, the past participle has an active meaning, e.g.: Ci sono i tuoi amici fuori, venuti apposta per salutarti. Your friends are outside, who have come expressly to say hello. intransitive verbs which take avere may not use the past participle in this way. A past gerund or a ﬁnite verb must be used instead, e.g.: Matteo tornò a casa distrutto, avendo lavorato tutta la notte (or poiché aveva lavorato but not lavorato). Matteo returned home exhausted, having worked all night. In higher registers, the past participle may also be used as a separate, or “absolute,” clause with a different subject from that of the ﬁnite clause. The participle precedes its own subject and agrees with it, e.g.: (Una volta) esaminata la situazione, il comitato prenderà una decisione. Once the situation has been examined (lit The situation having been examined), the committee will make a decision. Partiti gli ospiti, ci siamo messi a riordinare. Once the guests had left (lit The guests having left), we started cleaning up. Nominalization The use of a noun instead of a verb is typical of higher registers in most languages. R2–3 Italian makes greater use of nominalization than English. Elena capı̀ che era necessario prendere l’iniziativa. Elena realized that it was necessary to take the initiative. Elena capı̀ la necessità di prendere l’iniziativa (R2–3). Elena realized the need to take the initiative. 32.2.5 (i) 428 Ways of translating words in “-ing” Great care must be taken in translating English words ending in “-ing,” since they may have a variety of meanings, whereas the Italian gerund is very speciﬁc in its use. Words in “-ing” may be: a noun, corresponding in Italian to a noun or an inﬁnitive used as a masculine singular noun (with or without article), e.g.: La lettura (or il leggere) stimola la fantasia del bambino. Reading stimulates the child’s imagination. Attraversare la strada nelle ore di punta può essere pericoloso. Crossing the road during peak hours can be dangerous. 32.2 (ii) (iii) (iv) Implicit subordinate clauses an adjective, corresponding in Italian to a relative clause or present participle, e.g.: La ragazza che attraversava la strada era la sorella di Giuseppe. The girl crossing the road was Giuseppe’s sister. an adverb, corresponding in Italian to a gerund, e.g.: E’ caduto attraversando la strada. He fell while crossing the road. a verb, corresponding in Italian to an inﬁnitive, after verbs of perception, e.g.: Ho sentito Emilia cantare. I heard Emilia singing. 429 TEXTS AND THEIR STRUCTURE 33 Interjections Interjections are a feature of the more spontaneous registers of the spoken language, the same registers where the inﬂuence of dialects is strongest. Dialectal or regional interjections (and insults) are therefore not uncommon in Italian. In Italian as in English, the use and choice of interjections ultimately reﬂect personal taste and sensibility, with “fashion” playing a big role in this very productive ﬁeld of the living language. Interjections can be “fashionable” one day and disappear the next. The following is a list of some of the more common and “established” Italian interjections: in order to avoid potential embarrassment, the students should restrict their use to the R2 expressions (at least to begin with). English pragmatic equivalents have been indicated in some cases as a guide. Some interjections appear more than once, under different labels. The words are the same, the tone changes. R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. In some words, an accent is used to indicate the main stress but should not be used when writing. See p. 29. 433 33 Interjections R1∗ Admiration General cazzo! R1 R2 cacchio! càpperi! cavolo! càspita! madonna! òstia! (North) accidenti! òstrega! (North-East) fantastico! perbacco! però! ammàppete! (Rome) ammazza(lo)! (Rome) orca! frégati! Beauty ﬁco! (Center, South) ﬁgo! (North) (note : unambiguously vulgar in the feminine) bello! bellissimo! stupendo! che bello! (with agreement) che meraviglia! Excellence bravo! bravissimo! (persons) (with agreement) R1∗ Agreement = yes cazzo! R1 come no! R2 assolutamente! certo! perché no? senz’altro! = exactly ecco! giusto! esatto! appunto! = OK 434 OK [okεi] vabbè va bene d’accordo! benissimo! perfetto! Interjections R1∗ Annoyance General R1 R2 che (rottura di) palle! (esp boredom) (che) cazzo! minchia! (Sicily) (che) cavolo! far out! cribbio! crikey! (ma) insomma! come on! merda! shit! fuck! mannaggia ((al)la miseria)! li mortacci! (Rome) (porca) puttana! porca troia! bloody hell! per la miseria! miseriaccia! blow! blast! (e) che diàmine! (ma che) diavolo! what the heck! cristo! accidenti! blast! blimey! santa pace! santa pazienza! heavens above! for heavens’ sake! uffa! (also boredom) porcaccia . . .! porca l’oca! porca miseria! porco cane/mondo/giuda! damn! note : the English vulgar use of “bloody” or “fucking” to focus one’s annoyance at sth or sb roughly corresponds to the use of the Italian expression del cazzo (R1∗ ) used after the relevant term, e.g.: questo tempo del cazzo! (R1∗ ) = this fucking weather! Directed at persons e dài! e su!/e via! come on! personal insults (with verbal/adjectival agreement) (see also chapter 3, “stup i d ”) stronzo! (lit turd) arsehole! asino! (lit donkey) you dunce! maleducato! (lit impolite) how rude! testa di cazzo! (lit dickhead) shithead! ignorante! you ignorant . . .! vaffanculo! (pl andate affanculo!) va’ a dar via il culo! (North) fuck off! va’ al diavolo! va’ a quel paese! go to hell! 435 33 Interjections Commiseration R1∗ R1 R2 ahimé! alas! poveretto! poverino! poveraccio! (with agreement) poor thing! Disappointment R1∗ same as annoyance, different tone Disbelief R1∗ R1 R2 (che) cavolo! mannaggia! (che) peccato! ma guarda! R1 R2 ma dai!/ma va’! come on! (e) già! (ironic) sure! Disgust R1∗ davvero? incredibile! non è possibile! non mi dire! (ma) no! R1 R2 che schifo! che schifezza! che porcheria! Encouragement R1∗ R1 dai! (gen) vai! (to one person) Joy R1∗ R1 R2 avanti! coraggio! forza! R2 che bello! evviva! fantastico! sı̀! 436 Interjections Disagreement No! never! R1∗ col cazzo! manco per cazzo! R1 R2 manco per idea!/sogno! manco per niente! (Rome) ma va’! nemmeno per idea!/sogno! col cavolo! macché! Not at all! per carità! per (l’)amor del cielo! per niente! niente affatto! Enough! basta! So what? regret embè? R1∗ e allora? R1 R2 ahimé! alas! (che) peccato! (what) a pity! surprise R1∗ same as annoyance except che palle!, different tone Warning R1 càspita! cavolo! oddı̀o! R1∗ mamma mia! perbacco! santo cielo! R1 occhio! R2 R2 attenzione! attento! (with agreement) 437 33 Interjections Common ‘non-word’ interjections (R1–2 unless differently indicated) 438 pain (= ouch!) ahi! [ai] (also repeated, [ai . . . ai·ai]) ohi! [ɔ i] (also repeated) ahia! [ajja] ahio! [ajjo] Doubt, ignorance (= who knows?) boh? [bo] (R1) mah? [(m)ma] (R1) Attracting attention ehi! [ei] (R1) aho! [ao] (R1∗ -1 Rome) uè! [wε] (R1 North) 34 Fillers Pauses and gaps are characteristics of spoken language, born of the necessity for the speaker to coordinate thoughts, ﬁnd the right word, keep the conversation alive etc. The expressions listed here are frequently used to ﬁll such gaps in spoken Italian, allowing the speaker to “keep the ﬂoor” while thinking of what to say next. It should be noticed that both choice and frequency in the use of these “ﬁllers” depend more on personal taste than on their literal meaning, which in these circumstances is often irrelevant. Italian expression allora be’/bèh che dico cioè cioè a dire come dire coso/cosa R1–2 R1–2 R1–2 R1–2 R1–2 R1–2 R1 diciamo diciamo cosı̀ R1–2 R1–2 English equivalent Semantic Pragmatic then so . . .; well . . . well well . . . what am I saying I mean . . . that is I mean . . . that is to say I mean . . . how to say how shall I put it . . . thing (m/f ) thingamebob, whatchacallit, whatsisname let’s say let’s say . . . let’s say so let’s say . . . R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 439 34 Fillers Italian expression 440 dunque è che (e) cosı̀ (è) vero ecco . . . R1–2 R1–2 R1–2 R1–2 R1 eee . . ./ mmm . . . facciamo cosı̀ facciamo una cosa guarda (guardate) il fatto è che R1 R1–2 R1 English equivalent Semantic Pragmatic therefore well . . .; now . . . it’s that the thing is, . . . (and) so (and) so . . . (is it) true you know? . . . there it is (mid-sentence) you know? . . .; (opener) well . . .; al s o = that’s exactly it! (interjection) er . . . let’s do (like) this let’s do this R1–2 let’s do like this let’s do one thing look R1–2 the fact is that insomma ma . . . niente . . . no? non è che non so/saprei R1–2 R1 R1 R1 R1–2 R1–2 per cosı̀ dire possiamo dire potremmo dire senti (sentite) se vogliamo vabbè vedi (vedete) vediamo (un po’) voglio dire R2 R1–2 R1–2 to sum it up but nothing isn’t it? it’s not that I don’t/would’t know so to speak we can say we could say the fact is that; to tell the truth so . . . er . . . well . . .; oh . . . you know? . . . it’s not that I don’t know . . .; how shall I put it . . . so to speak; as it were let’s say . . . let’s say . . . R1–2 R1–2 R1 R1–2 R1–2 listen if we want OK see let’s see (a bit) listen (here) . . . let’s say . . . well . . . you see . . . let’s see . . . R1–2 I want to say, I mean I mean . . . look (here) . . . 35 Connector words and expressions The “connector words and expressions” sampled in this chapter are used in both the spoken and the written language and have a cohesive function, allowing the logical ﬂow of sentences. They are therefore different from the so called “ﬁllers,” whose use can be deﬁned as “pragmatic,” to do with maintaining successful verbal interaction, and is characteristically restricted to speech. Adding Adding correlation Admitting Conﬁrming or reinforcing Contrasting allo stesso modo inoltre, per di più fra l’altro non solo . . . ma anche . . . anche se, sebbene nonostante, malgrado appunto, per l’appunto e infatti, in effetti ovviamente, certo che anzi in effetti, in realtà mentre ma, però, ma però (R1) tuttavia (R2–3) similarly also, besides among other things, furthermore not only . . . but also . . . even though in spite of precisely indeed of course even more in fact while but, however however R1∗ vulgar or indecent R1 informal, colloquial R2 neutral, unmarked R3 formal, written Italian words and expressions are R2 unless otherwise indicated. See also p. 5. 441 35 Connector words and expressions Contrasting correlation Correcting Explaining Expressing purpose Introducing cause Introducing effect Listing Stating alternatives Summing up 442 comunque, in ogni modo, in ogni caso ciononostante d’altra parte, d’altro lato da una parte . . . dall’altra . . . ; da un lato . . . dall’altro . . . ora . . . ora . . . anyway, at any rate nevertheless on the other hand on the one hand . . . on the other . . . now . . . now/then . . . sometimes . . . sometimes . . . al contrario on the contrary anzi in fact, to be precise invece instead che dico (R2), mi correggo what am I saying, I mean (both (R2–3) in spoken language) il che vuol dire che . . . which means that . . . cioè that is voglio dire (R1–2) I mean (spoken language) in modo/maniera tale che, so that cosı̀ che, cosı̀ poi (R1) poiché, dal momento che, since (usu before stating the dato che, giacché (R2–3) effect) perché because (after stating the effect) e cosı̀, e allora (R1–2) and so per cui (and) for this reason di conseguenza consequently, as a consequence dunque, perciò, quindi therefore (R1–2), pertanto (R2–3) prima di tutto . . . poi . . . ﬁrst (of all) . . . then . . . inﬁne . . . ﬁnally . . . in primo luogo . . . in ﬁrstly . . . secondly . . . secondo luogo . . . in terzo thirdly . . . (etc.) luogo . . . primo . . . secondo . . . ﬁrst . . . second . . . third . . . terzo . . . (R1–2) (o) . . . o/oppure . . . (either) . . . or . . . . . . altrimenti/sennò . . . otherwise/or else . . . (R1) . . . insomma, a/per farla breve to sum it all up, in short tutto sommato all things considered in fondo, dopotutto after all Bibliography Dictionaries Il dizionario della lingua italiana, ed. T. De Mauro (Milan: Paravia, 2000). Dizionario italiano Sabatino Coletti (Florence: Giunti, 1997). Vocabolario della lingua italiana (Rome: Istituto dell’Enciclopedia Italiana, 1996). Vocabolario della lingua italiana, 12th edition (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1997). Italian grammars Battaglia, S. and V. Pernicone, La grammatica italiana (Turin: Loescher, 1951). Dardano, M. and P. Trifone, La nuova grammatica della lingua italiana (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1997). Grande grammatica italiana di consultazione (Bologna: Il Mulino) Cited as GGIC. Vol 1: La frase. I sintagmi nominali e preposizionale, ed. L. Renzi, 1988. Vol 2: I sintagmi verbale, aggettivale, avverbiale. La subordinazione, ed. L. Renzi and G. Salvi, 1991. Vol 3: Tipi di frasi, deissi, formazione delle parole, ed. L. Renzi, G. Salvi and A. Cardinaletti, 2001. Lepschy, G. C. and A. L. Lepschy, The Italian Language Today (London: Hutchinson, 1977). Maiden, M. and C. Robustelli, A Reference Grammar of Italian (London: Routledge, 2000). Serianni, L., Grammatica italiana (Turin: UTET, 1989). Descriptions of contemporary variation in Italian Bazzanella, C., Le facce del parlare: un approccio pragmatico all’italiano parlato (Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1994). Berretta, M. “Il parlato italiano contemporaneo.” In L. Serianni and P. Trifone (eds.), Storia della lingua italiana, Volume 1 (Bari: Laterza, 1994). Canepari, L., Italiano standard e pronunce regionali (Padua: Cleup, 1983). De Mauro, T. et al. (eds.), Lessico di frequenza dell’italiano parlato (Milan: Etas libri). (Cited as LIP.) Lavino, C. and A. A. Sobrero (eds.), La lingua degli studenti universitari (Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1991). Sabatini, F., “L’italiano dell’uso medio: una realtà tra le varietà linguistiche italiane.” In G. Holtus and E. Radtke (eds.), Gesprochenes Italienisch in Geschichte und Gegenwart (Tübingen: Narr, 1985), pp. 154–184. Sobrero, A. A. (ed.), Introduzione all’italiano contemporaneo (Bari: Laterza, 1992). (Cited as IIC.) 443 Bibliography The following works were consulted on speciﬁc themes (cross-referenced by chapter number) and will be useful for those who wish to study particular points in more depth. 1 Varieties of Italian Pietrini, D., “‘X’ 6 :-(?’ Gli sms e il trionfo dell’informalità e della scrittura ludica.” Italienisch, 46 (2001): 92–101. 16 Pronouns Berretta, M., “I pronomi clitici nell’italiano parlato.” In G. Holtus and E. Radtke (eds.), Gesprochenes Italienisch in Geschichte und Gegenwart, q.v. 22 Auxiliary verbs Sorace, Antonella, “Gradients in auxiliary selection with intransitive verbs,” Language 76 (2000): 859–890. 25 Prepositions Skytte, Gunver, La sintassi dell’inﬁnito nell’italiano moderno, Revue Romane numéro supplémentaire 27 (1983). 28 Use of tenses Bertinetto, P. M., Tempo, aspetto e azione nel verbo italiano (Florence: Accademia della Crusca, 1986). Gambarara, D., “Il passato remoto nell’italiano parlato.” In T. De Mauro (ed.), Come parlano gli italiani (Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1994), pp.183–194. (Based on LIP.) 29 Sequence of tenses Vanelli, L., “La concordanza dei Tempi.” In GGIC, i i . 30 Subjunctive Schneider, S., Il congiuntivo tra modalità e subordinazione: uno studio sull’italiano parlato (Rome: Carocci, 1999). (Based on LIP.) Stewart, D., “The Italian subjunctive: tradition and innovation,” The Italianist 16 (1996): 234–304. 31 Conditional sentences Mazzoleni, Marco, “Le frasi ipotetiche.” In GGIC, i i . 32 Subordination Solarino, R., “Fra iconicità e paraipotassi: il gerundio nell’italiano contemporaneo.” In B. Moretti et al. (eds.), Linee di tendenza dell’italiano contemporaneo (Rome: Bulzoni, 1992), pp. 155–170. Voghera, M., Sintassi e intonazione dell’italiano parlato (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1992). (Based on LIP.) 444 Italian word index This Index includes all Italian words cited or discussed in the book. It covers all chapters except those which list proper, technical or foreign terms, i.e. 7 Proper Names, 8 Geographical Names, 9 Abbreviations and Acronyms, 10 Latin Expressions, 12 Numerals and Telephone Conventions, and 13 Measurement. a 321–325, 425 abbaiare 123 abbandonare 119 abbandonarsi 375 abbassare 71, 300 abbastanza 379 abbattere 100, 103, 137, 313 abbattersi 313 abbisognare 297 abbondare 304 abbreviare 100 abbuiare 298 abile 30, 376, 381 abitabile 34 abito 186 abituare 376 abituarsi 375 abituato 376 aborigeno 122 abortire 303 abusare 42, 388 acca 287 accadere 36, 297, 368 accalappiare 116 accampamento 32, 54 accendere 160 accennare 159, 369, 372, 382 accento 221, 224 accettare 90, 369 accettazione 52 accezione 52 acchiappare 116 -acchiare 173 -acchione 173 -acchiotto 171 acciaio 184 accidente 30 accidenti! 434, 435 accingersi 375 -accio 172 acciuffare 116 accoglienza 49 accogliere 72 accollare 109 accomodare 42, 131 accomodarsi 42 accomodata 131 accompagnare 149 accompagnato 175 acconsentire 90, 369 accontentarsi 370, 388 accorciare 100, 301 accordare 109 accordarsi 90 accordo 44, 90, 158, 382, 434 accorgersi 312, 370, 388 accorrere 303 accostare 313 accostarsi 313 accrescere 301 accrescersi 111 accrescimento 52 accrescitivo 223 accusare 42, 372 acqua 175, 182, 184, 185, 186 acquazzone 144 acuto 224 adattarsi 375 adatto 376 addetto 376 addirsi 90 additare 139 addormentare 313 addormentarsi 160, 313 addossare 109 addosso 180 adempiere 388 adiacenze 126 adirarsi 91 adorare 367 adulatore 36 adulterare 101 aereo da carico 40 affabile 33 affaccendato 376 affamare 159 affanculo (mandare –) 179 affascinante 94 affascinare 35, 365 affatto 286 niente – 437 affermare 133, 369, 406 afferrare 116 affettare 42, 100 afﬁbbiare 109 afﬁdare 109 afﬁnché 411 afﬁne 32 afﬁorare 296 afﬁsso 129 afﬂiggere 91 affogare 299 affondare 299 affrettarsi 117, 374 affrontare 33, 71 afrore 141 agenda 30 agente 128 – delle tasse 31 agevolare 114 agevolazione 45 aggettivo 222 aggiudicare 30, 73, 109 aggiungere 369 aggiustare 42, 131 aggiustata 131 aggrapparsi 116 aggravare 301 agguantare 116 agile 151 agitazione 32 agonia 30 agonizzare 31 ahi! 438 ahia! 438 ahimé! 436, 437 ahio! 438 aho! 438 aia! 176 aiutare 114, 186, 376 ala 258 alcolico 42 alcolizzato 42, 52 alcuno 286 alieno 381 alimentare 158 all’improvviso 137 alla ﬁne 34 allampanato 151 allargarsi 111 allegro 38, 40, 46 allenarsi 375 allenatore 40 allettante 94 allo stesso modo 441 allocco 146–147 alloggiare 31, 42, 187 allontanare 313 445 Italian word index allontanarsi 119, 313 allora 439 e –? 437, 442 alloro 175 allunare 68, 160 allungarsi 111 altarino 175 alterare 42, 101 altero 130 altezzoso 130 alto 153, 281 altrettanto 272 altrimenti 442 altro 276 d’– lato 442 d’altra parte 442 altura 115 alzare 313 – il gomito 178 alzarsi 111, 313 amare 367 ambiente 52 àmbito 52, 86 ambı̀to 86 ameno 94 America 182 ammalare 301 ammalarsi 160 ammaliante 94 ammàppete 434 ammarare 68, 160 ammazzalo 434 ammesso che 419 ammettere 90, 133, 369, 405 ammettiamo che 419 amministrare 42 ammollare 73 ammonire 118, 382 ammufﬁre 296 amore 437 ampliarsi 111 ampolla 96 amputare 100 analizzare 105 anatra 123 anche 279, 425, 441 – se 410, 441 andarci matto 166 andare 291–292, 296, 309, 369, 374 – (a qu) 162 – a male 161 – via 119 andarsene 119, 166 angioletto 10 angolare 131 446 angolo 40 – d’incidenza 35 angoscia 30 anguria 11 anello 11 anima 75 – viva 180 animato 52 animo 75 animoso 52 annata 52 annegare 69, 299 annichilare 103 annichilire 103 annientare 103 anno 52, 85, 125 – sabbatico 117 annoiare 42, 313 annoiarsi 313 annoso 125 annottare 298 annunciare 118, 133, 369 annuncio 31, 129 ano 85 ansa 114 ansioso 373 antico 125 anticucina 40 anzi 35, 441, 442 anziano 125 apertura 116 apice 153 apogeo 153 apostrofo 224 apparecchiare 160 apparenza 52, 92 apparire 297 apparizione 52, 92 appartenere 303, 365 appassire 296 appellativo 121 appendiabiti 10 appendino 10 appioppare 109 appisolarsi 160 applicazione 42 appoggiare 114, 299 apprendere 382 apprestarsi 375 approdare 296 approﬁttare 160, 312 approﬁttarsi 312 approfondire 160, 387 appropriarsi 142, 388 approvare 74, 387 appuntamento 42 appunto 434, 441 prendere appunti 149 aprile 181 aprire 160 arabo 180 arca 79 archi 145 archibugio 112 archivio 260 arco 79 ardire 371 ardore 106 area circostante 126 -arellare 173 argomentazione 52 argomento 31 arguire 31 aria 92, 175 tromba d’- 144 arido 105 arma 79, 258 – da fuoco 112, 124 armo 79 aroma 141 arrabbiare 313 arrabbiarsi 91, 313 arraffare 142 arrampicarsi 98 arrapato 88 arrendersi 312 arricchire 301 arrivare 296, 374 arrogante 130 arrossare 53 arrossire 53, 296 arrostire 299 arrosto 177 arrugginire 301 arso 105 arteﬁce 67 articolare 133 articolato 222 articolo 222 artiﬁcio 67 artiglieria 112 arto 119 ascendere 98 asciugare 301 asciutto 105, 151 ascoltare 387 asilo 49, 150 asino 123, 185, 435 aspettare 371, 382, 387, 409 aspettarsi 370 aspetto 92, 106 asportare 149 asporto 149 assaggiare 154 assaporare 53 assassinio 42 assatanato 88 asse 43 assegnare 109 assennato 38 asserire 133, 369, 406 assessore 31 assi 126 assistente 150 assistere 31, 114, 388 asso 175 assoggettare 102 assolutamente 434 assomigliare 388 assorbire 35 assordare 299 asta 143 astenersi 381 asterisco 224 astratto 222 -astro 172 astuto 42 atono 221 attaccapanni 10, 12 attaccare 374 attardarsi 375 attempato 125 attendente di volo 36, 40 attendere 31 attento 376, 437 attenuante 34 attenuare 34 attenzione 437 atterraggio 53 atterramento 53 atterrare 68, 299 atterrire 68 attico 31 attività 140, 156 attivo 223 attizzatoio 41 atto 41, 376 attore comico 32 attraente 94 attrattiva 53 attraverso 294, 326 attrazione 53 attrezzature 45 attribuire 109 attuale 31 augurarsi 371 aumentare 111, 299 autoctono 122 automobile 32 Italian word index autorizzare 376 avanti 331–332, 436 – negli anni 125 avanzamento 53 avanzare 162, 299 avanzata 53 avanzato (di età avanzata) 125 avanzo 53 – di galera 53 avariare 101 avarizia 42 avaro 36 avena 260 avercela con qu 165 averci 9, 166 avere 377, 383 – a che fare 161 – con sé 149 averla con qu 165 avidità 42 avito 85 avvalersi 312 avvampare 296 avveduto 42 avvenente 94 avvenimento 36 avvenire 296, 297 avverbio 222 avvertimento 31 avvertire 118, 372 avviare 313 avviarsi 313 avvicinare 313 avvicinarsi 313 avvisare 118 avvisato 187 avviso 129 avvito 85 avvocato 126, 175 azienda 34 -azzo 172 azzuppare 11 babbeo 146–147, 148 babbo 11, 12 babbuccia 136 baccalà 146–147 bacchetta 143 baccelli 11 Bacco 85 baco 85 bacucco 125 bada (tenere a –) 183 badarci 166 badare 31, 383 baffo 113 bagagli 259 bagagliaio 51 baggiano 146–147 bagnato 180, 184 baiocchi 120 balena 79 balenare 298 baleno 79 balı̀a 86 bàlia 86 balla 79 ballo 79 in – 178 balordo 146–147, 148 balzare 296 bambino/-a 96 banale 38 banca 75 banchetto 45 banchina 140 banco 75, 134 banda 80 bandiera 143 bando 80, 129 bar 39 baracca 31, 175 barba 113 barbaro 281 barbone 11 barca 47, 95, 182 barra 39, 143, 225 barriera 108, 155 barrire 123 barrito 123 basamento 40 base 40 basette 113 basket 39 basta 437 bastare 162, 277, 297, 365, 383, 407 bastimento 95 bastoncino 143 bastone 143, 175 battaglia (cavallo di –) 176 nome di – 121 battello 95 battere 71, 102, 180, 186 – a macchina 71 battersela 165 battersi 71 battesimo (nome di –) 121 battuta 39 bau/bau-bau 123 baule 51 bavero 43 bazar 138 be’/bèh 439 bebè 96 becco 175 – di un quattrino 120 bèe 123 belare 123 belato 123 bellino 11 bellissimo 94, 434 bello 46, 94, 165, 184, 279, 377 –/che –! 434, 436 ben nutrito 106 benché 410 bene (far –) 90 – in carne 106 benedire 175 benissimo 434 benzina 36, 107 beota 146–147, 148 bere 124, 184, 185 darla a – 165 berla 165 bersela 165 bestia 91, 175 andare in – 91 bevuta 124 bianco 184 di punto in – 88, 182 in – 175 in – e nero 175 biberon 96 biblioteca 35 bibliotecario 35 bicchiere 110 bietolone 146–147 bigiare 11 bilia 93 bigliettaio 33 bilancia 76, 260 bilancio 76 biglia 93 biliardino 40 bimbo/-a 96 binocolo 110 bisbiglı̀o 86 bisbı̀glio 86 bischero 146–147 bisdrucciolo 221 bisognare 297, 365, 407 bisogno (avere –) 159, 371 bisticcio 37 bisturi 38 bisunto 104 blaterare 133 boa 252 bocca 175, 186, 289 boccaccia (fare una –) 106 boccale 110 boccata 53, 120 boccetta 96 boccia 93 boccino 93 boccone 53, 120 body 39 boh? 438 bollare 53 bolletta 182 bollire 53 bomba 43, 80, 124 tornare a – 175 bombo 80 bordare 31 bordo 43, 140 a – 43 borgata 126 borioso 130 borraccia 96 borseggiare 142 botta 76, 124 botte (f pl) 84, 175, 259 botte (f s) 84, 176, 183 bótte/bòtte 84 bottega 138 bottegaio/-a 138 bottiglia 96 bottiglione 96 botto 76, 124 bouquet 141 box 40 bozza 76 bozzo 76 braccio 175, 253 brace 180 bramare 367 bramire 123 bramito 123 branca 80 branco 80 bravissimo 434 bravo 31, 46, 377, 381, 434 breccia 116, 132 breve (per farla –) 442 brevetto 36 briciola 76 briciolo 76 bronzo 177 bruciapelo (a –) 88, 175 bruciare 299 – le tappe brutto 165, 184, 279 buca 76, 116 buco 76, 116 447 Italian word index budello 253 bue 176, 183, 185, 258 bufera 144 bulbo oculare 93 bum 124 buon giorno 58 buono 46, 184, 281, 376 burattini 175 burbanzoso 130 burocrate 135 burrasca 144 bussare 124 bussola 43, 181 busta 67, 80 bustarella 67 bustina 67 busto 80 buttare 152 – giù 103 buttarsi 374 cabina per la doccia 40 cacchio 434 caccia 252 andare a – 137 cacciare 71, 137 cacio 11, 185 cadde 85 cade 85 cadente 33 cadere 33, 71, 124, 296 lasciare/fare – 158 caduta 124 caff è 39 cagna 123 caı̀/caı̀–caı̀ 123 calamità 86, 89 calamı̀ta 86 calare 68, 299, 301 calcagno 114, 253 calcestruzzo 33 calciare 159 calcio 103, 114, 159 – d′ angolo 40 scarpa da – 136 calcolatore 76 calcolatrice 76 calcolo 132 caldo 53 calende 176 calice 110 calorico 53 calorifero 53 caloriﬁco 53 caloroso 53 caloscia 136 calpestare 387 448 calzatura 136 calze 126 calzoni 126 cambiamento 53 cambiare 42, 71, 300 cambio 53 camera 31 camerata 252 cameriere/-a 135 camicia 176, 179 camino 85 camminare 294, 295 cammino 85, 127 campana 124, 184 campanello 124 campare 297 campeggio 32, 40, 54 camping 40, 54 campo 32, 54 – di concentramento 56 canarini 126 cancellata 108 cancelletto 224 cancelliere 43 cancello 108 candelotto 143 cane 123, 176, 180, 184, 185 freddo – 177 porco – 435 canestro 39, 137 canna 67, 143 cannella 67 cannone 67, 68, 112 cannuccia 67 canoa 95 canone 68 canonica 76 canonico 68, 76 canotto 95 cantante 54 cantare 123, 185 cantautore 54 canticchiare 170 canto 54, 123 cantore 54 canzone 54 capace 30, 373 capelli 113, 176, 259 capello 113, 176, 177 capigliatura 113 capire 406 fare – 35 capitale 120, 252 capitare 162, 297, 368 capitolo 183 capitombolo 124 capo 166–167, 176 a – 225 andare a – 225 capo d’istituto 150 capopagina 153 capote 153 capoverso 225 cappa 252 capperi 434 cappotta 153 cappuccio 153 capra 123, 176 capriola 80 capriolo 80 captare 54 carabina 112 carabiniere 128 caramella 76 caramello 76 carattere 43 carbone 184 carburante 107 cargo 40 cariarsi 44 carica 76, 156 carico 40, 76 carino 11, 94 carità 108 per – 437 carnagione 32 carne 106, 176 caro 85, 281 carovana 145 carponi 294 carrello 54 carretta 43, 54 carriola 54 carro 32, 54, 85, 176 carrozza 54 carrozzella 54 carrozzina 54 carrozzone 54 carta 43, 176 cartella 80 cartello 43, 80, 129 cartellone 129 caruccio 11 casa 67, 80, 85, 184 faccende di – 156 casaccio (a –) 176 cascare 296 casello 108 caserma 31 casino 32, 67, 86, 182 casinò 32, 86 caso 80, 107 fare – 159 in ogni – 442 per il – che 413 caso mai 413 caspita! 434, 437 cassa 40, 85 casseruola 32 cassetta 40, 76 cassetto 77 castigo 37 casuale 32 casualmente 32 catapulta 43 catastrofe 89 catena 145 catinella 181 catorcio 43 cattedratico 150 cattiveria 55 cattività 55 cattivo 33, 279 catturare 54, 116 causa 161 cautela 32 cauzione 32 cava 32, 55 cavalcare 294 cavallo 123, 186 – di battaglia 176 cavarsela 165 caverna 32, 55 cavillare 37 cavità 116 cavo 145 cavolo 176 – /che –! 434, 435, 436, 437 col –! 437 un – 180, 287 cazzo/che – ! 434, 435 col –/manco per –! 437 del – 435 stare sul – 91, 183 testa di – 435 un – 287 cazzone 146–147 cedere 109 ceffone 11 celere 128 celerino 128 -cello 170 cemento 33, 55 cencio 11 cenno (fare un –) 159 centro 134 cera 77, 106, 176 cercare 154, 186, 371, 387 cerchia 77 Italian word index cerchio 55, 77, 176 cero 77 certo 281, 373, 405–409, 434 – che 441 cervello 253 cervo 123 cessare 298, 371 cesto 39 cetriolo 32 che 9, 422–424 – dico 439, 442 cherosene 107 chi 423 chiacchierare 133 chiamare 376 chiappe 95 chiarire 301 chiaro 184 chiave (chiudere a –) 159 chicchirichı̀ 123 chicco d’uva 260 chiedere 92, 372, 387, 388 china 115 chinare 58 chinarsi 59 chioccia 123 chiocciare 123 chiocciola 224 chioma 113 chiudere 72, 159, 160, 175 chiuso 141 ci 9, 166–167, 264, 266 ciabatta 136 cianciare 133 ciarlare 133 cicalare 133 ciccione 106 ciclone 144 cieco 184, 187 cielo 176, 186 per amor del –! 437 santo –! 437 cifra 46 ciglia 113 ciglio 113, 254 cima 153 cimento 55 cinepresa 31 cinghia 55 cinguettare 123 cinguettio 123 -cino 169 cinta 55 cintola 55 cintura 55, 126 – di castità 55 – di sicurezza 50–88 cinturino 55 cinturone 55 ciò che 423 cioè 439, 442 – a dire 439 ciononostante 442 ciottolo 132 cip/cip–cip 123 circo 55 circolare 295, 296 circolo 55 circostante (area –) 126 citrullo 146–147 cittadino 50 classe 46 clava 143 clavicola 43 clessidra 110 cloche 143 coadiuvare 114 coagulare 44 coccio 185, 186 coccodè 123 cocktail 40 cocomero 11, 32 cocuzzolo 153 coda 145, 176 coerente 33 cogliere 72, 116 coglione 93, 146–147 coglioni (rompere i –) 182 stare sui – 183 cognato 32 cognome 121 colare 68, 72, 304 – a picco 181, 300 colerico 85 colf 135 colla 80 collaborare 114 collaboratrice familiare 135 collana 43 collare 43 collaudare 154 colle 115 college 32 collegio 32, 43 collerico 85 collettivo 222 colletto 43 collettore 43 collezionista 43 collina 115 collo 43, 80 colmo 153 colonna 145 colorato 55 colore 176 colorito 55 coloro che 423 colpa 80, 99 dare la – 158 farsi una – 161 colpevole 55, 373 colpo 38, 80, 176 colposo 55 cólto/còlto 84 coma 85 comandare 372 comando (barra di –) 143 comare 11, 12 combustibile 107 come 272, 409 come dire 439 come no 434 come per 413 come se 176, 401, 413 comico 32 cominciare 186, 298, 307, 374, 383 comma 85 commediante 32 commendatore 68 commentare 387 commentatore 68 commiserazione 38 commissione 156 commovente 377 commozione 32, 33 commuovere 47, 73 comodità 32 comodo 44, 176 compagno 134 comparativo 221 compare 11 comparire 297 comparizione 92 comparsa 92 compasso 43 compensare 387 compenso 127 competente 378 competenze 127 competizione 43, 98 compiacente 32 compiacenza 32 compiacersi 383 compiacimento 32 compiaciuto 30 compiere 56 compimento 55 compiti 259 compı̀to 56, 86 cómpito 86, 156 compiuto 56 complemento 55 complemento oggetto 223 complessione 32 complimento 55 comporre 74 composto 223 comprendere 406 comprendonio (duro di –) 146–147 comprensibile 56 comprensione 38 comprensivo 38, 43, 56 compromesso 43 comune 187, 222 comunicare 118 comunque 442 con 326–327, 424 – tutto che 410 concedere 109, 373 concentramento 56 concentrarsi 375 concentrazione 56 conciare 177 conciliare 49, 68, 72 concilio 68 concordare 44, 90 concorde 381 concorrenza 43, 98 fare – 158 concorrere 44, 303 – alle spese 30 concorso 98 concreto 33, 222 concussione 33 condannare 376 condizionale 223, 224 condizione 145 a – che/di 412, 418, 419 condizioni 259 essere in – di 176 conducente 56 condurre 149, 376 conduttore 33, 56 confabulare 133 confarsi 90 conferenza 35–42, 44, 133 conferire 109 confessare 133, 369 conﬁdenza 44 confortevole 44 confrontare 33, 71 449 Italian word index confrontarsi 33 confronto (mettere a –) 33 confusione 32 congedo 117 congelare 44, 73 congelarsi 44 congiuntivo 223, 224 congiunto 32 congiunzione 222 congratularsi 312, 388 congresso 44 conoscente 56 conoscenze 259 conoscere 118, 395 conoscitore 56 conquibus 120 conquistare 102 consapevole 368 consegnare 109 conseguenza (di –) 442 conseguire 75 consentire 44, 369, 383 conservante 36 conservare 48, 72 considerare 37 considerevole 50 consigliare 68, 372 consiglio 68 – di amministrazione 43 consistente 33, 50, 382 consistere 297, 381 consonante 223 contadino 36 contanti 120, 259 contarci 166 contare 72, 370 contento 33, 184, 373, 404 contenuto 33 continuare 298, 374 conto 176 tenere – 161 fare i conti 176 contrario (al –) 442 contrattare 158 contrattempo 89 contravvenire 388 contravvenzione 99 contribuire 375 contro 327–328 controcorrente 177 controllare 44, 105 convegno 44 convenire 90, 163, 304, 365, 384, 407 convenzione 44 conversare 133 450 convincere 376 convivere 299 convinto 405 cooperare 114 coperchio 153 copia 85 coppia 85, 110, 126 coprire di insulti 121 coraggio! 436 coraggioso 31, 378 corda 145, 186 cordiale 34, 40 cordicella 145 cordoncino 145 cordone 145 cornacchia 123 cornata 158 corner 40, 177 corna (con le –) 88 avere/mettere le – 177 fare le – 177 corno 88, 254 cornuto 88, 185 corpo 39 corpulento 106 correggere 131 correggo (mi –) 442 correre 72, 117, 302, 374 corresponsione 127 corrispondere 90 corrompere 101 corsa 77 corsivo 222, 225 corso 41, 77, 127 córso/còrso 84 corteo 145 cortese 33 corvo 123 cosa 439 facciamo una – 440 – che 423 coscia 77, 119 – di pollo 143 coscienza 44 coscio 77, 119 cosı̀ 272, 379 – che 442 – da 411 – poi 442 diciamo – 440 e – 440, 442 facciamo – 440 per – dire 440 coso 17, 439 costa 80, 115 costante 33 costare 297, 365 – un patrimonio 120 costipato 44 costipazione 44 costo 80 costretto 377 costringere 376 cotto 176 cova 77 covo 77 cra cra 123 crac 124 crasso 33 creativo 56 creatore 56 creatura 44, 96 crederci 166 credere 370, 405 credersela 165 crema 44 crepa 116 crepaccio 116 crepare 296 crescenza 52 crescere 111, 300 crescita 52 cresta 153 cretino 146–147, 148 cribbio! 435 crimine 99 crine 113 criniera 113 cristallo 110 cristianità 44 cristo! 435 critica 77, 155 critico 77 croce 10 a occhio e – 180 crocetta 10 crociera 10 crollare 296 fare – 103 crosta (terrestre) 153 cruccia 10 crudele 45 crudo 176 cucco 184 cucinare 56 cucuzzolo 153 cufﬁa 182 cui 422 per – 442 culmine 153 culo 95, 107 avere – 107, 177 che –! 177 mandare affanculo 179 prendere per il – 178 va’ a dar via il –! 435 cuocere 56, 301 cuoia 254 tirare le – 177 cuoio 254 cuore 132, 186 cupı̀do 86 cùpido 86 cupo 36 curatore 34 curioso 373 cuscinetto a sfera 93 d’accordo 44, 90, 158, 382, 434 da 309, 327, 328–331 – parte di 309 dai/ (e) –! 435, 436 dal momento che 442 danaro 120 danneggiare 101 dappertutto 140 dare 42, 109 – da mangiare 158 – nell’occhio 180 – retta 159 darla a bere/intendere 165 dati 259 dato (n) 259 dato (V) (essere –) 369 – che 442 davanti 331–332 davvero? 436 decade 33 decadere 44, 71, 296 decennio 33 decente 44 decidere 30, 369, 384 decidersi 375, 384 deciso 377 declamare 133 declino (in –) 30 declivio 115 decollare 119 decomporsi 44 decorrere 297, 303 decrepito 125 decrescere 296 deferire 45, 49, 73 deﬁciente 56, 146–147, 148 deﬂuire 296 deformare 101 deforme 56 degenerare 296 Italian word index degnarsi 160 degno 373 degustare 73 del luogo 122 delitto 99 delizioso 94 deludere 33 delusione 33 deluso 404 demolire 103 demonio 184 denaro 36, 120 – sporco 104 denotare 139 dente 152 denunciare 45, 161 denunziare 45 denutrito 151 deperito 151 deperire 296 depredare 142 deprimere 313 deprimersi 313 deragliare 296 deretano 95 derivare 300 derubare 74, 142 desiderare 367, 407 desistere 381 destare 313 destarsi 313 destinato 377 destino 107 destituito 33 destituzione 33 desumere 405 deteriorare 101 determinare 384 determinativo 222 deturpare 101 devastare 103 di 37, 332–334 – fatti 31 – fronte 331–332 dialetto 119 dialogare 133 diamine 435 diaria 127 diatesi 223 diavolo 177, 179, 185 che –! 435 l’avvocato del – 175 va’ al –! 435 dicci 85 diceria 38 dichiarare 35, 133, 369, 406 dici 85 diciamo (cosı̀) 439 didietro 93, 95 dietro (n) 93 dietro (prep) 290–291, 335 difensore 93 difettivo 45, 56 difettoso 45, 56 differire 45, 73 difﬁcile 377 difﬁcoltà 382 difﬁdare 381 difforme 56 diffusamente 87 dilapidare 33 dilapidato 33 dilatarsi 111 diluvio 144 dimagrire 300 dimenticare 314, 370 dimenticarsi 314, 370 diminuire 300 diminutivo 223 dimissioni 259 dimostrare 34, 139 dimostrativo 222 din don 124 dinamite 143 dinanzi 331 dindi 120 dinnanzi 331 dintorni 126 dio 258 Dio 181, 186 dipendente 222 dipendere 297, 388 dire 133, 186, 369, 372, 406 mandare a – 376 direttore 33, 34, 150 dirla grossa 158 disapprovare 387 disastro 89 discendere 298 discesa 115 in – 88 disco 41, 47, 100 discordia (pomo della –) 181 discorrere 72, 133, 303 discorso 133 discussione 31 discutere 31, 133 disfare 103 disgrazia 33, 91 essere in – 33 disgustare 73 disidratato 105 disintegrare 103 disoccupazione 156 disonore 33 disperato 373 dispiacere 163, 297, 366, 404, 407 dispiaciuto 373 disponibile 377 disporre 384, 388 disposto 377 dissecare 100 disseccato 105 dissuadere 381 distare 160 distendersi 41 distensione 41 distinto 282 distruggere 103 disturbare 91 disturbo 91 dito 177, 254 ditta 34 dittongo 223 divampare 296 divenire 296 diventare 111, 296 diverso 282 divertirsi 375 divisa 120 divisorio 155 doccia (– scozzese) 177 cabina per la – 40 docente 150 documento 37, 41 doglie 47 dolce 282 dolere 186, 297 dolore 30 domanda 33, 42, 49, 92 domandare 33, 92, 368, 372, 387 domani 186 domestico (adj) 45, 156 domestico (n) 45, 135 donare 109, 186 donazione 108 donna (– delle pulizie) 135 – di servizio 135 dono 108 dopo 335 dopotutto doppietta 112 dormire 177, 185, 186 dorso 93 dosso 115 dotare 109 dote 108 dótto/dòtto 84 dottore 34 dovere (n) 157 dovere (V) 267, 306–307, 367, 397, 417 dovunque 140 drin/drindrin 124 dring/dring-dring 124 dubbio 405 dubitare 370, 388 due punti 224 duna 115 dunque 440, 442 durare 304 duro 184 – di comprendonio 146–147 e/è 83 e commerciale 224 ebete 146–147, 148 eccellere 297 eccessivo 38 eccetto che 412 eccı̀ 124 eccitato 88 ecco 434, 440 echeggiare 298 editore 34 – del montaggio 34 educatore 150 educatrice 150 educazione 34 eee . . . 440 effettivamente 34 effettivo 34, 56 effetto 153 in effetti 35, 441 efﬁcace 34, 56, 377 efﬁcacemente 34 efﬁciente 56 efﬂuvio 141 ehi! 438 elaborare 37 elargire 109 elargizione 108 elefante 123 elementare 150 elemosina 108 -ellare 173 -ello 170 elsa 114 emaciato 151 emanare 304 embè? 437 451 Italian word index emergere 296 emigrare 302 emotivo 57 emozionante 57 emozione 45 emporio 138 energetico 57 energico 57 enfasi 45 enfatico 45 entrarci 167 entrare 296 entrata 108 entro 352 entusiasmare 366 epico 45 epigrafe 129 epitafﬁo 129 epopea 45 equilibrio 40 equivalere 297 -erellare 173 -erello 170 erta 115 erudito 50 esalazione 141 esaminare 105 esatto 434 esauriente 43 esaurientemente 88 eschimese 40 eschimo 40 esclamare 369 escludere 406 esempio 35 esemplare 36 esercente 138 esercitarsi 388 esercizio commerciale 138 esibire 139 esibizione 37, 45 esigente 34 esigere 33, 92 esile 151 esistere 297 esitante 377 esitare 375, 381 esito 34 eskimo 40 esondare 296 esortare 376 esoso 38 espandersi 111 espatriare 296 espletivo 45 esplodere 124, 300 esplosione 124 452 esporre 133, 139 esposizione 45 espressione 106 espresso 52 esprimere 39, 74 esprimersi 133 essere 297, 375, 381 – dietro a 10, 291 è che 440 non è che 286–288, 440 estendersi 111 estenuante 34 estenuare 34 esteso (per –) 87, 88 estorcere 142 età 125 -ettare 173 -etto 170 evadere 304 evaporare 304 evento 36 eventuale 34 eventualità (nell’ – che) 419 eventualmente 34 evidenza 34 evincere 34 evitare 371, 407 evolvere 296 evolversi 111 evviva! 436 fabbrica 34 faccenda 156 facchino 48 faccia 106, 140, 177 rompere/spaccare la – 179 facciamo cosı̀ 440 facciamo una cosa 440 facciata 140 facile 34, 184, 377 facilità 45 facilitare 114 facilitazione 45 falciare 100 falla 77 fallare 57 fallire 45, 57, 303 fallo 77, 99 falò 106 fame 159, 184 famigerato 36, 57 familiare 45 famoso 57 fanciullo/-a 96 fango 68 fantasia 382 fantastico 434, 436 fantolino/-a 96 farcela 165, 182, 375 fare 123, 186, 384 – a meno 161 – in modo 161 far – 368 sul – del giorno/della sera 425 farla ﬁnita 165 farla franca 165 farla grossa 165 farla lunga 165 farneticare 133 farsi le pere 137 fastidio 42, 91, 158, 366, 407 fastidioso 34 fatica 47, 156 faticare 11, 375 fato 107 fattezze 105 fatto (n) (il – che) 409 il – è che 440 fatto (V) (venire –) 369 fatuo 130 fava 181 favella 119 favoriti 113 fede 11 fegato 177 felice 373 felicità 57 felicitazione 57 femminile 222 fendere 69, 100 fenditura 116 ferace 68 ferale 45 feriale 117 ferie 117 ferire 35, 137 ferita 35 fermare 313 fermarsi 313, 374 fermo 45 feroce 51, 68 ferro 177, 186 – di cavallo 136 toccare – 177 fertilizzare 158 fesso 146–147, 148 fessura 116 festa 45, 57, 117, 177 Buone Feste 259 festino 45 festività 57, 117 festivo 46, 57, 117 festoso 46, 57 fetore 141 Fiamme gialle 128 ﬁancata 140 ﬁanco 140 ﬁasca / ﬁaschetta 96 ﬁasco 43, 96 ﬁato 100 ﬁca 80 ﬁco 80, 94, 434 un – secco 166, 180, 287 ﬁdarsela 165 ﬁdarsi 388 ﬁero 130, 373 ﬁglio/-a 96 ﬁgo 94, 434 ﬁgura 46 ﬁla 80, 144, 177 ﬁlarsela 165, 177 ﬁlmare 137 ﬁlo 80, 145, 254 – da torcere 177 ﬁlone (fare –) 11 ﬁlosofale (pietra –) 132 ﬁltrare 300 ﬁlza 145 ﬁnale (adj) 34 ﬁnale (n) 252 Finanza 128 ﬁnanziere 128 ﬁnché 412 ﬁne (adj) 46 ﬁne (n) 40, 252 al – di 411 alla – 34, 88 ﬁnestra 156 ﬁnestrino 156 ﬁngere 37, 406 ﬁnire 298, 371, 384 ﬁnirla 165 ﬁnito 165, 223 ﬁno 294, 336 ﬁnta (fare –) 37, 370, 406 ﬁoccare 298 ﬁonda 43 ﬁore (il ﬁor –) 177 ﬁorire 296 ﬁrma 34 ﬁschiettare 169 ﬁsica 80 ﬁsico 34, 80 ﬁsionomia 106 ﬂacone 96 ﬂemma 46 Italian word index ﬂipper 40 ﬂorido 106 focaia (pietra –) 132 foglia 77, 185 foglio 77 folla 69 folle 69 fondamento 57, 254 fondare 69, 73 fondazione 57 fondello 178 fondere 69, 301 fondi 120 fondo 93, 134 in – 442 fondoschiena 95 fonologia 221 fontana 185 fonte 252 footing 40 forbici 126 forca 67 forchetta 67 forcina 67 forcone 67 forma 46 formaggio 11 formalità 32 formazione 30, 46 formı̀ca 86 fòrmica 86 formicolio 260 formoso 94 fornire 109 foro 116 fóro/f òro 84 foro di ventilazione 38 forte 184, 377 fortuna 107, 120 avere – 177 fortunale 144 fortunato 373 forza 436 forze 259 – dell’ordine 259 fossa 57, 77, 116 fossato 57 fosso 77 fotografare 137 fotograﬁa 137 fotograﬁco (macchina –) 31 fottersene 166 fra 345–346 – l’altro 441 fracassare 97 fracassarsi 97 fracasso 34 fragranza 141 franare 296 franco (farla franca) 165 frantumare 97 frantumarsi 97 frantumi (mandare in –) 97 frase 46, 50, 255 freddezza 57 freddo 57, 177, 184 freddura 57 fregare 142 fregarsene 166 frégati! 434 frequenza 35 fretta 117 frettoloso 187 friggere 179 frizione 46 frodare 142 fronte 252 di – a 331–332 frugoletto/-a 96 frutta 77 frutto 77 fucilare 137 fucile 112 fuggire 304 full 40 fumando 41 fumante 41 fumare 41, 185 fumo 177 fune 145 funerale 259 funerali 259 fungo 46, 68 funzionario 135 funzione 156 fuoco 106, 137, 176, 177, 179 fuori 336–337 – dai gangheri 178 – di sé 178 buttare – 152 fuori bordo 43, 95 fuorigioco 140 fuoriuscire 296 furbo 178 furie 91 fuso 254 futile 38 futuro 223 futuro anteriore 223 gaffe 178 galleggiare 295 gallina 123, 178, 186 gallo 123, 187 galoscia 136 gamba 77, 119 gambo 77 gamma 252 ganascia 179 ganghero 178 gara 98 garage 40 garretto 145 garrire 123 garrito 123 garzone 96 gasolio 36, 107 gatta 178, 187 gattino 187 gatto 123, 178, 185, 186 gaudio 187 gelare 73, 298, 301 gelata 57, 78 gelato 78 gelo 57 gemelli 126 gemma 132 gendarme 128 genere 222 generi alimentari 138 genesi 252 geniale 34 genitore 36 gentile 34, 382 gente 260 gergo 119 gerundio 223 gesto 254 gettare 152 – la spugna 183 ghermire 116 ghiaccio 155, 184 ghiaia 132 ghiro 185 ghisa 128 già 436 giacca 153 giacché 422, 442 giaccone 40 giacere 297 gilè 39 ginnastica 136 ginocchio 145, 254 giocare 388 giocatore 153 giocherellare 169 gioco 178 in – 178 giornaliero 127 giornata 58, 127 giorno 58, 117, 187 giovane 96 giovanotto 96 giovare 90, 297, 388 gioviale 34 girare 137, 185, 300 giro 178 gironzolare 295 giù 342 giuda (porco –) 435 giudicare 30, 58, 73, 154 giudiziale 58 giudiziario 58 giungere 296, 374 giurare 369 giuridico 58 giustiﬁcare 38 giustiziare 58 giusto 434 gli 9, 263–264 globo 93 glu glu /glu-glu 124 glutei 95 gnocco 12 goal 40 goccia 78, 178 goccio 78 gocciolare 304 godere 371 godimento 382 gol 40, 137 golf 40 gomito 178 gomitolo 93 gonfalone 129 gonﬁare 301, 313 gonﬁarsi 111, 313 gonzo 146–147 gorgheggı̀o 86 gorghéggio 86 governante 58, 135 governatore 58 gracchiare 123 gracchio 123 gracidare 123 gracidio 123 gracile 151 gradevole 94 gradinata 134 gradire 367 grado 222 graffo 224 graﬁco 221 grammatica 187 grana 78, 120 granata 252 453 Italian word index grande 35, 184, 282 grandinare 298 grandinata 144 grano 78 grassetto 225 grasso 184 grassoccio 106 grassottello 106 gratiﬁca 127 grato 373 grattare 142 grave 224 grazia 176 grazioso 34, 94 gregge 69 greggio 69, 107 grido 254 groppa 80, 93 groppo 80 grosso 34, 35, 106, 184 dirla/farla grossa 165 grossolano 34 grotta 32 gruccia 10 grugnire 123 grugnito 123 grugno 30, 34 grullo 146–147 gruzzolo 120 guaire 123 guaito 123 guanti 126 guardare 387 guarda/guardate! 440 – /ma –! 436 guardaroba 40 guardarsi 160, 381 guardia 58, 128 Guardia di Finanza 128 guardiano 58 guarire 300 guastare 101, 313 guastarsi 313 guerriglia 34 guerrigliero 34 guidare 149, 294 gustare 73 gusto 187 hi ho/i-o 123 hinterland 126 ho/o 83 hockey 143 hostess 36, 40 i 182 -icchiare 173 454 -iccio 171 -icciolo 170 -icciuolo 170 -icello 170 -iciattolo 171 -icino 169 idea 437 idioma 46, 119 idiomatismo 46 idoneo 377 idiota 146–147, 148 idoneo 378 iella 11, 107 ieri sera 64 -igno 171 ignorante 46, 435 ignorare 46, 370, 406 il che 423 – vuol dire che . . . 442 illudere 33 illudersi 406 illusione 33 imbarcare 313 imbarcarsi 31, 313 imbarcazione 95 imbattersi 71, 312 imbecille 146–147, 148 imbestialirsi 91 imbiancare 300 imbianchire 300 imbrattato 104 imbronciato 36 imbrunire 301 immaginare 370, 405 immaginarsi 405, 406 immediatamente 37 immigrare 296 immondo 104 impadronirsi 116, 313 impallidire 296 imparare 375 impassibilità 382 impaurire 301 impaziente 373 impazzare 58 impazzire 58, 297 impedire 372, 407 impegnarsi 375 imperativo 223 imperfetto 223 impiccato 186 impiegato 135 impiego 156 implorare 92, 372 impolverato 104 imporre 372 importante 46 importare 163, 180, 297, 366, 408 importarsene 166 importunare 91 impossessarsi 116 impossibile 377 imprecazione 45 impresa 34 imprevisto 89 improvviso (all’–) 137 impugnare 116 impugnatura 114 imputridire 297 in 337–340, 424 – effetti 35, 441 – realtà 441 inabitabile 34 inasprire 301 incacchiarsi 91 incallito 88 incantevole 94 incapace 373 incaricare 372 incaricato 373 incarico 109, 156 incavolarsi 91 incazzarsi 91 incendiare 387 incendio 106 incenerire 103 inchinare 58 inchinarsi 59 inchino 59 inciampare 295 fare – 159 incidente 30, 90 incidenza 35 incidere 100 incitare 376 inclinare 58 inclinarsi 59 incline 377 incombenza 156 incominciare 298, 374 incomodare 91 inconscio (adj) 46, 59 inconscio (n) 59 incontrare 312 incontrarsi 312 incontro 98 incoraggiare 376 incorrere 303 incosciente 46, 59 incredibile 436 incrinare 97 incrinarsi 97 incrudelire 305 incudine 178 indagare 105 indebolire 301 indecente 104 indeﬁnito 222, 223 indennità 127 indeterminativo 222 indiano 177 indicare 139 indicativo 223 indicazione 129 indietreggiare 296 indietro (marcia –) 179 indigeno 122 indigente 33 indigenza 33 indignarsi 91 indipendente 222 indorare la pillola 181 indurre 376 inebriare 35 infangato 104 infante 96 infatti 35, 441 infelice 404 infelicità 35 inferiore 150, 364 inferire 69 inﬁammare 313 inﬁammarsi 313 inﬁerire 69 inﬁne 442 inﬁnito 223 inﬁschiarsene 166 inﬂuenzare 388 inﬂuire 42, 388 informale 32, 59 informare 118 informatica 59 informazione 59, 259 informazioni 259 informe 59 infortunio 89 infradito 136 infrangere 97 infrangersi 97 infrazione 99 infuriarsi 91 ingegnosità 35 ingelosire 301 ingenuità 35 ingiuria 35, 121 ingiuriare 35 inglese 177 ingrandire 300 ingrandirsi 111 ingrassare 111, 300 Italian word index ingrassarsi 111 ingrossare 35, 111, 300 ingrossarsi 35, 111 inguine 34 iniziare 298 inizio 153 innamorati 126 innanzi 331 innervosire 91 -ino 169 inoltre 441 inosservanza 99 inquinamento 36 inquinato 104 insanguinato 104 insaporire 53 insegna 129 insegnante 150 insegnare 376 insensato 146–147, 148 inserviente 135 inserzione 31, 129 insistere 375, 384 insolazione 69 insomma 435, 440, 442 insorgere 296 insospettire 300 inspirare 73 insulso 146–147, 148 insultare 42, 121 insulto 121 intagliare 100 intelligente 146–147 intemperie 259 intendere 46, 385 darla a – 165 intendersela 165 intendersi 118 intentare 161 intento 377 intercorrere 303 interessamento 59 interessare 305, 366, 385 interessato 377 interesse 59, 259 interno 45 interrogare 92 interrogatorio 35, 59 interrogazione 35, 59 intervenire 46, 296 intimare 35 intimidire 300 intoppo 89 intossicare 35 intransitivo 223 introdurre 46 intuire 405 invalido 47 invecchiare 300 invecchiato 125 invece 442 investigare 105 investire 47 invidioso 35 invitare 376 invogliare 313 invogliarsi 313 inzuppare 11 ipermarket 138 ipermercato 138 ipotesi 419 irascibile 36 irascibilità 36 irritabile 36 irritabilità 36 irritare 91, 313 irritarsi 313 irritato 373 iscrizione 129 isolamento 69 ispezionare 105 ispirare 73 istanza 35 istituto universitario 32 istitutore 150 istitutrice 150 istruire 47 istruito 47 istruttore 150 istruttrice 150 istruzione 34 jeans 40 jolly 40 joystick 143 labbro 254 laburista 47 laccio 11, 145 laddove 419 ladro 128 lagnarsi 313, 369 lamentela 59 lamentarsi 369 lamento 59 lampeggiare 298 lancia 47, 81, 95 spezzare una – 178 lanciare 152 lancio 47, 81 – del disco 47 lapide 129, 132 largo 35 al – 87 alla larga 87 lasciare 119, 371, 378, 385 – in asso 175 lascivo 88 lastrico 182 lato 106, 140 da un – 140 d’altro – 442 da un – . . . dall’altro . . . 442 di – 140 latrare 123 latrato 123 lattante 96 lavanderia 40 lavarsene le mani 179 lavorare 11 lavoro 47, 156 legaccio 145 legare 73 leggiadro 94 legna 78 legno 78, 95 Lei 268–269, 403 lente (d’ingrandimento) 110 lenzuolo 255 leone 123 leopardo 123 lercio 104 lesione 35 letizia 382 lettera 225 letto 178 lettore 150 lettrice 150 lettura 35 letture 259 levare 149 lezione 35 lezzo 141 libero 38, 373 libertà 87 libraio 35 libreria 35 libro 185 licenza 47, 117 lieto 373 lievitare 300 lima 81 limitarsi 160, 375 limitrofo (zona limitrofa) 126 limo 81 linea 178 lineamenti 105 lineetta 224 lingotto 39 lingua 59, 119, 181 – materna 122 linguaggio 59, 119 liquido 120 lira 120, 178 liscio 184 lite 31, 34 litigante 187 litigio 37 livello 153 locale 122 locandina 129 locazione 35 locuzione 46 lontano 187, 381 look 92 lordo 104 loro 267, 316 Loro 268–269, 403 loto 85 lotta 81 lotto 81, 85 lucci 85 luccicare 297 luce 178 luci 85 lumaca 184 lume 178 luminoso 129 lungi 381 lungo (prep) 294, 348 lungo (adj) (a –) 88 alla lunga 88 farla lunga 165 saperla lunga 165 tirarla per le lunghe 165 lunotto 156 luogo 122 – convenuto 38 in primo – 442 lupara 112 lupo 123, 185 lurido 104 lusso 35, 59 lussuoso 35, 59 lussuria 35, 59 lussurioso 35, 59 ma . . . 440 –/– però 441 – dai! 436 – guarda! 436 – insomma! 435 – no! 436 – va’! 437 macché! 437 455 Italian word index macchia 178 macchiato 104 macchina 34 – da presa 31 – fotograﬁca 31 macigno 132 macilento 151 madonna 434 della – 182 madrelingua 122 madrepatria 122 madrina 11 maestro 150, 382 magari 403 magazzino 138 maggiordomo 135 maggior parte 261 magico 143 maglia 39 maglione 40 magniﬁco 94 mah? 438 mai 187, 286 maiale 123, 184, 185 maiuscolo 225 male 187 andare a – 161 fare – 35, 158, 375, 388 maleducato 37, 435 malgrado 441 mamma mia 437 mammalucco 146–147 mancanza 159 mancarci 167 mancare 159, 163, 277, 305, 371, 385 – una rotella 182 manco 286, 415 – per cazzo/idea/ sogno/niente 437 mandare 376 – a quel paese 179, 435 maneggı̀o 86 manéggio 86 manganello 143 mangiare 179, 180, 185 dare da – 158 mangiarsi le mani 179, 181 mangiucchiare 170 manica 81, 175 maniche 179 manico 81, 114 maniera (in – (tale) che) 411, 442 manifestare 34, 139 manifestazione 47 456 manifesto 129 maniglia 114 mannaggia! 435, 436 mano 179 dare una – 114 manodopera 47, 157 manovella 114 mansione 156 mantello 113 mantenere 38, 73 mantenimento 59 manubrio 114 manutenzione 59 marcare 59 marchiare 59 marcia 47 – indietro 179 mettere in – 47 marciapiede 36 marciare 69, 294, 295 marcire 44, 69, 297 mare 186 margine 140 marmocchio 96 marrone 35 – rossiccio 35 martello 178 maschile 222 massiccio 115 massima 178 massimo 153 masso 132 materia 50 materiale 47 materno 122 matta 40 mattina 59, 187 mattinata 59 mattino 59 matto 181 maturare 300 maturo 125 Matusalemme 184 mazza 81, 143 mazzetta 67 mazzo 67, 81 media 60 mass – 60 mediano 60 medicamento 47, 60 medicazione 47, 60 medicina 47, 60, 149 medico 34 medio 60, 150 medium 60 meglio 102, 154, 275 fare del proprio – 154 mellone 11 melone 11 membro 255 menare 149, 176 mendicante 11 meno (– male) 404 a – che/di 412 del più e del – 180 fare a – 161 mensile 127 mensilità 127 menta 81 mente (venire in –) 36 mentecatto 146–147 mento 81 mentre 441 meraviglia 434 meravigliare 313 meravigliarsi 313, 404 meraviglioso 94 mercante 180 merce 32, 260 mercede 127 merda! 435 meritare 369 merlo 146–147 messa 69 messe 69 mestiere 156 meta 40, 87 metà 87 meticoloso 34 metronotte 128 metterci 167 mettere 118 – al corrente 118 – alla prova 154 – in marcia 47 – in mostra 139 mettersi 374 – dalla parte di 161 – in testa 371 mettiamo (il caso) che 419 mezzo (adj) 88 mezzo (n) 260 mi 262 – correggo 442 miagolare 123 miagolio 123 miao 123 miasma 141 mica 8, 286 migliorare 300, 303 migliore 153, 275 migrare 296 miliare 132 milite 128 milizia 128 minacciare 371 minchia 435 minchione 146–147 mingherlino 151 minuscola 225 mirabile 94 mirare 375 miscela 40 miscuglio 40 miseria 35, 435 miseriaccia! 435 misero 36 misfatto 99 mister 40 mitra 112 mitragliatrice 112 mm . . . 440 mobile (adj) 47 mobile (n) 47 mocassino 136 moccioso/-a 96 moda 78 modo 78, 223 allo stesso – 441 fare in – 161 in – (tale) che 411, 442 in – da 411 in ogni – 442 modulo 46 moglie 183, 258 molestare 91 mollare 74, 109 moltiplicarsi 111 momento (dal – che) 442 monaca 11 monaco 186 mondo 179, 435 monello 96 moneta 36, 120 montagna 60, 115 montagnoso 60 montanaro 60 montano 60 montare 98, 298 montato 130 monte 60, 115 montone 123 montuoso 60 mora 78, 85 morale 252 morbido 36, 60, 260 morboso 36, 60 morfologia 221 Italian word index morire 159, 186, 297 – dal ridere 381 moro 78 moroso 36 morra 85 morsa 78 morso 78, 120 mortacci! 435 mortaio 112 morte 184 mosca 179, 184 moschetto 112 mostra 45, 81 mettere in – 139 mostrare 139 mostro 81 mota 81 moto 81, 253 motocicletta 81 motorino d’avviamento 41 motoscafo 95 mozzare 100 mucca 123 muffa 141 muggire 123 muggito 123 mulattiera 127 mulinello 144 munizioni 260 muovere 47, 73, 301, 313 muoversi 47, 121, 313 muraglia 155 muraglione 155 muretto 155 muricciolo 155 muro 55, 155, 185, 255 muso 106, 179 mutande 126 mutare 300 mutilare 100 muto 184 muu 123 nafta 36, 107 narrare 133 nascere 176, 297 naso 178, 179 nastro adesivo 41 natale 122 natiche 95 natio 122 nativo 122 nave 95 – da carico 40 navetta 183 navigare 294, 295 nazionale 45 ne 264–265, 272 né 286 neanche 286 necessario 377 negare 69, 74, 369, 406 negoziante 138 negozio 138 nemmeno 286 – per idea/sogno 437 neon 129 neonato/-a 96 neppure 286 neretto 225 nero 175, 183, 184 nessuno 286 neve 144, 184 nevicare 298 nevicata 144 niente 9, 180, 286, 289 – . . . 440 – affatto 437 per – 437 nitrire 123 nitrito 123 no 284–285, 286–288 –? 440 come –! 434 ma –! 436 perché –? 434 nocciòlo 87 nòcciolo 87 noce 253 noia (dare –) 91 noialtri 262 nome 121, 222 nomignolo 121 nomina 42 nominativo 121 non 270–272, 285–288, 289, 412 – . . . che 284–285 – che 405–409 – è che 286–288, 405–409, 440 – è possibile 436 – mi dire! 436 – perché 411 – plus ultra 153 – so/saprei 440 – solo . . . ma anche . . . 441 nonno 86 nono 86 nonostante 441 nota 37 note 86 notiﬁcare 118 notorio 36 nottata 60 notte 60, 86, 175, 185 notturno 128 novella 67 nozze 260 nubifragio 144 nulla 176, 180, 187, 286 nullo 51 numero 46, 222 numeroso 282 nuocere 101, 187 nuotare 185, 294, 295 nuovo 282 – di zecca 180 nutrito 106 nuvola 180 o/ho 83 obbligare 376 obeso 106 oblò 156 obolo 108 obsoleto 125 oca 123, 146–147, 181, 435 occhiali 50, 110, 126 occhiata (dare un’–) 38 occhio 180, 186, 437 non chiudere – 180, 289 saltare agli occhi 180 -occio 172 occorrenza 36 occorrere 36, 163, 303, 366, 408 occupato 377 occupazione 156 oddio! 437 odioso 35 odore 141 odorino 141 offendere 313 offendersi 313, 370 offerta 108 ofﬁce 40 ofﬁcina 66 offrire 109 oggetto 223 oggi 186 ogni (in – caso) 442 in – modo 442 -ognolo 172 ohi 438 OK 434 olezzo 141 -olino 169 olio 107, 178, 184 -olo 170 oltrepassare 74 omaggio 108 ometto 10 omicidio colposo 55 onda 60 ondata 60 -one 170, 172 onomastico 57 onorario 127 onorato 373 -onzolo 171 opera 156 operare 387 opportunità 47 oppure 442 ora (– di punta) 82 – . . . – . . . 442 è – che 408 non vedere l’- 407 orario 127 orca 434 ordinare 372 ordinario 150 ordine 30 ore 126 orecchia 180 orecchio 180, 182 orfano 48 orgoglioso 130 oriﬁzio 116 originale 61 originario 61, 122 oriundo 122 orologio 124 orribile 377 osare 367 osceno 104 ospitare 42 ospite 36 ossequioso 36 osso 180, 255 in carne ed ossa 176 pelle e ossa 151 oste/ostessa 36 ostentare 139 ostia 434 ostrega 434 ostrica 36 -ottare 173 -otto 171 ottuso 146–147, 148 ove 419 ovunque 140 ovviamente 441 457 Italian word index pace 435 padella 180 padrino 11 padrona di casa 40 padrone 36 paesano 36 paese 36, 186 mandare a quel – 179, 435 paf/paffete 124 paffuto 106 paga 127 pagare 181, 186, 387 paio 126 pala 81, 86 palanche 120 palato 153 palazzo 48 palcoscenico 41 palesare 139 paletto 143 palla 86, 93 pallacanestro 39 palle (che (rottura di) –!) 435 rompere le – 91, 182 pallina 93 pallino 93 palloncino 93 pallone 93 pallottola 93 palma 78 palmo 78 palo 81, 143 pam/pamfete 124 panca 134 panchetto 134 panchina 134 panciotto 39 panciuto 106 pane 67, 97, 180, 184 panino 67 panna 44, 81 panno 81 pantalone 260 pantofola 136 pantomima 36 papa 48, 86, 87 papà 11, 87 pappa 86 para 87 parà 87 parabrezza 156 parafulmine 33 paraggi 126 paragone 36, 132 paragrafo 225 458 parcella 127 parente 32, 36, 49 parentela 49 parentesi 224 parere 164, 297, 368 parete 140, 155 – rocciosa 36 pargolo/-a 96 parlarci 167 parlare (n) 119 parlare (V) 133, 180, 185, 371 parlarsi addosso 180 parlata 119 parlottare 169 parola 32, 119, 289 essere di – 181 prendere la – 133, 181 rimangiarsi la – data 182 parolaccia 45 parte 69, 330 da – 140 da una –.. dall’altra . . . 441, 442 d’altra – 442 la maggior – 261 mettersi dalla – di 161 schierarsi dalla – di 161 partecipare 118 participio 223 partire 119, 296 partita 81, 98 partito 47, 81 parto 69 pascià 185 pasqua 184 passata 12 passare 74, 155, 300, 305, 374 – per la mente/testa 369 – per le armi 137 col – del tempo 183, 425 passarla bella/brutta 165 passarsela 173 passato 223 passeggiare 294, 295 passione 106 passivo 223 passo 181 pasta 152 patapum/patapunfete 124 patatrac 124 patente 36, 47 patria 122 patrimonio (spendere un –) 120 pattı̀no 87 pàttino 87 patto (a – che/di) 412, 418, 419 paura (avere –) 370, 383, 404 pavimento 36 pazienza 435 pazienza (perdere la –) 91 pazzo da legare 181 peccato 99, 184 –/che –! 404, 408, 436, 437 pecora 123 peculio 120 pecunia 120 pedagogo 150 peggio 185 peggiorare 300, 303 peggiorativo 223 pelle 181 – d’oca 181 – e ossa 151, 255 pelliccia 113 pelo 113, 181 per un – 181 peluria 113 pendenza 115 pendice 115 pendio 115 pendola 78 pendolo 78 pensarci 167 pensare 370, 385, 405 pensiero 108 pensionato 32 pensione 43, 48 pentirsi 313, 370 per 340–342, 348, 352, 411 – cosı̀ dire 440 – cui 442 – di più 441 – quanto 411 – quel che 411 pera 137 perbacco! 434 percepire 48 perché 411, 422, 442 – no? 434 non – 411 perciò 442 percorrere 303 percorso 127 perdonare 388 perfetto 434 periferia 126 periodo 50, 222 – di tirocinio 41 perire 297 perito 31 perizoma 145 perla 145 perlustrare 105 permanere 297 permesso 117 permettere 373, 407 permettersi 371 pernottare 160 però 434, 441 perquisire 105 perseguire 48, 61, 75 perseguitare 61 persiana 11 persistere 297, 374 persona 224 di – 181 personaggio 43 personale (adj) 222 personale (n) 135, 150 persuadere 376 persuadersi 385 pertanto 442 pertica 143 pertinente 37 pertinenza 37 pertugio 116 perturbazione 144 pervenire 296 pesa 78 pesante 106 pesare 74, 300 pésca/pèsca 84 pesca (canna da –) 143 pesce 184, 185, 186 – d’aprile 181 bastoncino di – 143 peso 78 peste 177 petrolio 36, 107 petulante 36 petulanza 36 pezza 11, 78 pezzente 11 pezzo 48, 78 – d’artiglieria 112 – di sopra 153 – forte 48 – grosso 48, 181 fare a pezzi 97 piacente 94 piacere 164, 277, 297, 366, 408 Italian word index avere – 412 fare – 408 piacevole 94 piagnucolare 169 pialla 61 piana 61 pianella 136 pianeta 253 piangere 124, 185, 374, 387 piano (adj) 61, 187, 221 piano (n) 52, 61, 153 pianta 81 piantare 175 piantarla 165 pianto 81, 124 pianura 61 platano 61 picca 82 picche 38, 82 picchetto 143 picchiata 181 piccino/-a 96 piccione 181 picco 82, 115 colare a – 181, 300 piccolo/-a 96 piede 181, 183 piedipiatti 128 piegare 102 piegarsi 59 pieno 40 – di sé 130 pietra 132 pietrisco 132 pigiama 260 pigliare 116, 186 pignolo 34 pigolare 123 pigolio 123 pillola (indorare la –) 181 pim/pam 124 pingue 106 pinna 40 pinza 260 pioggia 144 piolo 143 piombo 181 pio-pio 123 piovere 181, 298 pira 106 pirla 146–147 pirulino 11 pispolino 11 pista 127 pistola 112 più 286 per di – 441 pizza 113 pizzardone 128 pizzicagnolo 16 pizzicarolo 16 placca 129 plurale 222 poco 289 – intelligente 146–147, 148 poema epico 45 poggio 115 poi 442 poiché 422, 442 poker 41 polentone 13 poligono di tiro 137 polipo 61 politica 78 politico 78 polizia 128 poliziotto 128 pollo 143 polluzione 36 polpa 82 polpo 61, 82 polso 48 poltrona 134 polverizzare 103 polveroso 104 pomata 44 pomello 11, 114 pomo 114 – della discordia 181 ponte 117 pope 48 popone 11 poppante 96 porcaccia! 435 porcheria/che –! 436 porco 123 – cane/giuda/mondo! 435 porca l’oca/ miseria! 435 porca puttana/troia! 435 fare il – 176 porgere 109 porre 74 porta 40, 82, 108 portaﬁnestra 156 portamento 92 portare 74, 142, 376 – via 149 porte 126 portento 48 portiere 11, 48 portinaio 11 porto 82 posate 260 posizione 35 possessivo 222 possiamo dire 440 possibile (fare il –) 154 non è – 436 posta 82 le Poste 260 poster 129 posteriore 95 posto 35, 82, 134 – di lavoro 156 potare 100 potenza 61 potere (n) 61 potere (V) 267, 306–307, 367, 397 non – fare a meno 178 poterne (non – più) 166, 370 potremmo dire 440 poveraccio! 436 poveretto! 436 poverino! 436 povero 33, 182, 282 povertà 33 pozza 79 pozzo 79 pratica 187 precettore 150 precipitare 300 precipitarsi 117, 374 precipizio 36 precorrere 303 predisporre 376 preferire 367, 407 pregare 92, 372, 387 pregiudicare 73 pregiudicato 61 premere 74, 297 prendere 116, 149 – sul serio 182 prendersela 165 preoccuparsi 370 prepararsi 375 preparativo 48, 61 preparato 48, 61, 377 preparazione 48, 61 preposizione 69, 222 presa 31 presagio 48 presentare 46, 61, 139 presentazione 47 presente (n) 108 presente (adj) 161, 223 presenziare 31, 61 preservare 48, 72 preservativo 36 preside 150 presiedere 387 prestare 158 – soccorso 114 prestarsi 375 prestazione 156 prestito 158 presto (fare –) 117, 375 presuntuoso 88, 130 pretendere 33, 37, 92 pretenzioso 130 prevalere 297 prevaricare 37 prevenire 118 preziosa 132 prezzo 158 prima (di) 331–332 – che/di 411 – di tutto . . . 442 primato 41 primavera 186 primitivo 48 primo 378, 382, 403, 442 in – luogo . . . 442 principale 222 princı̀pi 87 prı̀ncipi 87 principio 153 privo 51 – di sensi 46 proboscide 51 procedere 303, 305 procedimento 61 procedura 61 procella 144 processare 37, 154 processione 61, 145 processo 48, 61, 161 proclamare 133 prodigio 69 prodigo 38, 69 prodotto 32 prof 150 proferire 133 professione 156 – legale 39 professore 150 professoressa 150 profumo 141 profumare 304 profumino 141 progettare 371 programmare 376 459 Italian word index progredire 303 progressi 260 proibire 373, 407 proiettare 152 proiettile 93 prolungarsi 111 promessa 182 promettere 369 pronome 222 pronto 37, 377 pronunciare 133 pronunciarsi 133 propaganda 48 propellente 107 proporre 371, 372 proposito 62 proposizione 48, 69, 222 proposta 48, 62 proprio 222, 282 prosciugare 301 prosciugato 105 proseguire 48, 75, 298, 303 prossimo 221, 377 protervo 130 protesta 144 prova 34 dare – 139 mettere alla – 154 provarci 167 provare 74, 154, 375 provenire 296 provvedere 48, 109 provvidenza 107 pseudonimo 121 pubblicazione 92 pubblicità 31 pubblicitario (cartellone –) 129 pubblico 51 pucciare 11 pugno 159 pulce 182 pulcino 123, 184 pulizia 135 punizione 37 punta 82 punti (due –) 224 puntini 182 – di sospensione 224 – puntini 224 punto 82, 224, 226, 286 – di vista 140 – e virgola 225 – esclamativo 225 – interrogativo 225 – vendita 138 460 a un – morto 182 di – in bianco 88, 182 può darsi 408 pupilla 82 pupillo 82 pupo/-a 96 pur di 418 purché 412, 419 pure 425 puro 282 putiferio 182 puttana 435 puzza 141 puzzo 141 quadro 224 quale 422–423 qualiﬁcativo 222 qualora 413, 419 quando 413, 419 quanti 423 quanto 272, 410, 423 quantunque 410 quasi (che) 413 quattordicesima 127 quattrini 120 quattrino 120 quattro 41, 178, 179, 181, 183 quattrocchi (a –) 182 quel(lo) che 423 quelli che 423 querela 37 questione 49 questurino 128 quindi 442 rabberciare 131 rabberciata 131 raccogliere 72 raccomandare 372 racconciare 131 racconciata 131 raccontare 72, 133, 369 raddoppiare 300 radere 100 – al suolo 103 radersi 100 radio 62, 253 raffazzonare 131 raffazzonata 131 ragazzaccio 96 ragazzino/-a 96 ragazzo/-a 96 raggio 62 ragguagliare 118 ragione (avere –) 161 dare – 161, 182 ragliare 123 raglio 123 rallegrare 366 rallegrarsi 370 rammaricarsi 370, 404 rammendare 69, 131 rammentare 69 ramoscello 143 rana 123 randello 143 rapimento 62 rapina 62 rapinare 62, 142 rapire 37, 62, 142 rappezzare 131 rappezzata 131 rapporto 69 raro 184, 377 rasare 100 rasarsi 100 rasente 348 raspa 82 raspo 82 rassegnarsi 375 rasserenare 313 rasserenarsi 313 rassomigliare 297, 388 rattoppare 131 rattristare 313 rattristarsi 313 razza 82 razzia (fare –) 142 razziare 142 razzo 82 ré/rè 84 reale 31, 49 realizzare 370 realtà (in –) 441 reato 99 reattore 49 recalcitrante 377 recapitare 109 recare 149 reception 49 recidere 100 recinto 40 reciprocamente 312 recita 37, 62 recital 37, 62 recitare 133 reclamare 92 réclame 129 record 37, 41 recupero 62 redattore 34 refe 145 regalare 109 regalo 108 reggersi 181 reggipetto 153 reggiseno 153 registrare 37, 49 regno 49 regola 79 regolo 79 relativo 222 relax 41 relazione 49 reliquia 62 relitto 62 remo 182 remoto 221 remunerazione 127 rendere 366 – conto 313 – noto 118 rendersi conto 313, 370, 406 reni 255 repentaglio 182 responsabile 373 resta 145 restare 297, 309, 375 – di sasso 131 restaurare 49, 131 restaurazione 62 restauro 62 resti 49 restio 49 resto 49, 120 rete 40, 137 reticente 49 retı̀na 87 rètina 87 retrarre 63 retribuzione 37, 127 retro 93 retrocedere 300 retta (dare –) 159 rettiﬁcare 131 rettore 43, 150 reumatismi 260 revisione 49 revolver 112 riarso 105 riassumere 37 ribassare 71, 300 ribellarsi 313 ricadere 71 ricambiare 71 ricerca 260 ricerche 260 Italian word index ricetta 62 ricettazione 62 ricevimento 49 ricezione 49 richiesta 33, 92 richiudere 72 ricognizione 37, 62 ricominciare 37, 374 ricomporre 74 riconciliare 49, 72 riconoscente 373 riconoscenza 37, 62 riconoscimento 62 ricoprire 37 ricordare 37, 314, 370, 388 ricordarsi 314, 370 ricordo 37 ricorrenza 35, 49, 117 ricorrere 49, 73, 303 – in giudizio 48 ricovero 62 ricuperare 37 ricupero 62 ridere 187, 374, 381 ridotto sul lastrico 182 ridurre 100 – in cattivo stato 33 riferire 49, 133 riferirsi 49 riﬁlare 109 riﬁutare 371, 406 riﬁutarsi 371 riﬁuti 260 riﬂessivo 223 rifornire 158 rilasciare 62 rilassare 62 rilassarsi 41, 62 rilegare 73 rilevante 37 rilevanza 37 riluttante 49, 377 rima 182 rimandare 45, 49, 176 rimanere 131, 297, 309, 375 rimangiarsi 182 rimbalzare 296 rimbambito 146–147, 148 rimbombare 298 rimediare 69, 131 rimediata 131 rimproverare 372 rimunerazione 127 rimuovere 149 rincarare 300 rinchiudere 72, 159 rincorrere 73, 303 rincrescere 297, 366, 404, 408 rinforzare 302 rinfrescare 302 rinfusa (alla –) 182 ringiovanire 300, 302 ringraziare 372 rinnegare 74 rinsecchito 151 rintoccare 124 rintocco 124 rintronare 298 rinunciare 375 rinvenire 75 riparare 131 riparata 131 ripassare 74 ripasso 49 ripercorrere 303 riportare 49 riporto 69 riposo 41, 49 riprendere 37, 137, 374 riprendersi 37 ripristinare 131 riprovare 74 ripugnare 366 ripulire 142 riscaldare 302 rischiare 369 risentire 37 risentirsi 37 riserva 49 riservarsi 371 risicare 186 risolvere 371, 385 risparmi 120 rispettabile 44 rispondere 182, 369, 388 rissa 34 ristorare 49 ristorazione 62 ristoro 62 ristrutturare 131 risultare 297, 368 risuonare 298 risuscitare 300 ritardo 382 ritenere 370, 405 ritirare 63, 313 ritirarsi 313 ritirata 63 ritiro 63 ritornare in sé 182 ritrarre 63 ritrattare 63 ritrovare 37 riuscirci 167 riuscire 50, 164, 296, 366, 375, 385 riva 140 rivalità 43, 98 rivelare 139 rivendicare 38, 75, 92 rivendita 138 rivenditore 138 rivenditrice 138 rivenire 75 riverenza 59 rivolgere 313 rivolgersi 313 rivoltella 112 rocca 63 – di Gibilterra 131 roccia 63, 131 muro di – 155 rogo 106 romancio 63 romanesco 15, 63 romanico 63 romanista 63 romano 63 romantico 63 romanza 82 romanzo 63, 82 romeno 63 rompere 97, 186 – il muso/la faccia 106, 179 – le scatole/le palle/i coglioni 91, 182 rompersi 97, 124 rondine 123, 186 rosa 183, 253 rosicare 186 rosone 156 rossiccio (marrone –) 35 rosso 187 rotare 63 roteare 63 rotella 182 rotolare 300 rotto 182 rottura 124, 435 rovescio 93, 144 alla rovescia 93 rovina (in –) 33 mandare in – 33 rovinare 38, 101 ruba (andare a –) 175 rubare 74, 142 rubinetto 38, 160 rude 37 ruggire 123 ruggito 123 rumeno 63 rumore 38, 122 ruota 175 ruotare 63 sabbatico 117 sabotare 101 saccheggiare 142 sagace 42 salame 146–147 salario 127 salire 31, 98, 298, 374 salita 115 salpare 119, 300 saltare 302 – agli occhi 180 saltellare 169, 294, 295 salterellare 169 salto 143, 155 salumiere 16 salvare 176 salvarsi 177 salvato 187 salvo che 412 sampietrino 132 sandalo 136 sano 184, 187 santo (adj) 282 – cielo! 437 santa pace/pazienza! 435 santo (n) 180 stinco di – 183 santuario 49 sapere 118, 267, 306–307, 367, 370, 395, 406 fare – 118 saperla lunga 165 saponetta 39 sasso 132, 184 sassolino 132 sbagliare 312, 386, 387 sbagliarsi 312 sbaragliare 102 sbarcare 300 sbarra 39, 108, 143, 225 sbarretta 225 sbattere 71, 124 sbattersene 71 sberla 11 sbiadire 300 sbiancare 300 sbigottire 302 sbirro 128 461 Italian word index sbocciare 297 sbolognare 109 sbottare 297 sbrigarsi 117, 375 sbucare 296 scacciare 71 scadere 71, 296 scaglia 70 scagliare 152 scala 70, 82, 260 scalare 98 scalo 82 scalogna 11, 107 scalpello 38 scambiare 71 scambievolmente 312 scambio 53 scampanare 124 scampanellare 124 scampanellio 124 scampanio 124 scampare 305 scamparla 165 scandaglio 70 scandalo 70 scandire 38 scannare 38 scannerizzare 38 scanno 134 scappare 296 scappata 155 scaracchio 46 scaraventare 152 scarno 151 scarogna 11 scarpa 136 scarpata 115 scarpe 126 scarpone 136 scassare 97 scassarsi 97 scatola 40 rompere le scatole 182 scattare 305 scaturire 297 scavo 116 scegliere 371 scemo 146–147, 148 scena 41 scenario 49 scendere 298, 374 schei 120 scheletrico 151 schermare 70 schermire 70 schernire 70 schiaffeggiare 159 462 schiaffo 11, 124, 159 schiantare 97, 305 schiantarsi 97 schiarire 302 schiattare 297 schiavo 135 schiena 93 schienale 93 schierarsi 161 schifezza/che –! 436 schifo/che –! 182, 436 schifoso 104 schioppo 112 schiudere 72 schizzare 300 scia 87 scià 87 sciagura 89 scialuppa 47 – di salvataggio 95 sciare 294, 295 scimunito 146–147, 148 sciocchezze 260 sciocco 146–147, 148 scippare 142 sciupare 101 sciupato 151 scivolare 306 scocciare 42, 91 scoglio 132 scolare 52, 72, 304 scolaro 50 scomparire 297 scomporre 74 sconcio 104 sconﬁggere 102 scongiurare 92, 372 scongiuro 177 scontare 72 scontento 404 scontro 89 scopo 40 scoppiare 297, 374 scoprire 175, 182, 370 scoraggiare 313, 381 scoraggiarsi 313 scordare 314 scordarsi 314, 370 scorrere 72, 300, 303 scortare 149 scossa 33 scostumato 12 scotch 41 scottare 302 scozzese 41, 177 scranna 134 scranno 134 scritta 129 scrivere 370 scrofa 123 scroscio 144 scrutare 38, 105 sculacciare 159 scuola 32, 150 scuotimento 33 scurire 300 scurrile 104 sdegnoso 130 sdraio 134 sdrucciolare 296 sdrucciolo 221 se 95 – vogliamo 440 sé (fuori di –) 178 ritornare in – 182 sebbene 410, 441 seccare 42, 91, 366, 408 secco 105, 151 secolare 50, 125 seconda mano 125 secondario 222 sede 134 sedere (n) 95 sedere (V) 297, 312 sedersi 312 sedia 11, 134 sedile 134 seducente 94 sega (fare –) 11 segaligno 151 seggio 134 seggiola 11, 134 seggiolino 134 seggiolone 134 seghino (fare –) 11 segnale 129 segnare 137 segretario 64 segreteria 64 seguire 64, 75, 298 seguitare 64, 298, 380 selce 132 sella 134 sellino 134 selvaggio 45, 51, 64 selvatico 45, 64 sembrare 164, 297, 367, 368, 405, 408 semplice 32, 222, 282 tempo – 223 semplicemente 32 semplicione 146–147 senile 125 sennò 442 sensato 38, 64 sensibile 38, 64 sensitivo 64 sentenza 50 senti /sentite! 440 sentiero 127 sentirci 167 sentire 367 sentirsela 165, 371 sentore 141 senz’altro 434 senza che/di 412 sepolcrale 132 sequela 145 sequestrare 142 sera 64, 187 serata 64 serie 145 serio 182 serranda 11 servile 36 servire 164, 306, 366, 386 servirsi 388 servitore 135 servitrice 135 servitù 135 servizio 135, 156 servo 135 setola 113 settimanale 127 sezionare 100 sfasciare 97 sfasciarsi 97 sfera 93 sﬁdare 376 sﬁga 11, 107 sﬁgurare 101 sﬁlare 306 sﬁlata 145 sﬁlza 145 sﬁorire 297 sfociare 297 sfogare 301 sfollagente 143 sfollare 302 sfondare 73 sfortuna 107 sforzarsi 154, 371 sfuggire 304 sfumare 301 sgabello 134 sgambetto 159 sganassone 11 sgelare 298, 302 sgherro 128 sgocciolare 304 sgoccioli (agli –) 183 Italian word index sgominare 102 sgonﬁare 302 sgorgare 296 sgrafﬁgnare 142 sguattero/-a 135 si 314–315, 316 sı̀ 379, 436 si dice 406 siccome 422 Sicilia (fare –) 11 sicurezza 50 sicuro 50, 373, 405–409 signore 40 signorina 96 silenzio 155 sillaba 223 simpatia 38 simpatico 38 singolare 222 sinistra 79 sinistro 79, 89 sino 336 sintassi 221 sistemare 131 sistemata 131 slanciato 151 slittare 296 sloggiare 121 smantellare 103 smettere 371 smetterla 165 smilzo 151 sminuzzare 97 smoking 41 smorﬁa 106 smottare 297 smunto 151 snello 151 sobborgo 126 soccorrere 114, 303 soccorso (prestare –) 114 soddisfatto 33, 373 sofferenza 35 sofﬁare 142 sofﬁtta 31 soffocare 302 soffriggere 301 soffrire 387 Sofı̀a 87 Sòﬁa 87 soggetto (adj) 50 soggetto (n) 50, 223 soggiogare 102 sognare 370, 387, 406 sogno (manco/nemmeno per –) 437 soldi 36, 120, 183, 260 soldo 120 sole 184 solennità 117 solere 161 solido 50 solito (essere –) 161, 367 sollecitare 92 solo 184, 187, 282, 378, 403 non – . . . ma anche 441 somigliare 388 somma 46 sommato (tutto –) 442 somministrare 42, 109 sommità 153 sonare 124 soppesare 74 sopportare 38, 74 sopra 343–345 di – 153 sopracciglio 113 sopraggiungere 296 soprannome 121 soprascarpa 136 sopravvivere 297 sordido 104 sordo 184 sorgere 296 sorpassare 74 sorprendere 377, 408 sorpresa 382 sorpreso 373, 404 sorreggere 114 sorsata 120 sorso 120 sorte 107 sospeso 176 sospettare 370 sostantivo 222 sostanziale 49, 64 sostanzioso 50, 64 sostenere 31, 38, 64, 73, 114, 133, 405 sostentare 64 sottile 151 sottintendere 35 sotto 342–343 esserci – qualcosa 183 sottomettere 102 sottrarre 142, 149 sozzo 104 spaccare 97 – il muso/la faccia 179 spaccarsi 97, 124 spacciatore 138 spacciatrice 138 spaccio 138 spacco 124 spada 38 spago 145 spaghetti 260 spalle 93 spalliera 93 sparacchiare 170 sparare 124, 137 spararsi 137 sparecchiare 160 sparire 297 fare – 142 sparo 124, 137 sparuto 151 spaventare 313 spaventarsi 313 specialista 382 specie 64 spegnere 160 spendere un patrimonio 120 spendereccio 38 spennare 142 speranza 187 sperare 370 sperimentare 50, 154 spese 260 spettacolo 36, 50 spettare 297, 366 spettatore 51 spettegolare 133 spezia 64 spezzare 97 – una lancia 178 spezzarsi 97 spezzettare 97 spiacere 297 spianare 103, 302 spiattellare 133 spiccare 160 spicciarsi 117 spiccioli 120, 260 spiegare 133, 139 spifferare 133 spin 153 spine (sulle –) 183 spingarda 112 spingere 376 spinto 104 spiovere 298, 304 spiritico 64 spiritoso 64 spirituale 64 splendido 94 spocchioso 130 spogliare 38, 142 spola 183 sponda 140 sporco 104 sporgere 301 sportello 156 sportivo 38 sposare 314 sposarsi 314 spostarsi 121 spranga 143 spregiudicato 61 spremere 74 sprezzante 130 sprizzare 301 sprofondare 301 spronare 376 spugna 183, 185 spuntare 100 sputo 46 squadra 65, 140 squadriglia 65 squadrone 65 squagliarsela 165 squillare 298 squit/squit-squit 123 squittio 123 squittire 123 stabilimento 50 stabilire 370 staffe 91, 181 stage 41 stagionato 125 stalla 183 stampella 10, 12 stancare 313 stancarsi 313, 371 stanco 374 stanfella 10 stanga 143 starci 167 stare 290–291, 297, 375, 381, 386 – sui coglioni/sul cazzo/sullo stomaco 183 starnutire 124 starnuto 124 starsene 166 starter 41 statistica 260 stecca 79, 143 stecco 79, 143 stendardo 129 stentare 375 sterminare 103 sterpo 143 stesso 282 stillare 301 463 Italian word index stinco di santo 183 stitichezza 44 stitico 44 stivale 136 stivaletto 136 stoffa 34, 47 stolido 146–147 stolto 146–147 stomaco (stare sullo –) 183 storia 50, 67 storiella 67 storpiare 101 stoviglie 260 stracciare 102 straccio 11 stradale 128 stradicciola 127 stradina 127 strano 377 straparlare 133 strapuntino 134 straripare 297 strato 153 stravagante 38 stravincere 102 strenna 108 stretto 41 stringa 11, 145 stringere 187 strisciare 294 striscione 129 strofa 39 stronzo 435 struzzo 36 studiare 105 studio legale 34 studioso 50 stufa 106 stufo 374 stupendo 94, 434 stupido 146–147, 148 stupire 302, 313 stupirsi 313, 370, 404 stupito 404 stuprare 37 su 343–345, 425, 435 subentrare 297 subito 37 subordinato 222 succedere 50, 297, 368 successo (avere –) 50 sudare 176 suddito 50 sudicio 104 sudore 141 sufﬁciente 377 sufﬁsso 223 464 suggerimento 50, 65 suggestione 50, 65 suicidarsi 313 suola 79 suolo 79 suonare 124, 306 suono 124 suora 11 super 107 superbia 130 superbo 50, 130 superﬁciale 34, 153 superﬁcie 106, 153, 258 superiore 150, 153, 362 superlativo 222 supermarket 138 supermercato 138 supplicare 92, 372 supponiamo che 419 supporre 405 supposto che 419 surgelare 73 suscettibile 50 susseguire 302 sussistere 297 svaligiare 142 svanire 297 sveglia 66 svegliare 75, 313 svegliarsi 75, 313 svelare 370 svelto 151 svenire 75, 296 sventura 89 svenuto 46 svignarsela 165 svilupparsi 111 svolgere 156 tabella 65 tabellone 129 tabula rasa 183 tabulato 65 tacchino 123 tacco 114 tacere 387 tagliare 100 tagliuzzare 100, 169 tale 379 – che 411 – da 411 talento 108 tallone 114 talmente 379 talpa 184 tamburo 143 tanfo 141 tanto 379 – . . . quanto 272 tappa (bruciare le tappe) 183 tapparella 11 tappo 30, 38, 153 tardi 187 targa 129 tassa 82 tasso 82 tattica 260 tavola 43, 50, 65 tavolata 79 tavolato 65, 79 tavolino 65 tavolo 50, 65 te 8, 84, 262 té/tè 84 teenager 96 telecamera 31 telefonare 388 telefono 124 televisione 65 televisore 65 temere 370, 404 tempesta 144 tempestato 65 tempestivo 65 tempestoso 65 tempio 257 tempo 183, 187, 223 è – che 408 fare in – 375 temporale (adj) 50 temporale (n) 50, 144 tendere 375 tendine del ginocchio 145 tenebre 260 tenerci 167 tenere (– a bada) 183 – conto 161 – presente 161 tennis 136 tentare 154, 371, 386 tenuto 375 tergiversare 37 terminare 298, 371 termine 50, 88 terna 51, 79 terno 79 terra 65 terreno 65 terrestre 65 crosta – 153 terribile 377 terrone 13 terzetto 51 terzina 79 terzino 79 terzo 187 teso 41 tessuto 34 testa 70, 82, 180, 183 – di cazzo 435 cenno con la – 166–167 testata (dare una –) 158 teste 70 testicolo 93 testimonianza 34 testo 70, 82 testone 88, 146–147 tetro 36 tetta 70, 82 tetto 70, 82, 153 tettoia 70 ti 262 ticchettare 124 ticchettio 124 tic-tac 124 tifone 144 tight 41 tigre 123 tirare 137, 152 – le cuoia 177 – sul prezzo 158 tirarla per le lunghe 165 tirata 120 tirato per i capelli 176 tiro 137 tirocinio (periodo di –) 41 titolare 150 toc toc 124 toccare 164, 297, 366 – ferro 177 togliere 149, 388 tombale 132 tonale 65 tondo 224 tonico (adj) 65, 221 tonico (n) 65 tonno 70 tono 70 tonto 146–147, 148 top 153 top spin 153 topo 123, 186 torcere (ﬁlo da –) 177 tormenta 82, 144 tormentare 91 tormentarsi 31 tormento 82 tornado 144 tornare 296, 374 – a bomba 175 Italian word index tornarsene 166 toro 123, 183, 184 torta 83 tórta/tòrta 84 torto 83 avere – 161 dare – 161, 182 tosare 100 tosto 177 tra 345–346 traboccare 178, 304 tracimare 304 tracotante 130 tragitto 127 traiettoria 127 trambusto 32 tramezzo 155 tramontana 181 tramontare 296 tranciare 100 tranne che 412 transatlantico 95 transitivo 223 trapassato 224 trapelare 296 trascorrere 301, 303 trascurare 371 trasferirsi 47, 121 trasgressione 99 traslocare 47, 121 traslocarsi 121 trasportare 149 trattamento 66 trattato 66 trattenere 313 trattenersi 313 tratti 106 trattino 225 tratto 66 traversa 143 treccia 145 tredicesima 127 tremare 185 trillare 123, 124 trillo 123, 124 trimestre 50 trinciare 100 trio 51 trionfare 102 trisdrucciolo 221 tritare 100 triviale 38 troia 435 tromba d’aria/marina 144 trombone 112 troncare 100 tronco (adj) 221 tronco (n) 51 tronﬁo 130 trono 134 troppo 187, 380 trottola 180 trovare 186, 377 andare/venire a – 155 trovarsi 375 trafugare 142 trattenersi 381 tu 268–269, 316 tuffo 86 tufo 86 tuonare 298 tuono 70 turbine 144 turco 180, 185 turpe 104 tuttavia 441 tutto (– sommato) 442 fare di – 154 uàuà 124 ubbidire 388 ubriacare 35 ubriaco 183 uccellino 123 uccello 123 -ucchiare 173 uccidere 137 -uccio 170 -uccolo 170 -ucolare 173 udienza 51 uè! 438 uèuè 124 uffa! 435 ufﬁciale 66 ufﬁcio 40, 66, 156 ufﬁcioso 66 ultimo 153, 187, 378, 382, 403 ululare 123 ululato 123 umore 51 umorismo 51 unico 282, 378, 403 università 32, 150 uno (l’un l’altro) 312 unto 104 -uolo 170 uomo delle pulizie 135 uovo 181, 186 uragano 144 uranio 143 urlo 254 urtare 124 urto 124 usa e getta 152 usanza 186 usare 367 usato 125 uscire 119, 296 uscirsene 166 uscita 34, 92, 108 usignolo 185 utile 378 uva 260 -uzzare 173 -uzzo 170 va’ (a dar via il culo) 435 – a quel paese 435 – al diavolo 435 vabbè 434, 440 vacante 51 vacanza 38, 117 vacca 123 vaffanculo 435 vagare 295 vagliare 105 vago 51 vai 436 valente 66 valere 160, 187, 297 – la pena 366, 407–408 valido 47, 66, 377 valigie (fare le –) 183 valle (a –) 88 valore (di –) 66 valoroso 66 valuta 120 valutare 105 valvola dell’aria 41 vanaglorioso 130 vanga 38 vanitoso 51, 130 vano (adj) 51 vano (n) 51 vaporetto 95 variare 301, 303 vario 282 varo 47 vascello 95 vaso 178, 185 vecchio 125, 184, 282 vederci 167 vedere 154, 155, 166, 368, 371, 386 (non) – l’ora 407 – tutto nero/ rosa 183 fare – 139 vedersela (brutta) 165 vedi/vedete 440 vediamo (un po’) 440 veglia 66 vegliare 75, 387 vela 83 veleggiare 294 velenifero (dente –) 152 veliero 95 vello 113 velo 83 veloce 184, 377 velocemente 137 vena (in –) 183 vendicare 38, 75 venire 75, 292, 296, 308, 366, 374, 386 – a trovare 155 – alla luce 178 – alle mani 179 – su 111 vénti/vènti 84 vento 38, 144, 184, 185 venuta 38 vera 11 verbalizzare 39 verbo 223 verde (al –) 182 verga 143 vergogna 33, 408 avere – 370, 383 vergognarsi 313, 370 veriﬁcare 51, 105 veriﬁcarsi 51 vernacolo 119 vero 31, 282 è – 440 versante 140 versetto 39 verso (n) 39, 122 verso (prep) 336 vertice 153 veste 39 vestito 260 vetrata 66, 156 vetrina 66, 156 vetrino 66 vetro 66, 110 vetta 153 vetusto 125 vezzeggiativo 223 via 127, 253 – libera 183 buttare – 152 e –! 435 portare – 149 viaggiare 294, 295 viale 127 465 Italian word index vialetto 127 vicenda (a –) 312 vicinanze 126, 260 vietare 373, 407 vigile (urbano) 128 vigna 67 vignetta 67 vincere 102 vincita 66 vincolo 145 vino 180 violazione 99 violentare 37 viottolo 127 virgola 225, 226 virgolette 225 466 visita 155 visitare 105, 155 viso 106 vita 183, 187 vite 185 vittoria 66 vivacchiare 295 vivere 180, 299 viveri 260 viziare 38, 101 viziato 66 vizioso 51, 66 vocale 223 voce 38, 183 voglio dire 440, 442 voi 268–269 voialtri 262 volare 302 volante 253 volerci 167, 297 volere 187, 267, 306–307, 367, 397, 407 – bene 388 volerne 166 volgare 34 voltare 313 voltarsi 313, 374 volto 106 votare 387 votazione 66 voto 66 vuoto 51, 116 whisky 41 zaffata 141 zampa 119 zanna 152 zappa 183 zazzera 113 zecca (nuovo di –) 180 zoccolo 136 zona limitrofa 126 zoppicare 187, 294 zoppo 187 zozzo 104 zuccone 146–147 zuppare 11 Grammar index a, with direct object 8, 9, 325 a vs ad 321 accents on vowels 29 adjective, in impersonal expressions 315–316 – negative 286–288 – position 280–283 adverb, negative 286–288 – position 279–280 agent, in passive 309–310 agreement, past participle and pronouns 262 – past participle and reﬂexive 311–312 alphabet 226–228, 258 anche, position 279 andare, and gerund 291–292 – and passive 309 animals, gender 240 – noises 123 apodosis 416 articulated prepositions with inﬁnitive 380–382, 424–425 conditional sentences 416–420 (see also periodo ipotetico) conjunctions, in conditional sentences 418–419 conjunctions requiring the subjunctive 410–413 connectors 20, 22, 441–442 consecutio temporum = sequence of tenses 399–401 causative expressions 368 che, in comparisons 270–272 chi, in relative clauses 423–424 ci, and auxiliaries 307 – in idioms 166–167 – pleonastic use 264 cleft sentences 279, 378 collective nouns, agreement with verb 261 con, with inﬁnitive 380 comparative clauses 273, 414 compound nouns, gender 248–252 – plural 258–259 conditional, and sequence of tenses 400 conditional perfect tense 393 (see also Future in the past, hypotheses about the past) either . . . or 261 emphasis and word order 276 essere, as auxiliary 277, 295–307 – singular or plural 261 explicit subordinate clauses 421–424 da, with inﬁnitive 378–379, 381 – in relative clauses 424 deﬁnite article with inﬁnitive 380, 428 di, in comparisons 270–272 – with other prepositions 327, 335, 336, 343 dialect 2–5 – in interjections 433 direct object with a 8, 9, 325 direction, in verbs of movement 293–294 double consonants 6, 84–86 factual conditionals 419–420 far fare 368 ﬁllers 20, 22, 439–440 foreign words, gender 39, 239–240 – plural 258 future in the past, conditional perfect tense 393, 400 – future tense 391 – imperfect tense 396 future perfect tense 392 future tense 391 future, expression of 390 gerund, in conditional sentences 418 – in periphrases 290–292 – in subordinate clauses 425–427 – position of subject 277, 426 – with stare, andare, venire 290–292 gli, range of meanings 263–264 hypotheses about the past, conditional perfect 393 – imperfect tense 396 – trapassato prossimo 396 hypotheses about the present 391, 396 hypothetical conditionals 415, 416–419 if, in conditional sentences 418–419 il fatto che, and the subjunctive 409 imperative, future tense 391 – present tense 390 – subjunctive 403 imperfect and perfect 394–395 imperfect tense, with da 329 – and sequence of tenses 400 – in conditional sentences 417, 419 impersonal expressions 314–316, 407–409 implicit subordinate clauses 424–429 in, with inﬁnitive 381–382 indirect questions, and subjunctive 410 inﬁnitive, in conditional sentences 418 – in periphrases 291 – in subordinate clauses 424–425 – with da 323–330, 381 – with stare, essere dietro 291 467 Grammar index -ing, how to translate 428–429 interjections 20, 22, 433–438 la in idioms 164–165 Lei 268–269, 403 location, expressed with a 323–324 – expressed with in 337–338 – expressed with su, sopra 343 loro, position 267 – impersonal 316 Loro 268–269, 403 manner, expressed with a 322–323 – expressed with in 338–339 – in verbs of movement 293–294, 295 modal attraction 414 modal verbs, and auxiliaries 306–307 – and pronouns 267 – and reﬂexives 314 – different tenses 397–398 movement, expressed with a 321 – expressed with da 328 – expressed with in 337–338 – expressed with per 340 movement verbs 293–294 ne 264–265, 272–273 – and auxiliaries 307 – in idioms 166 negative antecedents 414 neither . . . nor 261 nominalization 428 non 285–286, 289 – pleonastic 272, 273, 288, 412 nouns, gender 239–255 – number 256–260 number, expressions with su, sopra 343–344 numbers, and altro 283 object, impersonal 316–317 – position 277–279 open vs closed vowels 6–7, 83–84 passato prossimo, and passato remoto 393–394 – sequence of tenses 399, 401 passato remoto, and passato prossimo 393–394 – and sequence of tenses 399 468 passive 308–310, 314 past gerund 425, 426 past participle, agreement with pronouns 262 – in impersonal expressions 316 – in subordinate clauses 427–428 – position of noun 277, 428 per, with inﬁnitive 379–380 perché clauses, position 422 periodo ipotetico = conditional sentences 416–420 place names and prepositions 356 pluperfect 396–397 plural of nouns 256–260 preﬁx, negative 288–289 prepositions, articulated 321, 424–425 – following adjectives 373–374, 376–377, 379, 380 – following verbs 365–388 present conditional tense 389–391, 392 – sequence of tenses 401 present participle in subordinate clauses 427 present tense 389–391, 392 – with da 329 pronoun, and auxiliaries 307 – proclisis and enclisis 267 – negative 286–288 – reﬂexive, when omitted 311 – stressed vs unstressed 262, 311 pronouns of address 268–269 proper names, plural 258 protasis 416 reﬂexive verbs 301, 307, 311–315 regions of Italy, prepositions 356 register 5 relative clauses 9, 422–424 – and the subjunctive 413–414 – in conditional sentences 419 restare, and passive 309 rimanere, and passive 309 same subjects in noun clauses 404 sequence of tenses 399–401 sex, and gender 239–240 si, and passive 314–315 – impersonal 314–316 – with other pronouns 263–265, 266 singular and plural, meanings of nouns 259–260 subject, impersonal 314–316 – position 276–277, 418, 426 subjunctive, in conditional sentences 417–418 – in dependent clauses 404–415 – in main clauses 403–404 – meaning 402–403 – sequence of tenses 400–401 subordinate clauses, before or after the main clause 409, 421–422, 427 sufﬁxes, affective 168–173 – superlative 274–275 superlatives 273–275, 414 – with di 272, 334 syntactic doubling 7 telephone alphabet 226–228 time, expressed with a 322 – expressed with da 329 – expressed with di 333 – expressed with in 338 – expressed with per 340–341 – expressed with su 343–344 – expressed with tra 346 transition words 20, 22, 441–442 trapassato prossimo tense 396 (see also hypotheses about the past) – and sequence of tenses 399 trapassato remoto tense 397 tu, impersonal 316 – vs Lei 268–269 uno, impersonal 316 venire, and gerund 292 – and passive 308 verbal periphrases 8, 10, 290–292 verbs of perception 367–368 vi 266 voi 268–269 weather verbs 298 word order, pronouns and verb 265–268 – subordinate clauses 421–422

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