CHAPTER 13

CHAPTER 13 

Optical Storage

688 Chapter 13 Optical Storage 

There are basically two types of disk storage for computers: magnetic and optical. Magnetic storage is 

represented by the standard floppy and hard disks that are installed in most PC systems, where the 

data is recorded magnetically on rotating disks. Optical disc storage is similar to magnetic disk storage 

in basic operation, but it reads and records using light (optically) instead of magnetism. Although 

most magnetic disk storage is fully read- and write-capable many times over, many optical storage 

media are either read-only or write-once. Note the convention in which we refer to magnetic as disk 

and optical as disc. This is not a law or rule but seems to be followed by most in the industry. 

Some media combine magnetic and optical techniques, using either an optical guidance system 

(called a laser servo) to position a magnetic read/write head (as in the LS-120 or SuperDisk floppy 

drive) or a laser to heat the disk so it can be written magnetically thus polarizing areas of the track, 

which can then be read by a lower-powered laser, as in magneto-optical (MO) drives. 

At one time, it was thought that optical storage would replace magnetic as the primary online storage 

medium. However, optical storage has proven to be much slower and far less dense than magnetic 

storage and is much more adaptable to removable-media designs. As such, optical storage is more 

often used for backup or archival storage purposes, and as a mechanism by which programs or data 

can be loaded onto magnetic drives. Magnetic storage, being significantly faster and capable of holding 

much more information than optical media in the same amount of space, is more suited for direct 

online storage and most likely won’t be replaced in that role by optical storage anytime soon. 

The most promising development in the optical area is that in the near future CD-RW (compact discrewritable) 

or DVD+RW (DVD+rewritable) will likely replace the venerable floppy disk as the de facto 

standard interchangeable, transportable drive and media of choice for PCs. In fact, some would say 

that has already happened. Most new systems today include a CD-RW drive, and even though a 

floppy drive is also included with most systems, it is rarely used except for running tests; running 

diagnostics; or doing basic system maintenance, disk formatting, preparation for OS installation, or 

configuration. 

This chapter investigates the popular and standard forms of optical storage found in modern PCs. 

What Is a CD-ROM? 

CD-ROM, or compact disc read-only memory, is an optical read-only storage medium based on the original 

CD-DA (digital audio) format first developed for audio CDs. Other formats, such as CD-R (CDrecordable) 

and CD-RW (CD-rewritable), are expanding the compact disc’s capabilities by making it 

writable. Additionally, new technologies such as DVD (digital versatile disc) are making it possible to 

store more data than ever on the same size disc. 

CD-ROM drives have been considered standard equipment on most PCs for many years now. The primary 

exceptions to this rule are thin clients—PCs intended for use only on networks and which normally 

lack drives of any type. 

CD-ROM is a read-only optical storage medium capable of holding up to 74 or 80 minutes of highfidelity 

audio (depending on the disc used), or up to 682MB (74-minute disc) or 737MB (80-minute 

disc) of data, or some combination of the two, on one side (only the bottom is used) of a 120mm 

(4.72-inch) diameter, 1.2mm (0.047 inches) thick plastic disc. CD-ROM has exactly the same form factor 

(physical shape and layout) of the familiar CD-DA audio compact disc and can, in fact, be inserted 

in a normal audio player. It usually isn’t playable, though, because the player reads the subcode information 

for the track, which indicates that it is data and not audio. If it could be played, the result 

would be noise—unless audio tracks precede the data on the CD-ROM (see the section “Blue Book— 

CD EXTRA,” later in this chapter). Accessing data from a CD-ROM using a computer is quite a bit 

faster than from a floppy disk but slower than a modern hard drive. The term CD-ROM refers to both 

the discs themselves and the drive that reads them.

What Is a CD-ROM? Chapter 13 

689 

Although only a few dozen CD-ROM discs, or titles, were published by 1988, currently hundreds of 

thousands of individual titles exist, containing data and programs ranging from worldwide agricultural 

statistics to preschool learning games. Individual businesses, local and federal government 

offices, and large corporations also publish thousands of their own limited-use titles. As one example, 

the storage space and expense that so many business offices once dedicated to the maintenance of a 

telephone book library can now be replaced by two discs containing the telephone listings for the 

entire United States. 

CDs: A Brief History 

In 1979, the Philips and Sony corporations joined forces to co-produce the CD-DA (Compact Disc- 

Digital Audio) standard. Philips had already developed commercial laserdisc players, and Sony had a 

decade of digital recording research under its belt. The two companies were poised for a battle—the 

introduction of potentially incompatible audio laser disc formats—when instead they came to terms 

on an agreement to formulate a single industry-standard digital audio technology. 

Philips contributed most of the physical design, which was similar to the laserdisc format it had created 

with regards to using pits and lands on the disk that are read by a laser. Sony contributed the 

digital-to-analog circuitry, and especially the digital encoding and error-correction code designs. 

In 1980, the companies announced the CD-DA standard, which has since been referred to as the 

Red Book format (so named because the cover of the published document was red). The Red Book 

included the specifications for recording, sampling, and—above all—the 120mm (4.72-inch) diameter 

physical format you live with today. This size was chosen, legend has it, because it could contain all 

of Beethoven’s approximately 70-minute Ninth Symphony without interruption. 

After the specification was set, both manufacturers were in a race to introduce the first commercially 

available CD audio drive. Because of its greater experience with digital electronics, Sony won that race 

and beat Philips to market by one month, when on October 1, 1982 Sony introduced the CDP-101 

player and the world’s first CD recording—Billy Joel’s 52nd Street album. The player was first introduced 

in Japan and then Europe; it wasn’t available in the U.S. until early 1983. In 1984, Sony also 

introduced the first automobile and portable CD players. 

Sony and Philips continued to collaborate on CD standards throughout the decade, and in 1984 they 

jointly released the Yellow Book CD-ROM standard. It turned the CD from a digital audio storage 

medium to one that could now store read-only data for use with a computer. The Yellow Book used 

the same physical format as audio CDs but modified the decoding electronics to allow data to be 

stored reliably. In fact, all subsequent CD standards (usually referred to by their colored book binders) 

have referred back to the original Red Book standard for the physical parameters of the disc. With the 

advent of the Yellow Book standard (CD-ROM), what originally was designed to hold a symphony 

could now be used to hold practically any type of information or software. 

CD-ROM Technology 

Although identical in appearance to CD-DAs, CD-ROMs store data instead of (or in addition to) audio. 

The CD-ROM drives in PCs that read the data discs are almost identical to audio CD players, with the 

main changes in the circuitry to provide additional error detection and correction. This is to ensure 

data is read without errors because what would be a minor—if not unnoticeable—glitch in a song 

would be unacceptable as missing data in a file. 

A CD is made of a polycarbonate wafer, 120mm in diameter and 1.2mm thick, with a 15mm hole in 

the center. This wafer base is stamped or molded with a single physical track in a spiral configuration 

starting from the inside of the disc and spiraling outward. The track has a pitch, or spiral separation, 

of 1.6 microns (millionths of a meter, or thousandths of a millimeter). By comparison, an LP record


has a physical track pitch of about 125 microns. When viewed from the reading side (the bottom), 

the disc rotates counterclockwise. If you examined the spiral track under a microscope, you would see 

that along the track are raised bumps, called pits, and flat areas between the pits, called lands. It seems 

strange to call a raised bump a pit, but that is because when the discs are pressed, the stamper works 

from the top side. So, from that perspective, the pits are actually depressions made in the plastic. 

The laser used to read the disc would pass right through the clear plastic, so the stamped surface is 

coated with a reflective layer of metal (usually aluminum) to make it reflective. Then, the aluminum 

is coated with a thin protective layer of acrylic lacquer, and finally a label or printing is added. 

Note 

CD-ROM media should be handled with the same care as a photographic negative. The CD-ROM is an optical device 

and degrades as its optical surface becomes dirty or scratched. Also it is important to note that, although discs are read 

from the bottom, the layer containing the track is actually much closer to the top of the disc. Writing on the top surface of 

a disc with a ballpoint pen, for example, easily damages the recording underneath. You need to be careful even when 

using a marker to write on the disc. The inks and solvents used in some markers can damage the print and lacquer overcoat 

on the top of the disc, and subsequently the information layer right below. Use only markers designed for writing on 

CDs. The important thing is to treat both sides of the disc carefully, especially the top (label) side. 

Mass-Producing CD-ROMs 

Commercial mass-produced CDs are stamped or pressed and not burned by a laser as many people 

believe (see Figure 13.1). Although a laser is used to etch data onto a glass master disc that has been 

coated with a photosensitive material, using a laser to directly burn copies would be impractical for 

the reproduction of hundreds or thousands of copies. 

The steps in manufacturing CDs are as follows (use Figure 13.1 as a visual): 

1. Photoresist Coating. A circular 240mm diameter piece of polished glass 6mm thick is spin-coated 

with a photoresist layer about 150 microns thick and then hardened by baking at 80°C (176°F) 

for 30 minutes. 

2. Laser Recording. A Laser beam recorder (LBR) fires pulses of blue/violet laser light to expose and 

soften portions of the photoresist layer on the glass master. 

3. Master Development. A sodium hydroxide solution is spun over the exposed glass master, which 

then dissolves the areas exposed to the laser, thus etching pits in the photoresist. 

4. Electroforming. The developed master is then coated with a layer of nickel alloy through a 

process called electroforming. This creates a metal master called a father. 

5. Master Separation. The metal master father is then separated from the glass master. The father is 

a metal master that can be used to stamp discs, and for short runs, it can in fact be used that 

way. However, because the glass master is damaged when the father is separated, and because a 

stamper can produce only a limited number of discs before it wears out, the father often is electroformed 

to create several reverse image mothers. These mothers are then subsequently electroformed 

to create the actual stampers. This enables many more discs to be stamped without ever 

having to go through the glass mastering process again. 

6. Disc Stamping Operation. A metal stamper is used in an injection molding machine to press the 

data image (pits and lands) into approximately 18 grams of molten (350°C or 662°F) polycarbonate 

plastic with a force of about 20,000psi. Normally, one disc can be pressed every 3 seconds 

in a modern stamping machine.

What Is a CD-ROM? Chapter 13 691 

7. Metalization. The clear stamped disc base is then sputter-coated with a thin (0.05–0.1 micron) 

layer of aluminum to make the surface reflective. 

8. Protective Coating. The metalized disc is then spin-coated with a thin (6–7 micron) layer of 

acrylic lacquer, which is then cured with UV (ultraviolet) light to protect the aluminum from 

oxidation. 

9. Finished Product. Finally, a label or printing is screen-printed on the disc and also cured with UV 

light. 

This manufacturing process is identical for both data CD-ROMs and audio CDs. 

Figure 13.1 CD manufacturing process. 

Pits and Lands 

Reading the information back is a matter of bouncing a low-powered laser beam off the reflective 

layer in the disc. The laser shines a focused beam on the underside of the disc, and a photosensitive 

receptor detects when the light is reflected back. When the light hits a land (flat spot) on the track, 

the light is reflected back; however, when the light hits a pit (raised bump), no light is reflected back.


As the disc rotates over the laser and receptor, the laser shines continuously while the receptor sees 

what is essentially a pattern of flashing light as the laser passes over pits and lands. Each time the 

laser passes over the edge of a pit, the light seen by the receptor changes in state from being reflected 

to not reflected or vice versa. Each change in state of reflection caused by crossing the edge of a pit is 

translated into a 1 bit digitally. Microprocessors in the drive translate the light/dark and dark/light 

(pit edge) transitions into 1 bits, translate areas with no transitions into 0 bits, and then translate the 

bit patterns into actual data or sound. 

The individual pits on a CD are 0.125 microns deep and 0.6 microns wide (1 micron equals onemillionth 

of a meter). Both the pits and lands vary in length from about 0.9 microns at their shortest 

to about 3.3 microns at their longest (see Figure 13.2). 

Figure 13.2 Pit and land geometry on a CD. 

The pit height above the land is especially critical as it relates to the wavelength of the laser light used 

when reading the disc. The pit (bump) height is exactly 1/4 of the wavelength of the laser light used 

to read the disc. Therefore, the light striking a land travels 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2 of a wavelength further 

than light striking the top of a pit. This means the light reflected from a pit is 1/2 wavelength out of 

phase with the rest of the light being reflected from the disc. The out-of-phase waves cancel each 

other out, dramatically reducing the light that is reflected back and making the pit appear dark even 

though it is coated with the same reflective aluminum as the lands. 

The read laser in a CD drive is a 780nm (nanometer) wavelength laser of about 1 milliwatt in power. 

The polycarbonate plastic used in the disc has a refractive index of 1.55, so light travels through the 

plastic 1.55 times more slowly than through the air around it. Because the frequency of the light passing 

through the plastic remains the same, this has the effect of shortening the wavelength inside the 

plastic by the same factor. Therefore, the 780nm light waves are now compressed to 780/1.55 = 

500nm. One quarter of 500nm is 125nm, which is 0.125 microns—the specified height of the pit. 

Drive Mechanical Operation 

CD-ROM drives operate in the following manner (see Figure 13.3): 

1. The laser diode emits a low-energy infrared beam toward a reflecting mirror. 

2. The servo motor, on command from the microprocessor, positions the beam onto the correct 

track on the CD-ROM by moving the reflecting mirror. 

3. When the beam hits the disc, its refracted light is gathered and focused through the first lens 

beneath the platter, bounced off the mirror, and sent toward the beam splitter. 

4. The beam splitter directs the returning laser light toward another focusing lens. 

5. The last lens directs the light beam to a photo detector that converts the light into electric 

impulses. 

6. These incoming impulses are decoded by the microprocessor and sent along to the host computer 

as data.

Photo detector 

Laser diode 

Lenses 

Beam splitter 

Servo motor 

Figure 13.3 Typical components inside a CD-ROM drive. 


When first introduced, CD-ROM drives were too expensive for widespread adoption. In addition, 

drive manufacturers were slow in adopting standards, causing a lag time for the production of CD- 

ROM titles. Without a wide base of software to drive the industry, acceptance was slow. 

After the production costs of both drives and discs began to drop, however, CD-ROMs were rapidly 

assimilated into the PC world. This was particularly due to the ever-expanding size of PC applications. 

Virtually all software is now supplied on CD-ROM, even if the disc doesn’t contain data representing a 

tenth of its potential capacity. As the industry stands now, if a software product requires more than 

one or two floppy disks, it is more economical to put it on a CD-ROM. 

For large programs, the advantage is obvious. The Windows 98SE operating system would require 

more than 75 floppy disks, an amount certainly nobody would want to deal with. 

Track and Sectors 

The pits are stamped into a single spiral track with a spacing of 1.6 microns between turns, corresponding 

to a track density of 625 turns per millimeter, or 15,875 turns per inch. This equates to a 

total of 22,188 turns for a normal 74-minute (650MiB) disc. The disc is divided into six main areas 

(discussed here and shown in Figure 13.4): 

■ Hub clamping area. The Hub clamp area is just that: a part of the disc where the hub mechanism 

in the drive can grip the disc. No data or information is stored in that area. 

■ Power calibration area (PCA). This is found only on writable (CD-R/RW) discs and is used only by 

recordable drives to determine the laser power necessary to perform an optimum burn. A single 

CD-R or CD-RW disc can be tested this way up to 99 times. 

■ Program memory area (PCA). This is found only on writable (CD-R/RW) discs and is the area 

where the TOC (table of contents) is temporarily written until a recording session is closed. 

After the session is closed, the TOC information is written to the lLead-in area. 

■ Lead-in. The lead-in area contains the disc (or session) TOC in the Q subcode channel. The TOC 

contains the start addresses and lengths of all tracks (songs or data), the total length of the program 

(data) area, and information about the individual recorded sessions. A single lead-in area 

exists on a disc recorded all at once (Disc At Once or DAO mode), or a lead-in area starts each 

session on a multisession disc. The lead-in takes up 4,500 sectors on the disc (1 minute if measured 

in time, or about 9.2MB worth of data). The lead-in also indicates whether the disc is 

multisession and what the next writable address on the disc is (if the disc isn’t closed).


■ Program (data) area. This area of the disc starts at a radius of 25mm from the center. 

■ Lead-out. The lead-out marks the end of the program (data) area or the end of the recording session 

on a multisession disc. No actual data is written in the lead-out; it is simply a marker. The 

first lead-out on a disc (or the only one if it is a single session or Disk At Once recording) is 

6,750 sectors long (1.5 minutes if measured in time, or about 13.8MB worth of data). If the disc 

is a multisession disc, any subsequent lead-outs are 2,250 sectors long (0.5 minutes in time, or 

about 4.6MB worth of data 

The hub clamp, lead-in, program, and lead-out areas are found on all CDs, whereas only recordable 

CDs (such as CD-Rs and CD-RWs) have the additional power calibration area and program memory 

area at the start of the disc. 

The center hole in a CD is 15mm in diameter, which means it has a radius of 7.5mm from the center 

of the disc. From the edge of the center hole to a point at a radius of 20.5mm is the HCA. That is followed 

by the PCA, which starts at a radius of 20.5mm from the center. The PCA is followed by the 

PMA, which starts at a radius of 22.35mm, and then the lead-in area, which starts at a radius of 

23mm from the center of the disc. The program (data) area of the disc starts at a radius of 25mm from 

the center, and that is followed by the lead-out area at 58mm. The disc track officially ends at 

58.5mm, which is followed by a 1.5mm buffer to the edge of the disc. Figure 13.4 shows these areas 

in actual relative scale as they appear on a disc. 

Figure 13.4 Areas on a CD (side view). 

Officially, the spiral track of a standard CD-DA or CD-ROM disc starts with this lead-in area and ends 

at the finish of the lead-out area, which is 58.5mm from the center of the disc, or 1.5mm from the 

outer edge. This single spiral track is about 5.77 kilometers or 3.59 miles long. An interesting fact is 

that in a 56x CAV (constant angular velocity) drive, when reading the outer part of the track, the data 

moves at an actual speed of 162.8 miles per hour (262km/h) past the laser. What is more amazing is 

that even when the data is traveling at that speed, the laser pickup can accurately read bits (pit/land 

transitions) spaced as little as only 0.9 microns or 35.4 millionths of an inch apart! 

Table 13.1 shows some of the basic information about the two main CD capacities, which are 74- and 

80-minute. The CD standard originally was created around the 74-minute disc; the 80-minute versions 

were added later and basically stretch the standard by tightening up the track spacing a little bit.

Table 13.1 CD-ROM Technical Parameters 

Advertised CD length (minutes) 74 80 

Advertised CD capacity (MiB) 650 700 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

1x read speed (m/sec) 1.3 1.3 

Track (turn) spacing (um) 1.6 1.48 

Turns per mm 625 676 

Turns per inch 15,875 17,162 

Total track Length (m) 5,772 6,240 

Total track length (feet) 18,937 20,472 

Total track length (miles) 3.59 3.88 

Pit width (um) 0.6 0.6 

Pit depth (um) 0.125 0.125 

Min. nominal pit length (um) 0.90 0.90 

Max. nominal pit length (um) 3.31 3.31 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Lead-in inner radius (mm) 23 23 

Data inner radius (mm) 25 25 

Data outer radius (mm) 58 58 

Lead-out outer radius (mm) 58.5 58.5 

Data area width (mm) 33 33 

Total track area width (mm) 35.5 35.5 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Max. rotating speed 1x CLV (rpm) 540 540 

Min. rotating speed 1x CLV (rpm) 212 212 

Track revolutions (data area) 20,625 22,297 

Track revolutions (total) 22,188 23,986 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 


695 

B = Byte (8 bits) m = meters 

KB = Kilobyte (1,000 bytes) mm = millimeters (thousandths of a meter) 

KiB = Kibibyte (1,024 bytes) um = micrometers = microns (millionths of a meter) 

MB = Megabyte (1,000,000 bytes) CLV = Constant linear velocity 

MiB = Mebibyte (1,048,576 bytes) rpm = revolutions per minute 

The spiral track is divided into sectors that are stored at the rate of 75 sectors per second. On a disc 

that can hold a total of 74 minutes of information, that results in a maximum of 333,000 sectors. 

Each sector is then divided into 98 individual frames of information. Each frame contains 33 bytes, 

of which 24 bytes are audio data, 1 byte contains subcode information, and 8 bytes are used for 

parity/ECC (error correction code) information. Table 13.2 shows the sector, frame, and audio data 

calculations. 

Table 13.2 CD-ROM Sector, Frame, and Audio Data Information 

Advertised CD length (minutes) 74 80 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Sectors/second 75 75 

Frames/sector 98 98 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


Table 13.2 Continued 

Number of sectors 333,000 360,000 

Sector length (mm) 17.33 17.33 

Byte length (um) 5.36 5.36 

Bit length (um) 0.67 0.67 

Each Frame: 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Subcode bytes 1 1 

Data bytes 24 24 

Q+P parity bytes 8 8 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Total bytes/frame 33 33 

Audio Data: 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Audio sampling rate (Hz) 44,100 44,100 

Samples per Hz (stereo) 2 2 

Sample size (bytes) 2 2 

Audio bytes per second 176,400 176,400 

Sectors per second 75 75 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Audio bytes per sector 2,352 2,352 

Each Audio Sector (98 Frames): 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 



Audio data bytes 2,352 2,352 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Bytes/sector RAW (unencoded) 3,234 3,234 

Hz = Hertz (cycles per second) um = micrometers = microns (millionths of a meter) 

mm = millimeters (thousandths of a meter) 

Sampling 

When music is recorded on a CD, it is sampled at a rate of 44,100 times per second (Hz). Each music 

sample has a separate left and right channel (stereo) component, and each channel component is digitally 

converted into a 16-bit number. This allows for a resolution of 65,536 possible values, which 

represents the amplitude of the sound wave for that channel at that moment. 

The sampling rate determines the range of audio frequencies that can be represented in the digital 

recording. The more samples of a wave that are taken per second, the closer the sampled result will be 

to the original. The Nyquist theorem (originally published by American physicist Harry Nyquist in 

1928) states that the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency present in the sample 

to reconstruct the original signal accurately. That explains why the 44,100Hz sampling rate intentionally 

was chosen by Philips and Sony when developing the CD—that rate could be used to accurately 

reproduce sounds of up to 20,000Hz, which is the upper limit of human hearing. 

So, you can see that audio sectors combine 98 frames of 33 bytes each, which results in a total of 

3,234 bytes per sector, of which only 2,352 bytes are actual audio data. Besides the 98 subcode bytes 

per frame, the other 784 bytes are used for parity and error correction.


697 

Subcodes 

The subcode bytes enable the drive to find songs (which are confusingly also called tracks) along the 

spiral track and convey additional information about the disc. The subcode bytes are stored as 1 byte 

per frame, which gives 98 subcode bytes for each sector. Two of these bytes are used as start block and 

end block markers, leaving 96 bytes of subcode information. These are then divided into eight 12-byte 

subcode blocks, each of which is assigned a letter designation P–W. Each subcode channel can hold 

about 31.97MB of data across the disc, which is about 4% of the capacity of an audio disc. The interesting 

thing about the subcodes is that the data is woven continuously throughout the disc; in other 

words, subcode data is contained piecemeal in every sector on the disc. 

The P and Q subcode blocks are used on all discs, and the R–W subcodes are used only on CD+G 

(graphics) or CD TEXT–type discs. 

The P subcode is used to identify the start of the tracks on the CD. The Q subcode contains a multitude 

of information, including 

■ Whether the sector data is audio (CD-DA) or data (CD-ROM). This prevents most players from trying 

to “play” CD-ROM data discs, which might damage speakers due to the resulting noise that 

would occur. 

■ Whether the audio data is two or four channel. Four channel is rarely if ever used. 

■ Whether digital copying is permitted. CD-R and RW drives ignore this; it was instituted to prevent 

copying to DAT (digital audio tape) drives. 

■ Whether the music is recorded with pre-emphasis. This is a hiss or noise reduction technique. 

■ The track (song) layout on the disc. 

■ The track (song) number. 

■ The minutes, seconds, and frame number from the start of the track (song). 

■ A countdown during an intertrack (intersong) pause. 

■ The minutes, seconds, and frame from the start of the first track (song). 

■ The barcode of the CD. 

■ The ISRC (International Standard Recording Code). This is unique to each track (song) on the disc. 

The R-W subcodes are used on CD+G (graphics) discs to contain graphics and text. This enables a limited 

amount of graphics and text to be displayed while the music is being played. These same subcodes 

are used on CD TEXT discs to store disc- and track-related information that is added to standard 

audio CDs for playback on compatible CD audio players. The CD TEXT information is stored as ASCII 

characters in the R–W channels in the lead-in and program areas of a CD. On a CD TEXT disc, the 

lead-in area subcodes contain text information about the entire disc, such as the album, track (song) 

titles, and artist names. The program area subcodes, on the other hand, contain text information for 

the current track (song), including track title, composer, performers, and so on. The CD TEXT data is 

repeated throughout each track to reduce the delay in retrieving the data. 

CD TEXT–compatible players typically have a text display to show this information, ranging from a 

simple one- or two-line, 20-character display such as on many newer RBDS (radio broadcast data system) 

automobile radio/CD players up to 21 lines of 40-color, alphanumeric or graphics characters on 

home- or computer-based players. The specification also allows for future additional data, such as 

Joint Photographics Expert Group (JPEG) images. Interactive menus also can be used for the selection 

of text for display.


Handling Errors 

Handling errors was a big part of the original Red Book CD standard. CDs use parity and interleaving 

techniques called cross-interleave Reed-Solomon code (CIRC) to minimize the effects of errors on the disk. 

This works at the frame level. When being stored, the 24 data bytes in each frame are first run 

through a Reed-Solomon encoder to produce a 4-byte parity code called “Q” parity, which then is 

added to the 24 data bytes. The resulting 28 bytes are then run though another encoder that uses a 

different scheme to produce an additional 4-byte partity value called “P” parity. These are added to 

the 28 bytes from the previous encoding, resulting in 32 bytes (24 of the original data plus the Q and 

P parity bytes). An additional byte of subcode (tracking) information is then added, resulting in 33 

bytes total for each frame. Note that the P and Q parity bytes are not related to the P and Q subcodes 

mentioned earlier. 

To minimize the effects of a scratch or physical defect that would damage adjacent frames, several 

interleaves are added before the frames are actually written. Parts of 109 frames are cross-interleaved 

(stored in different frames and sectors) using delay lines. This scrambling decreases the likelihood of a 

scratch or defect affecting adjacent data because the data is actually written out of sequence. 

With audio CDs and CD-ROMs, the CIRC scheme can correct errors up to 3,874 bits long (which 

would be 2.6mm in track length). In addition, for audio CDs, only the CIRC can also conceal 

(through interpolation) errors up to 13,282 bits long (8.9mm in track length). Interpolation is the 

process in which the data is estimated or averaged to restore what is missing. That would of course be 

unacceptable on a CD-ROM data disc, so this applies only to audio discs. The Red Book CD standard 

defines the block error rate (BLER) as the number of frames (98 per sector) per second that have any 

bad bits (averaged over 10 seconds) and requires that this be less than 220. This allows a maximum of 

up to about 3% of the frames to have errors, and yet the disc will still be functional. 

An additional layer of error detection and correction circuitry is the key difference between audio CD 

players and CD-ROM drives. Audio CDs convert the digital information stored on the disc into analog 

signals for a stereo amplifier to process. In this scheme, some imprecision is acceptable because it 

would be virtually impossible to hear in the music. CD-ROMs, however, can’t tolerate any imprecision. 

Each bit of data must be read accurately. For this reason, CD-ROM discs have a great deal of 

additional ECC information written to the disc along with the actual stored information. The ECC 

can detect and correct most minor errors, improving the reliability and precision to levels that are 

acceptable for data storage. 

In the case of an audio CD, missing data can be interpolated—that is, the information follows a predictable 

pattern that enables the drive to guess the missing values. For example, if three values are 

stored on an audio disc, say 10, 13, and 20 appearing in a series, and the middle value is missing— 

because of damage or dirt on the CD’s surface—you could interpolate a middle value of 15, which is 

midway between 10 and 20. Although this might not be exactly correct, in the case of audio recording, 

it will not be noticeable to the listener. If those same three values appear on a CD-ROM in an 

executable program, there is no way to guess at the correct value for the middle sample. Interpolation 

can’t work because executable program instructions or data must be exact; otherwise, the program 

will crash or improperly read data needed for a calculation. Using the previous example with a CD- 

ROM running an executable program, to guess 15 is not merely slightly off, it is completely wrong. 

In a CD-ROM on which data is stored instead of audio information, additional information is added 

to each sector to detect and correct errors as well as to identify the location of data sectors more accurately. 

To accomplish this, 304 bytes are taken from the 2,352 that originally were used for audio data 

and are instead used for sync (synchronizing bits), ID (identification bits), ECC, and EDC information. 

This leaves 2,048 bytes for actual user data in each sector. Just as when reading an audio CD, on 

a 1x (standard speed) CD-ROM, sectors are read at a constant speed of 75 per second. This results in a 

standard CD-ROM transfer rate of 2,048 × 75 = 153,600 bytes per second, which is expressed as either 

153.6KB/sec or 150KiB/sec.


699 

CD Capacity 

Because a typical disc can hold a maximum of 74 minutes of data, and each second contains 75 

blocks of 2,048 bytes each, you can calculate the absolute maximum storage capacity of a CD-ROM at 

681,984,000 bytes—rounded as 682MB (megabytes) or 650MiB (mebibytes). Table 13.3 shows the 

structure and layout of each sector on a CD-ROM on which data is stored. 

Table 13.3 CD-ROM Sector Information and Capacity 

Each Data Sector (Mode 1): 74-minute 80-minute 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 



-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Sync bytes 12 12 

Header bytes 8 8 

ECC/EDC bytes 284 284 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Data bytes 2,048 2,048 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Bytes/sector RAW (unencoded) 3,234 3,234 

Actual CD-ROM Data Capacity: 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

B 681,984,000 737,280,000 

KiB 666,000 720,000 

KB 681,984 737,280 

MiB 650.39 703.13 

MB 681.98 737.28 

B = Byte (8 bits) MiB = Mebibyte (1,048,576 bytes) 

KB = Kilobyte (1,000 bytes) ECC = Error correction code 

KiB = Kibibyte (1,024 bytes) 

MB = Megabyte (1,000,000 bytes) 

EDC = Error detection code 

This information assumes the data is stored in Mode 1 format, which is used on virtually all data 

discs. You can learn more about the Mode 1/Mode 2 formats in the section on the Yellow Book and 

XA standards later in this chapter. 

With data sectors, you can see that out of 3,234 actual bytes per sector, only 2,048 are actual CD-ROM 

user data. Most of the 1,186 other bytes are used for the intensive error detection and correction 

schemes to ensure error-free performance. 

Data Encoding on the Disc 

The final part of how data is actually written to the CD is very interesting. After all 98 frames are 

composed for a sector (whether audio or data), the information is then run through a final encoding 

process called EFM (eight to fourteen modulation). This scheme takes each byte (8 bits) and converts 

it into a 14-bit value for storage. The 14-bit conversion codes are designed so that there are never less 

than 2 or more than 10 adjacent 0 bits. This is a form of Run Length Limited (RLL) encoding called 

RLL 2,10 (RLL x,y where x = the minimum and y = the maximum run of 0s). This is designed to prevent 

long strings of 0s, which could more easily be misread, as well as to limit the minimum and 

maximum frequency of transitions actually placed on the recording media. With as few as 2 or as 

many as 10 0 bits separating 1 bits in the recording, the minimum distance between 1s is three bit


time intervals (usually refered to as 3T) and the maximum spacing between 1s is 11 time intervals 

(11T). 

Because some of the EFM codes start and end with a 1 or more than five 0s, three additional bits 

called merge bits are added between each 14-bit EFM value written to the disc. The merge bits usually 

are 0s but might contain a 1 if necessary to break a long string of adjacent 0s formed by the adjacent 

14-bit EFM values. In addition to the now 17-bits created for each byte (EFM plus merge bits), a 24-bit 

sync word (plus 3 more merge bits) is added to the beginning of each frame. This results in a total of 

588 bits (73.5 bytes) actually being stored on the disc for each frame. Multiply this for 98 frames per 

sector and you have 7,203 bytes actually being stored on the disc to represent each sector. A 74minute 

disc, therefore, really has something like 2.4GB of actual data being written, which after being 

fully decoded and stripped of error correcting codes and other information, results in about 682MB 

(650MiB) of actual user data. 

The calculations for EFM encoded frames and sectors are shown in Table 13.4. 

Table 13.4 EFM Encoded Data Calculations 

EFM-Encoded Frames: 74-minute 80-minute 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Sync word bits 24 24 

Subcode bits 14 14 

Data bits 336 336 

Q+P parity bits 112 112 

Merge bits 102 102 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

EFM bits per frame 588 588 

EFM Encoded Sectors: 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

EFM bits per sector 57,624 57,624 

EFM bytes per sector 7,203 7,203 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Total EFM data on disc (MB) 2,399 2,593 

B = Byte (8 bits) MB = Megabyte (1,000,000 bytes) 

KB = Kilobyte (1,000 bytes) MiB = Mebibyte (1,048,576 bytes) 

KiB = Kibibyte (1,024 bytes) EFM = Eight to fourteen modulation 

To put this into perspective, see Table 13.5 for an example of what familar data would actually look 

like when written to a CD. As an example, I’ll use the letters “N” and “O” as they would be written 

on the disk. Here are the computer representations of these letters. 

Table 13.5 How Data Is Written to a CD 

Character “N” “O” 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

ASCII decimal code 78 79 

ASCII hexadecimal code 4E 4F 

ASCII binary code 01001110 01001111 

EFM code 00010001000100 00100001000100 

ASCII = American Standard Code for Information Interchange 

EFM = Eight to fourteen modulation

Figure 13.5 shows how this data would look when actually written to a CD. 

Figure 13.5 EFM data encoding on a CD. 


The edges of the pits are translated into the binary 1 bits. As you can see, each 14-bit grouping is used 

to represent a byte of actual EFM encoded data on the disc, and each 14-bit EFM code is separated by 

three merge bits (all 0s in this example). The three pits produced by this example are 4T (4 transitions), 

8T, and 4T long. The string of 1s and 0s on the top of the figure represent how the actual data 

would be read; note that a 1 is read wherever a pit-to-land transition occurs. It is interesting to note 

that this drawing is actually to scale, meaning the pits (raised bumps) would be about that long and 

wide relative to each other. If you could use a microscope to view the disc, this is what the word 

“NO” would look like as actually recorded. 

CD Drive Speed 

When a drive seeks out a specific data sector or musical track on the disc, it looks up the address of 

the data from a table of contents contained in the lead-in area and positions itself near the beginning 

of this data across the spiral, waiting for the right string of bits to flow past the laser beam. 

Because CDs originally were designed to record audio, the speed at which the drive reads the data had 

to be constant. To maintain this constant flow, CD-ROM data is recorded using a technique called 

constant linear velocity (CLV). This means that the track (and thus the data) is always moving past the 

read laser at the same speed, which originally was defined as 1.3 meters per second. Because the track 

is a spiral that is wound more tightly near the center of the disc, the disc must spin at various rates to 

maintain the same track linear speed. In other words, to maintain a CLV, the disk must spin more 

quickly when reading the inner track area and more slowly when reading the outer track area. The 

speed of rotation in a 1x drive (1.3 meters per second is considered 1x speed) varies from 540rpm 

when reading the start (inner part) of the track down to 212rpm when reading the end (outer part) of 

the track. 

In the quest for greater performance, drive manufacturers began increasing the speeds of their drives 

by making them spin more quickly. A drive that spins twice as fast was called a 2x drive, one that 

spins four times faster was called 4x, and so on. This was fine until about the 12x point, where drives 

were spinning discs at rates from 2,568rpm to 5,959rpm to maintain a constant data rate. At higher 

speeds than this, it became difficult to build motors that could change speeds (spin up or down) as 

quickly as necessary when data was read from different parts of the disc. Because of this, most drives 

rated faster than 12x spin the disc at a fixed rotational, rather than linear speed. This is termed 

constant angular velocity (CAV) because the angular velocity (or rotational speed) is what remains a 

constant. 

CAV drives are also generally quieter than CLV drives because the motors don’t have to try to accelerate 

or decelerate as quickly. A drive (such as most rewritables) that combines CLV and CAV technologies 

is referred to as Partial-CAV or P-CAV. Most writable drives, for example, function in CLV mode 

when burning the disc and in CAV mode when reading. Table 13.6 compares CLV and CAV.


Table 13.6 CLV Versus CAV Technology Quick Reference 

CLV (Constant Linear Velocity) CAV (Constant Angular Velocity) 

Speed of CD rotation: Varies with data position on CD— Constant 

faster on inner tracks than on outer tracks 

Data transfer rate: Constant Varies with data position on CD— 

faster on outer tracks than on inner tracks 

Noise level: Higher Lower 

CD-ROM drives have been available in speeds from 1x up to 56x and beyond. Most nonrewritable 

drives up to 12x were CLV; most drives from 16x and up are CAV. With CAV drives, the track data is 

moving past the read laser at various speeds, depending on where the data is physically located on 

the CD (near the inner or outer part of the track). This also means that CAV drives read the data at 

the edge of the disk more quickly than data near the center. This allowed for some misleading 

Table 13.7 CD-ROM Drive Speeds and Transfer Rates 

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 

Time Time Transfer Actual Minimum 

Advertised to Read to Read Rate CD-ROM Speed Transfer 

CD-ROM Speed 74-minute 80-minute (Bytes/sec) Minimum Rate if CAV 

(Max. if CAV) CD if CLV CD if CLV (Max. if CAV) if CAV (Bytes/sec) 

1x 74.0 80.0 153,600 0.4x 61,440 

2x 37.0 40.0 307,200 0.9x 138,240 

4x 18.5 20.0 614,400 1.7x 261,120 

6x 12.3 13.3 921,600 2.6x 399,360 

8x 9.3 10.0 1,228,800 3.4x 522,240 

10x 7.4 8.0 1,536,000 4.3x 660,480 

12x 6.2 6.7 1,843,200 5.2x 798,720 

16x 4.6 5.0 2,457,600 6.9x 1,059,840 

20x 3.7 4.0 3,072,000 8.6x 1,320,960 

24x 3.1 3.3 3,686,400 10.3x 1,582,080 

32x 2.3 2.5 4,915,200 13.8x 2,119,680 

40x 1.9 2.0 6,144,000 17.2x 2,641,920 

48x 1.5 1.7 7,372,800 20.7x 3,179,520 

50x 1.5 1.6 7,680,000 21.6x 3,317,760 

52x 1.4 1.5 7,987,200 22.4x 3,440,640 

56x 1.3 1.4 8,601,600 24.1x 3,701,760


advertising when these drives first came out. For example, a 12x CLV drive reads data at 1.84MB/sec 

no matter where that data is on the disc. On the other hand, a 16x CAV drive reads data at speeds up 

to 16x (2.46MB/sec) on the outer part of the disc, but it also reads at a much lower speed of only 6.9x 

(1.06MB/sec) when reading the inner part of the disc. On average, this would be only 11.5x, or about 

1.76MB/sec. The average is actually overly optimistic because discs are read from the inside (slower 

part) out, and an average would relate only to reading completely full discs. The real-world average 

could be much less than that. 

What this all means is that the 12x CLV drive would be noticeably faster than the 16x drive, and 

faster than even a 20x drive! Remember that all advertised speeds on CAV drives are only the maximum 

transfer speed the drive can achieve, and it can achieve that only when reading the very end 

part of the disc. 

Table 13.7 contains data showing CD-ROM drive speeds along with transfer rates and other interesting 

data. 

Column 7 Column 8 Column 9 Column 10 Column 11 Column 12 

Average Maximum Maximum Speed Rotational 

Average Transfer Linear Linear Min. if CLV Speed 

CD-ROM Speed Rate if CAV Speed Speed Max. if CAV Max. if 

if CAV (Bytes/sec) (m/sec) (mph) (rpm) CLV (rpm) 

0.7x 107,520 1.3 2.9 214 497 

1.5x 222,720 2.6 5.8 428 993 

2.9x 437,760 5.2 11.6 856 1,986 

4.3x 660,480 7.8 17.4 1,284 2,979 

5.7x 875,520 10.4 23.3 1,712 3,973 

7.2x 1,098,240 13.0 29.1 2,140 4,966 

8.6x 1,320,960 15.6 34.9 2,568 5,959 

11.5x 1,758,720 20.8 46.5 3,425 7,945 

14.3x 2,196,480 26.0 58.2 4,281 9,931 

17.2x 2,634,240 31.2 69.8 5,137 11,918 

22.9x 3,517,440 41.6 93.1 6,849 15,890 

28.6x 4,392,960 52.0 116.3 8,561 19,863 

34.4x 5,276,160 62.4 139.6 10,274 23,835 

35.8x 5,498,880 65.0 145.4 10,702 24,828 

37.2x 5,713,920 67.6 151.2 11,130 25,821 

40.1x 6,151,680 72.8 162.8 11,986 27,808


Each of the columns in Table 13.7 contains interesting information, explained here: 

■ Column 1. Indicates the advertised drive speed. This is a constant speed if the drive is CLV (most 

12x and lower) or a maximum speed only if CAV. 

■ Columns 2 and 3. Indicate how long it would take to read a full disc if the drive was CLV. For 

CAV drives, those figures would be longer because the average read speed is less than the advertised 

speed. The fourth column indicates the data transfer rate, which for CAV drives would be a 

maximum figure only when reading the end of a disc. 

■ Columns 3–6. Indicate the actual minimum “x” speed for CAV drives, along with the minimum 

transfer speed (when reading the start of any disc) and an optimistic average speed (true only 

when reading a full disc; otherwise, it would be even lower) in both “x” and byte-per-second 

formats. 

■ Columns 7–8. Indicate the maximum linear speeds the drive will attain, in both meters per second 

and miles per hour. CLV drives maintain those speeds everywhere on the disc, whereas CAV 

drives reach those speeds only on the outer part of a disc. 

■ Columns 9–12. Indicate the rotational speeds of a drive. The first of those shows how fast the 

disc spins when reading the start of a disc; this would apply to either CAV or CLV drives. For 

CAV drives, that figure is constant no matter where on the disc it is reading. The last column 

shows the maximum rotational speed if the drive were a CLV type. Because most drives over 

12x are CAV, those figures are mostly theoretical for the 16x and faster drives. 

Vibration problems can cause high-speed drives to drop to lower speeds to enable reliable reading of 

CD-ROMs. Your CD-ROM can become unbalanced, for example, if you apply a small paper label to its 

surface to identify the CD or affix its serial number or code for easy reinstallation. For this reason, 

many of the faster CD and DVD drives come with autobalancing or vibration-control mechanisms to 

overcome these problems. The only drawback is that if they detect a vibration, they slow down the 

disc, thereby reducing the transfer rate performance. . 

TrueX Technology 

Drives that are 16x or faster are usually CAV drives. Even with CAV, at these speeds the rotational 

speed of the disc is nearly 12,000rpm and the data is moving at nearly 163 miles per hour past the 

laser on the outer part of the track! Rather than try to spin discs even faster for higher speeds, a company 

called Zen Research has developed a technology they call TrueX, (also called Multibeam), which 

uses multiple laser beams to achieve constant high transfer rates without the limitations of CAV. 

Currently, this technology is licensed by several companies, although Kenwood has been the primary 

promotor and manufacturer of TrueX drives and has released drives in 42x, 52x, 62x, and 72x models, 

which have benchmarked as the fastest CD-ROM drives available. 

TrueX drives use a diffraction grating to split a single beam into seven beams reading seven tracks 

simultaneously to improve the transfer rate while maintaining a slower rotational speed that reduces 

noise and vibration. Drives with TrueX technology are the fastest CD-ROM drives on the market, 

capable of sustaining near-CLV performance at high speeds consistently no matter where they are 

reading on the disc. 

The net effect is that the reading speed is consistently higher than equivelant speed CAV drives, and 

yet the TrueX drives spin at a slower speed. For example, a 52x CAV drive performs from about 22x at 

the start of a disk to 52x at the end, whereas a 52x TrueX drive performs at about 45x at the start of a 

disc to 52x at the end. This results in a much higher average performance that is nearly consistent 

with CLV drives.

Compact Disc and Drive Formats Chapter 13 

705 

One drawback is that this technology is useful only for reading (and not writing). This means that for 

reading information, TrueX CD-ROM drives are the fastest CD-ROM drives on the market. 

Compact Disc and Drive Formats 

After Philips and Sony had created the Red Book CD-DA format discussed earlier in the chapter, they 

began work on other format standards that would allow CDs to store computer files, data, and even 

video and photos. These standards control how the data is formatted so that the drive can read it, and 

additional file format standards can then control how the software and drivers on your PC can be 

designed to understand and interpret the data properly. Note that the physical format and storage of 

data on the disc as defined in the Red Book was adopted by all subsequent CD standards. This refers 

to the encoding and basic levels of error correction provided by CD-DA discs. What the other “books” 

specify is primarily how the 2,352 bytes in each sector are to be handled, what type of data can be 

stored, how it should be formatted, and more. 

All the official CD standard books and related documents can be purchased from Philips for 

$100–$150 each. See the Philips licensing site at http://www.licensing.philips.com for more information. 

Table 13.8 describes the various standard CD formats. 

Table 13.8 Compact Disc Formats 

Format Name Introduced Notes 

Red Book CD-DA (compact 1980 - by Philips The original CD audio standard on 

disc digital audio) and Sony which all subsequent CD standards are 

based. 

Yellow Book CD-ROM (compact 1983 - by Philips Specifies additional ECC and EDC 

disc read-only and Sony for data in several sector formats, 

memory) including Mode 1 and Mode 2. 

Green Book CD-i (compact 1986 - by Philips Specifies an interactive audio/video 

disc-interactive) and Sony standard for nonPC-dedicated player 

hardware (now mostly obsolete) and 

discs used for interactive presentations. 

Defines Mode 2, Form 1 and Mode 2, 

Form 2 sector formats along with interleaved 

MPEG-1 video and ADPCM 

audio. 

CD-ROM XA CD-ROM XA 1989 - by Philips, Combines Yellow Book and CD-i to 

(extended Sony, and Microsoft bring CD-i audio and video capabilities 

architecture) to PCs. 

Orange Book CD-R (recordable) 1989 - by Philips Defines single session, multisession, 

and CD-RW and Sony (Part I/II); and packet writing on recordable discs. 

(rewritable) 1996 - by Philips 

and Sony (Part III) Part I—CD-MO (magneto-optical, 

withdrawn). 

Part II—CD-R (recordable). 

Part III—CD-RW (rewritable). 

Photo-CD CD-P 1990 - by Philips Combines CD-ROM XA with CD-R 

and Kodak multisession capability in a standard 

for photo storage on CD-R discs.



Format Name Introduced Notes 

White Book Video CD 1993 - by Philips, Based on CD-i and CD-ROM XA. It 

JVC, Matsushita, stores up to 74 minutes of MPEG-1 

and Sony video and ADPCM digital audio data. 

Blue Book CD EXTRA (formerly 1995 - by Philips Multisession format for stamped discs; 

CD-Plus or and Sony used by musical artists to incorporate 

enhanced music) videos, liner notes, and other 

information on audio CDs. 

Red Book—CD-DA 

The Red Book introduced by Philips and Sony in 1980 is the father of all compact-disc specifications 

because all other “books” or formats are based on the original CD-DA Red Book format. For more 

information on the Red Book format, see the section “CDs: A Brief History” at the beginning of this 

chapter. 

The Red Book specification includes the main parameters, audio specification, disc specification, optical 

stylus, modulation system, error correction system, and the control and display system. The latest 

revision of the Red Book is dated May 1999. 

Yellow Book—CD-ROM 

The Yellow Book was first published by Philips, Sony, and Microsoft in 1983 and has been revised and 

amended several times since. The Yellow Book standard took the physical format of the original CD- 

DA, or Red Book, standard and added another layer of error detection and correction to enable data to 

be stored reliably. It also added additional synchronization and header information to enable sectors 

to be more accurately located. Yellow Book specifies two types of sectoring—called Mode 1 (with error 

correction) and Mode 2—which offer different levels of error detection and correction schemes. Some 

data (computer files, for example) can’t tolerate errors. However, other data, such as a video image or 

sound, can tolerate minor errors. By using a mode with less error correction information, more data 

can be stored, but with the possibility of uncorrected errors. 

In 1989, the Yellow Book was issued as an international standard by the ISO as ISO/IEC 10149, Data 

Interchange on Read-Only 120mm Optical Discs (CD-ROM). The latest version of the Yellow Book is dated 

May 1999. 

Green Book—CD-i 

The Green Book was published by Philips and Sony in 1986. CD-i is much more than just a disc format; 

instead it is a complete specification for an entire interactive system consisting of custom hardware 

(players) designed to be connected to a television, software designed to deliver video and audio 

together with user interactivity in real time, and the media and format. A CD-i player is actually a 

dedicated computer usually running a variant on the Motorola 68000 processor line, as well as a customized 

version of the Microware OS/9 Real Time Operating System. 

CD-i enables both audio and video to share a disc and enables the information to be interleaved so as 

to maintain syncronization between the pictures and sounds. To fit both audio and video in the same 

space originally designed for just audio, compression was performed. The video was compressed using 

the Moving Picture Experts Group-1 (MPEG-1) compression standard, whereas the audio was compressed 

with adaptive differential pulse code modulation (ADPCM). ADPCM is an audio encoding 

algorithm that takes about half the space for the same quality of standard PCM, and even less if quality 

is reduced by lowering the sampling rate or bits per sample. Using ADPCM, up to 8 hours of stereo


707 

or 16 hours of mono sound can fit on one CD. The “differential” part of ADPCM refers to the fact 

that it records the differences between one signal and the next (using only 4-bit numbers), which 

reduces the total amount of data involved. ADPCM audio can be interleaved with video in CD-i (and 

CD-ROM XA) applications. 

The Yellow Book defines two CD-ROM sector structures, called Mode 1 and Mode 2. The Green Book 

(CD-i) refines the Mode 2 sector definition by adding two forms, called Mode 2, Form 1 and Mode 2, 

Form 2. The Mode 2, Form 1 sector definition uses ECC and allows for 2,048 bytes of data storage like 

the Yellow Book Mode 1 sectors, but it rearranged things slightly to use the 8 formerly unused (blank 

or 0) bytes as a subheader containing additional information about the sector. The Mode 2, Form 2 

definition drops the ECC and allows 2,324 bytes for data. Without the ECC, only video or audio 

information should be stored in Form 2 sectors because that type of information can tolerate minor 

errors. 

Media or titles available for CD-i include all manner of educational and training applications, games, 

encyclopedias, karaoke, and movies. Note that CD-i discs can’t be “played” on PCs. In fact, because 

the files are in an OS/9 file format, your PC won’t even be capable of seeing the files on the disc! Even 

so, drivers have been written that can be installed and will enable viewing the files, and one enterprising 

individual has even written a CD-i emulator called CD-iCE that emulates a CD-i player thus 

enabling CD-i applications to be run. You can find out more about the CD-iCE emulator at 

http://www.emuhq.com/cdi. 

Today. the CD-i format is largely obsolete. The last revision of the standard was produced in May 

1994. Philips sold off its entire consumer CD-i catalogue to Infogrames Multimedia in 1998, which 

now owns the rights for virtually all consumer CD-i titles ever produced. Philips made a final run of 

CD-i players in 1999, and it is doubtful any new ones will ever be produced. The legacy of CD-i lives 

on in the other formats that use specifications originally devised for CD-i, such as the Mode 2, Form 1 

and Form 2 sector structures later used in CD-XA and the MPEG-1 video format later used in the 

White Book (CD-Video). 

CD-ROM XA 

CD-ROM XA originally was defined in 1989 by Philips, Sony, and Microsoft as a supplement to the 

Yellow Book. CD-ROM XA brings some of the features originally defined in the Green Book (CD-i) to 

the Yellow Book (CD-ROM) standard, especially for multimedia use. CD-ROM XA adds three main features 

to the Yellow Book standard. The first consists of the CD-i–enhanced sector definitions (called 

forms) for the Mode 2 sectors, and the second is a capability called interleaving (mixing audio and 

video information). The third is ADPCM for compressed audio. The latest version of the CD-ROM XA 

standard was released in May 1991. 

Interleaving 

CD-ROM XA drives can employ a technique known as interleaving. The specification calls for the 

capability to encode on disc whether the data directly following an identification mark is graphics, 

sound, or text. Graphics can include standard graphics pictures, animation, or full-motion video. In 

addition, these blocks can be interleaved, or interspersed, with each other. For example, a frame of 

video can start a track followed by a segment of audio, which would accompany the video, followed 

by yet another frame of video. The drive picks up the audio and video sequentially, buffering the 

information in memory and then sending it along to the PC for synchronization. 

In short, the data is read off the disc in alternating pieces and then synchronized at playback so that 

the result is a simultaneous presentation of the data. Without interleaving, the drive would have to 

read and buffer the entire video track before it could read the audio track and synchronize the two for 

playback.


Sector Modes and Forms 

Mode 1 is the standard Yellow Book CD sector format with ECC and EDC to enable error-free operation. 

Each Mode 1 sector is broken down as shown in Tables 13.9 and 13.10. 

Table 13.9 Yellow Book Mode 1 Sector Format Breakdown 

Yellow Book (CD-ROM) Sectors (Mode 1): 

-------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Q+P parity bytes 784 

Subcode bytes 98 

-------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Sync bytes 12 

Header bytes 4 

Data bytes 2,048 

EDC bytes 4 

Blank (0) bytes 8 

ECC bytes 276 

-------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Bytes/sector RAW (unencoded) 3,234 

Table 13.10 Yellow Book (CD-ROM) Mode 1 Sector Format 

Sync Header User Data EDC Blank ECC 

12 4 2,048 4 8 276 

Mode 2 was defined as a sector without any ECC or EDC in the original Yellow Book. Unfortunately, 

Mode 1 (which had ECC and EDC) couldn’t be mixed with Mode 2 sectors on the same track (program 

or song). To enable data with and without error detection and correction in a single track, new 

sector format subsets for Mode 2 sectors were added in the Green Book (CD-i) and subsequently 

adopted in the CD-ROM XA extensions. This enabled information that would not tolerate errors (such 

as programs or computer data) to be interleaved or mixed within the same track with information 

that would tolerate errors (such as audio or video data). These variations on Mode 2 include Form 1 

and Form 2 sectors. Each Mode 2, Form 1 sector is broken down as shown in Tables 13.11, 13.12, 

13.13, and 13.14. 

Table 13.11 Green Book Mode 1 Sector Format Breakdown 

Green Book/CD-ROM XA Sectors (Mode 2, Form 1): 

-------------------------------------------------------------------- 



-------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Sync bytes 12 


Subheader bytes 8 


EDC bytes 4 

ECC bytes 276 

-------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Bytes/sector RAW (unencoded) 3,234


709 

Table 13.12 Green Book/CD-ROM XA (Yellow Book Extensions) Mode 2, Form 1 

Sector Format 

Sync Header Subheader User Data EDC ECC 

12 4 8 2,048 bytes 4 276 

Table 13.13 Green Book Mode 2 Sector Format Breakdown 

Green Book/CD-ROM XA Sectors (Mode 2, Form 2): 

-------------------------------------------------------------------- 



-------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Sync bytes 12 


Subheader bytes 8 


EDC bytes 4 

-------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Bytes/sector RAW (unencoded) 3,234 

Table 13.14 Green Book/CD-ROM XA (Yellow Book Extensions) Mode 2, Form 2 

Sector Format 

Sync Header Subheader User Data EDC 

12 4 8 2,324 bytes 4 

Both Mode 2 sector formats add a subheader field that identifies the type of information (such as 

audio or video) carried in the user data field. The Form 2 sector lacks the ECC of the Form 1 sector 

and increases the size of the user data field instead. This type of sector is for storing audio or video 

data that can tolerate errors. 

Because they don’t use any third-level error correction, CD-ROMs that use the Mode 2, Form 2 sector 

format (such as MPEG video CDs) can hold more user information than other CD-ROM types in the 

same number of sectors, and as a result also have a higher data transfer rate of 174.3KB/sec instead of 

the standard 153.6KB/sec. Note that Form 2 sectors are never used to store data or program files 

because errors can’t be tolerated in that type of information. In that case, the Mode 2, Form 1 sector 

format would be used. 

For a drive to be truly XA compatible, the audio data written in Form 2 sectors on the disc as audio 

must be ADPCM audio—specially compressed and encoded audio. This requires that the drive or the 

SCSI controller have a signal processor chip that can decompress the audio during the synchronization 

process. 

Some earlier drives were called XA-ready, which meant they were capable of Mode 2, Form 1 and 

Form 2 reading but did not incorporate the ADPCM chip. This is not a signficant shortcoming, however, 

because only certain multimedia titles use the ADPM encoding (with interleaved audio and 

video). The main benefit XA brought to the table was the additional sector modes and forms taken 

from the Green Book.


Orange Book 

The Orange Book defines the standards for recordable CDs and originally was announced in 1989 by 

Philips and Sony. The Orange Book comes in three parts: Part I describes a format called CD-MO 

(magneto-optical), which was to be a rewritable format but was withdrawn before any products really 

came to market; Part II (1989) describes CD-R; and Part III (1996) describes CD-RW. Note that originally, 

CD-R was refered to as CD-WO (write-once), and CD-RW originally was called CD-E (erasable). 

The Orange Book Part II CD-R design is known as a WORM (write once read mostly) format. After a 

portion of a CD-R disc is recorded, it can’t be overwritten or reused. Recorded CD-R discs are Red 

Book and Yellow Book compatible, which means they are readable on conventional CD-DA or CD- 

ROM drives. The CD-R definition in the Orange Book Part II is divided into two volumes. Volume 1 

defines recording speeds of 1x, 2x, and 4x the standard CD speed; the last revision, dated December 

1998, is 3.1. Volume 2 defines recording speeds up to 16x the standard CD speed, and the last version 

released, 0.9, is dated December 2000. 

The Orange Book Part III describes CD-RW. As the name implies, CD-RW enables you to erase and 

overwrite information in addition to reading and writing. The Orange Book Part III CD-RW definition 

was broken into two volumes. Volume 1 defines recording speeds of 1x, 2x, and 4x times the standard 

CD speed; the latest version, 2.0, is dated August 1998. Volume 2 defines recording speeds from 4x to 

10x standard CD speed, and is sometimes refered to as high-speed CD-RW; the latest version, 1.0, is 

dated May 2000. 

Besides the capability to record on CDs, the most important features instituted in the Orange Book 

specification is the capability to do multisession recording. 

Multisession Recording 

Before the Orange Book specification, CDs had to be written as a single session. A session is defined as 

a lead-in, followed by one or more tracks of data (or audio), followed by a lead-out. The lead-in takes 

up 4,500 sectors on the disc (1 minute if measured in time or about 9.2MB worth of data). The lead-in 

also indicates whether the disc is multisession, and what the next writable address on the disc is (if 

the disc isn’t closed). The first lead-out on a disc (or the only one if it is a single session or Disk At 

Once recording) is 6,750 sectors long (1.5 minutes if measured in time or about 13.8MB worth of 

data). If the disc is a multisession disc, any subsequent lead-outs are 2,250 sectors long (0.5 minutes in 

time or about 4.6MB worth of data). 

A multisession CD has multiple sessions, with each individual session complete from lead-in to leadout. 

The mandatory lead-in and lead-out for each session does waste space on the disc. In fact, 48 sessions 

would literally use up all of a 74-minute disc even with no data recorded in each session! 

Therefore, the practical limit for the number of sessions you can record on a disc would be much less 

than that. 

CD-DA and older CD-ROM drives couldn’t read more than one session on a disc, so that is the way 

most pressed CDs are recorded. The Orange Book allows multiple sessions on a single disc. To allow 

this, the Orange Book defines three main methods or modes of recording: 

■ Disk-at-Once (DAO) 

■ Track-at-Once (TAO) 

■ Packet writing 

Disc-at-Once 

Disc-at-Once means pretty much what it says: It is a single- session method of writing CDs in which 

the lead-in, data tracks, and lead-out are written in a single operation without ever turning off the


711 

writing laser, and the disc is closed. A disc is considered closed when the last (or only) lead-in is fully 

written and the next usable address on the disc is not recorded in that lead-in. In that case, the CD 

recorder is incapable of writing any further data on the disc. Note that it is not necessary to close a 

disc to read it in a normal CD-ROM drive, although if you were submitting a disc to a CD duplicating 

company for replication, most require that it be closed. 

Track-at-Once 

Multisession discs can be recorded in either Track-at-Once (TAO) or Packet writing mode. In Track-at- 

Once recording, each track can be individually written (laser turned on and off) within a session, until 

the session is closed. Closing a session is the act of writing the lead-out for that session, which means 

no more tracks can be added to that session. If the disc is closed at the same time, no further sessions 

can be added either. 

The tracks recorded in TAO mode are divided by gaps of normally 2 seconds. Each track written has 

150 sectors of overhead for run-in, run-out, pre-gap, and linking. A CD-R/RW drive can read the 

tracks even if the session is not closed, but to read them in a CD-DA or CD-ROM drive, the session 

must be closed. If you intend to write more sessions to the disc, you can close the session and not 

close the disc. At that point, you could start another session of recording to add more tracks to the 

disc. The main thing to remember is that each session must be closed (lead-out written) before 

another session can be written or before a normal CD-DA or CD-ROM drive can read the tracks in 

the session. 

Packet Writing 

Packetwriting is a method whereby multiple writes are allowed within a track, thus reducing the overhead 

and wasted space on a disc. Each packet uses 4 sectors for run-in, 2 for run-out, and 1 for linking. 

Packets can be of fixed or variable length, but most drives and packet-writing software uses a 

fixed length because it is much easier and more efficient to deal with file systems that way. 

With packet writing, you normally use the Universal Disk Format (UDF) file system, which enables 

the CD to be treated essentially like a big floppy drive. That is, you can literally drag and drop files to 

it, use the copy command to copy files onto the disc, and so on. The packet-writing software and UDF 

file system manage everything. If the disc you are using for packet writing is a CD-R, every time a file 

is overwritten or deleted, the file seems to dissapear, but you don’t get the space back on the disc. 

Instead the file system simply forgets about the file. If the disc is a CD-RW, the space is indeed 

reclaimed and the disc won’t be full until you literally have more than the limit of active files stored 

there. 

Unfortunately, Windows versions up through Windows 2000 don’t support packet writing or the UDF 

file system directly, so drivers must be loaded. Fortunately, though, these typically are included with 

CD-R/RW drives. One of the most popular packet-writing programs is DirectCD from Roxio (Adaptec). 

When you remove a packet-written disc from the drive, the packet-writing software first asks whether 

you want the files to be visible to normal CD-ROM drives. If you do then the session must be closed. 

Even if the session is closed, you can still write more to the disc later, but there is an overhead of 

wasted space every time you close a session. If you are going to read the disc in a CD-R/RW drive, you 

don’t have to close the session because they will be capable of reading the files even if the session 

isn’t closed. 

PhotoCD 

First announced back in 1990 but not available until 1992, PhotoCD is a standard for CD-R discs and 

drives to store photos. You simply drop off a roll of film at a participating Kodak developer, and they 

digitize and store the photos on a specially formatted CD-R disc called a PhotoCD, which you can


then read on virtually any CD-ROM drive connected to a PC running the appropriate software. 

Originally, Kodak sold PhotoCD “players” designed to display the photos to a connected TV, but 

these have since been dropped in favor of simply using a PC with software to decode and display 

the photos. 

Perhaps the main benefit PhotoCD has brought to the table is that it was the first CD format to use 

the Orange Book Part II (CD-R) specification with multisession recordings. Additionally, the data is 

recorded in CD-ROM XA Mode 2, Form 2 sectors so more photo information could be stored on the 

disc. 

Using the PhotoCD software, you can view your photographs at any one of several resolutions and 

manipulate them using standard graphics software packages. 

When you drop off your roll of film, the Kodak developers produce prints as they normally do. After 

prints are made, they scan the prints with ultra–high-resolution scanners. To give you an idea of the 

amount of information each scan carries, one color photograph can take 15MB–20MB of storage. The 

compressed, stored images are then encoded onto special writable CDs. The finished product is packaged 

and shipped back to your local developer for pickup. Some developers can do the scanning onsite. 

PhotoCD Disc Types 

The images on the disc are compressed and stored using Kodak’s own PhotoYCC encoding format, 

which includes up to six resolutions for each image, as shown in Table 13.15. Kodak has defined several 

types of PhotoCD discs to accommodate the needs of various types of users. The PhotoCD Master 

disc is the standard consumer format and contains up to 100 photos in all the resolutions shown in 

the table except for base x64. 

Table 13.15 PhotoCD Resolutions 

Base Resolution (pixels) Description 

/16 128×192 Thumbnail 

/4 256×384 Thumbnail 

x1 512×768 TV resolution 

x4 1,024×1,536 HDTV resolution 

x16 2,048×3,072 Print size 

x64 4,096×6,144 Pro PhotoCD master only 

The various resolutions supply you with images appropriate for various applications. If, for example, 

you want to include a PhotoCD image on a Web page, you would choose a low-resolution image. A 

professional photographer shooting photos for a print ad would want to use the highest resolution 

possible. 

The Pro PhotoCD Master disc is intended for professional photographers using larger film formats, 

such as 70mm, 120mm, or 4×5 inch. This type of disc adds an even higher-resolution image 

(4,096×6,144 pixels) to those already furnished on the PhotoCD Master disc. Because of this added 

high-resolution image, this type of disc can hold anywhere from 25 to 100 images, depending on the 

film format. 

The PhotoCD Portfolio disc is designed for interactive presentations that include sound and other 

multimedia content. The high-resolution images that take up the most space are not necessary here, 

so this type of disc can contain up to 700 images, depending on how much other content is included.


713 

Multisession Photo CDs 

One breakthrough of the PhotoCD concept is that each of the disc types is capable of containing multiple 

sessions. Because the average consumer wouldn’t usually have enough film processed to fill an 

entire disc, you can bring back your partially filled CDs each time you have more film to develop. A 

new session is then added to your existing CD until the entire disc is filled. You pay less for the processing 

because a new CD is not necessary, and all your images are stored on a smaller number of 

discs. 

Any XA-compliant or XA-ready CD-ROM drive can read the multiple sessions on a PhotoCD disc, and 

even if your drive is not multisession capable, it can still read the first session on the disc. If this is 

the case, you must purchase a new disc for each batch of film you process, but you can still take 

advantage of PhotoCD technology. 

Kodak provides software that enables you to view the PhotoCD images on your PC and licenses a 

PhotoCD import filter to the manufacturers of many desktop publishing, image-editing, and paint 

programs. Therefore, you can modify your PhotoCD images using a program such as Adobe 

Photoshop and integrate them into documents for printing or electronic publication with a page 

layout program such as Adobe PageMaker. 

Picture CD 

Although Kodak still offers PhotoCD services, the high cost has led to limited popularity. Kodak now 

offers the simpler Picture CD and Picture Disk services. Unlike PhotoCD, these services use the 

industry-standard JPEG file format. Picture CD uses a CD-R, with images stored at a single mediumresolution 

scan of 1,024×1,536 pixels. This resolution is adequate for 4”×6” and 5”×7” prints. The lessexpensive 

Picture Disk service stores images on a 1.44MB floppy disk at a resolution of 400×600, 

suitable for screensavers and slide shows. 

The software provided with Picture CD enables the user to manipulate images with various automatic 

or semiautomatic operations, but unlike PhotoCD, the standard JPEG (JPG) file format used for storage 

enables any popular image-editing program to work with the images without conversion. 

Although the image quality of Picture CD isn’t as high as with PhotoCD, the much lower price of the 

service should make it far more popular with amateur photographers. 

White Book—Video CD 

The White Book was introduced in 1993 by Philips, JVC, Matsushita, and Sony. It is based on the 

Green Book (CD-i) and CD-ROM XA standards and allows for storing up to 74 minutes of MPEG-1 

video and ADPCM digital audio data on a single disc. The latest version was released in April 1995. 

You can think of video CDs as a sort of poor man’s DVD format, although the picture and sound 

quality is actually quite good—certainly better than VHS or most other videotape formats. You can 

play video CDs on virtually any PC with a CD-ROM drive using the free Windows Media Player (other 

media player applications can be used as well). They also can be played on most DVD players and 

even some game consoles, such as the Playstation (with the right options). Video CDs are an especially 

big hit with people who travel with laptop computers, and the prerecorded discs are much 

cheaper than DVD—many as little as $5. 

Blue Book—CD EXTRA 

Manufacturers of CD-DA media were looking for a standard method to combine both music and data 

on a single CD. The intention was for a user to be able to play only the audio tracks in a standard 

audio CD player while remaining unaware of the data track. However, a user with a PC or a dedicated 

combination audio/data player could access both the audio and data tracks on the same disc.


The fundamental problem with nonstandard mixed-mode CDs is that if or when an audio player tries 

to play the data track, the result is static that could conceivably damage speakers and possibly hearing 

if the volume level has been turned up. Various manufacturers originally addressed this problem in 

different ways, resulting in a number of confusing methods for creating these types of discs, some of 

which still allowed the data tracks to be accidentally “played” on an audio player. 

In 1995, Philips and Sony developed the CD EXTRA specification, as defined in the Blue Book standard. 

CDs conforming to this specification usually are refered to as CD EXTRA (formerly called CD 

Plus or CD Enhanced Music) discs and use the multisession technology defined in the CD-ROM XA 

standard to separate the audio and data tracks. These are a form of stamped multisession disc. The 

audio portion of the disc can consist of up to 98 standard Red Book audio tracks, whereas the data 

track typically is composed of XA Mode 2 sectors and can contain video, song lyrics, still images, or 

other multimedia content. Such discs can be identified by the CD EXTRA logo, which is the standard 

CD-DA logo with a plus sign to the right. Often the logo or markings on the disc package are overlooked 

or somewhat obscure, and you might not know that an audio CD contains this extra data 

until you play it in a CD-ROM drive. 

A CD EXTRA disc normally contains two sessions. Because audio CD players are only single-session 

capable, they play only the audio session and ignore the additional session containing the data. A 

CD-ROM drive in a PC, however, can see both sessions on the disc and access both the audio and data 

tracks. 

Note 

Many artists have released audio CDs in the CD EXTRA format that include things such as lyrics, video, artist bio, photos, 

and so on in data files on the disc. Tidal by Fiona Apple (released in 1996) was one of the first CD EXTRA discs from 

Sony Music. There have been many CD EXTRA releases since then. For examples of other CD EXTRA discs, including current 

releases, see http://www.cdextra.com. 

CD-ROM File Systems 

Manufacturers of early CD-ROM discs required their own custom software to read the discs. This is 

because the Yellow Book specification for CD-ROM details only how data sectors—rather than audio 

sectors—can be stored on a disc, and did not cover the file systems or deal with how data should be 

stored in files and how these should be formatted for use by PCs with different operating systems. 

Obviously, noninterchangeable file formats presented an obstacle to the industrywide compatiblity for 

CD-ROM applications. 

In 1985–1986, several companies got together and published the High Sierra file format specification, 

which finally enabled CD-ROMs for PCs to be universally readable. That was the first industrystandard 

CD-ROM file system that made CD-ROMs universally usable in PCs. Today several file 

systems are used on CDs, including 

■ High Sierra 

■ ISO 9660 (based on High Sierra) 

■ Joliet 

■ UDF (Universal Disk Format) 

■ Mac HFS (Hierarchical File Format) 

■ Rock Ridge 

Not all CD file system formats can be read by all operating systems. Table 13.17 shows the primary 

file systems used and which operating systems support them.

Table 13.16 CD File System Formats 

CD-ROM File Systems Chapter 13 

715 

CD File System DOS/Win 3.1 Win 9x/Me Win NT/2000 Mac OS 

High Sierra Yes Yes Yes Yes 

ISO 9660 Yes Yes Yes Yes 

Joliet Yes1 Yes Yes Yes 1 

UDF No Yes2 Yes 2 Yes 2 

1. A short name, such as (SHORTN~1.TXT), is shown. 

2. Only if a UDF driver is installed. 

Note 

The Mac HFS and Rock Ridge file systems are not supported by PC operating systems such as DOS or Windows and 

therefore are not covered in depth here. 

High Sierra 

To make CD-ROM discs readable on all systems without having to develop custom file systems and 

drivers, it was in the best interests of all PC hardware and software manufacturers to resolve the CD- 

ROM file format standardization issue. In 1985, representatives from TMS, DEC, Microsoft, Hitachi, 

LaserData, Sony, Apple, Philips, 3M, Video Tools, Reference Technology, and Xebec met at what was 

then called the High Sierra Hotel and Casino in Lake Tahoe, Nevada, to create a common logical format 

and file structure for CD-ROMs. In 1986, they jointly published this standard as the “Working 

Paper for Information Processing: Volume and File Structure of CD-ROM Optical Discs for 

Information Exchange (1986).” This standard was subsequently referred to as the High Sierra format. 

This agreement enabled all drives using the appropriate driver (such as MSCDEX.EXE supplied by 

Microsoft with DOS) to read all High Sierra format discs, opening the way for the mass production 

and acceptance of CD-ROM software publishing. Adoption of this standard also enabled disc publishers 

to provide cross-platform support for their software, easily manufacturing discs for DOS, Unix, and 

other operating system formats. Without this agreement, the maturation of the CD-ROM marketplace 

would have taken years longer and the production of CD-ROM–based information would have been 

stifled. 

The High Sierra format was submitted to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 

and two years later (in 1988) and with several enhancements and changes it was republished as the 

ISO 9660 standard. ISO 9660 was not exactly the same as High Sierra, but all the drivers that would 

read High Sierra–formatted discs were quickly updated to handle both ISO 9660 and the original High 

Sierra format on which it was based. 

For example, Microsoft wrote the MSCDEX.EXE (Microsoft CD-ROM extensions) driver in 1988 and 

licensed it to CD-ROM hardware and software vendors to include with their products. It wasn’t until 

1993 when MS-DOS 6.0 was released that MSCDEX was included with DOS as a standard feature. 

MSCDEX enables DOS to read ISO 9660–formatted (and High Sierra–formatted) discs. This driver 

works with the AT Attachment Packet Interface (ATAPI) or Advanced SCSI Programming Interface 

(ASPI) hardware-level device driver that comes with the drive. Microsoft built ISO 9660 and Joliet file 

system support directly into Windows 95 and later, with no additional drivers necessary. 

ISO 9660 

The ISO 9660 standard enabled full cross compatibility among different computer and operating systems. 

ISO 9660 was released in 1988 and was based on the work done by the High Sierra group.


Although based on High Sierra, ISO 9660 does have some differences and refinements. But any drivers 

that can read ISO 9660 also can read discs formatted in High Sierra. ISO 9660 has three levels of interchange 

that dictate the features that can be used to ensure compatibility with different systems. 

ISO 9660 Level 1 is the lowest common denominator of all CD file systems and is capable of being 

read by almost every computer platform, including Unix and Macintosh. The downside of this file 

system is that it is very limited with respect to filenames and directories. Level 1 interchange restrictions 

include 

■ Only uppercase characters A–Z, numbers 0–9, and the underscore (_) are allowed in filenames. 

■ 8.3 characters maximum for the name.extension (based on DOS limits). 

■ Directory names are eight characters maximum (no extension allowed). 

■ Directories are limited to eight levels deep. 

■ Files must be contiguous. 

Level 2 interchange rules have the same limitations as Level 1, except that the filename and extension 

can be up to 30 characters long (both added together, not including the . separator). Finally, Level 3 

interchange rules are the same as Level 2 except that files don’t have to be contiguous. 

Note that Windows 95 and later versions enable you to use file and folder names up to 255 characters 

long, which can include spaces as well lowercase and many other characters not allowed in ISO 9660. 

To maintain backward compatiblity with DOS, Win95 and later associate a short 8.3 format filename 

as an alias for each file that has a longer name. These alias short names are created automatically by 

Windows and can be viewed in the Properties for each file or by using the DIR command at a commmand 

prompt. To create these alias names, Windows truncates the name to six (or fewer) characters 

followed by a tilde (~) and a number starting with 1 and truncates the extension to three characters. 

Other numbers are used in the first part if other files that would have the same alias when truncated 

already exist. For example, the filename This is a.test gets THISIS~1.TES as an alias. 

This filename alias creation is independent of your CD drive, but it is important to know that if you 

create or write to a CD using the ISO 9660 format using Level 1 restrictions, the alias short names are 

used when recording files to the disc, meaning any long filenames will be lost in the process. In fact, 

even the alias short name will be modified because ISO 9660 Level 1 restrictions don’t allow a tilde— 

that character is converted to an underscore in the names written to the CD. 

The ISO 9660 data starts at 2 seconds and 16 sectors into the disc, which is also known as logical sector 

16 of track one. For a multisession disc, the ISO 9660 data is present in the first data track of each session 

containing CD-ROM tracks. This data identifies the location of the volume area—where the 

actual data is stored. The system area also lists the directories in this volume as the volume table of 

contents (VTOC), with pointers or addresses to various named areas, as illustrated in Figure 13.6. A 

significant difference between the CD directory structure and that of a normal hard disk is that the 

CD’s system area also contains direct addresses of the files within the subdirectories, allowing the CD 

to seek specific sector locations on the spiral data track. Because the CD data is all on one long spiral 

track, when speaking of tracks in the context of a CD, we’re actually talking about sectors or segments 

of data along that spiral. 

To put the ISO 9660 format in perspective, the disc layout is roughly analogous to that of a floppy 

disk. A floppy disk has a system track that not only identifies itself as a floppy disk and reveals its 

density and operating system, but also tells the computer how it’s organized—into directories, which 

are made up of files.

Figure 13.6 A diagram of basic ISO 9660 file organizational format. 

CD-ROM File Systems Chapter 13 717 

Joliet 

Joliet is an extension of the ISO 9660 standard developed by Microsoft for use with Windows 95 and 

later. Joliet enables CDs to be recorded using filenames up to 64 characters long, including spaces and 

other characters from the Unicode international character set. Joliet also preserves an 8.3 alias for 

those programs that can’t use the longer filenames. 

In general, Joliet features the followig specifications: 

■ File or directory names can be up to 64 Unicode characters (128 bytes) in length. 

■ Directory names can have extensions. 

■ Directories can be deeper than eight levels. 

■ Multisession recording is inherently supported. 

Due to backward-compatibility provisions, systems that don’t support the Joliet extensions (such as 

older DOS systems) should still be capable of reading the disc. However, it will be interpreted as an 

ISO 9660 format using the short names instead. 

Note 

Synchonization, Identification 

System Area 

Data Volume 

Volume Table 

of Contents 

Data Data Data 

A bit of trivia: “Chicago” was the code name used by Microsoft for Windows 95. Joliet is the town outside of Chicago 

where Jake was locked up in the movie The Blues Brothers. 

Universal Disk Format 

UDF is a relatively new file system created by the Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) as 

an industry-standard format for use on optical media such as CD-ROM and DVD. UDF has several 

advantages over the ISO 9660 file system used by standard CD-ROMs but is most noted because it is 

designed to work with packet writing, a technique for writing small amounts of data to a CD-R/RW 

disc, treating it much like a standard magnetic drive. 

The UDF file system allows long filenames up to 255 characters per name. There have been several 

versions of UDF, with most packet-writing software using UDF 1.5 or later. Packet-writing software 

such as DirectCD from Roxio writes in the UDF file system. Standard CD-ROM drives, drivers, or operating 

systems such as DOS can’t read UDF formatted discs. Recordable drives can read them, but regular 

CD-ROM drives must conform to the MultiRead specification (see the section “MultiRead 

Specifications,” later in this chapter) to be capable of reading UDF discs.


After you are sure that your drive can read UDF, you must check the OS. Most operating systems can’t 

read UDF natively—the support has to be added via a driver. DOS can’t read UDF at all; however, with 

Windows 95 and later, UDF-formatted discs can be read by installing a UDF driver. Normally such a 

driver is included with the software that is included with most CD-RW drives. If you don’t have a 

UDF driver, you can download one for free from Roxio at http://www.roxio.com. The Roxio UDF 

Reader is included with DirectCD 3.0 and later. After the UDF driver is installed, you do not need to 

take any special steps to read a UDF-formatted disc. The driver will be in the background waiting for 

you to insert a UDF-formatted disc. 

You can close a DirectCD for Windows disc to make it readable in a normal CD-ROM drive, which 

will convert the filenames to Joliet format, causing them to be truncated to 64 characters. 

Macintosh HFS 

HFS is the file system used by the Macintosh OS. HFS can also be used on CD-ROMs; however if that 

is done, they will not be readable on a PC. A hybrid disc can be produced with both Joliet and HFS or 

ISO 9660 and HFS file systems, and the disc would then be readable on both PCs and Macs. In that 

case, the system will see only the disc that is compatible, which is ISO 9660 or Joliet in the case of 

PCs. 

Rock Ridge 

The Rock Ridge Interchange Protocol (RRIP) was developed by an industry consortium called the Rock 

Ridge group. It was officially released in 1994 by the IEEE CD-ROM File System Format Working 

Group and specifies an extension to the ISO 9660 standard for CD-ROM that enables the recording of 

additional information to support Unix/POSIX file system features. Rock Ridge is not supported by 

DOS or Windows. However, because it is based on ISO 9660, the files are still readable on a PC and 

the RRIP extensions are simply ignored. 

Note 

An interesting bit of trivia is that the Rock Ridge name was taken from the fictional Western town in the movie Blazing 

Saddles. 

DVD 

DVD stands for digital versatile disc and in simplest terms is a high-capacity CD. In fact, every DVD- 

ROM drive is a CD-ROM drive; that is, they can read CDs as well as DVDs (discs). DVD uses the same 

optical technology as CD, with the main difference being higher density. The DVD standard dramatically 

increases the storage capacity of, and therefore the useful applications for, CD-ROM–sized discs. 

A CD-ROM can hold a maximum of about 737MB (80-minute disc) of data, which might sound like a 

lot but is simply not enough for many up-and-coming applications, especially where the use of video 

is concerned. DVD discs, on the other hand, can hold up to 4.7GB (single layer) or 8.5GB (dual layer) 

on a single side of the disc, which is more than 11 1/2 times greater than a CD. Double-sided DVD 

discs can hold up to twice that amount; although currently you must manually flip the disc over to 

read the other side. 

Up to two layers of information can be recorded to DVD discs, with an initial storage capacity of 

4.7GB of digital information on a single-sided, single-layer disc—a disk that is the same overall diameter 

and thickness of a current CD-ROM. With Moving Picture Experts Group–standard 2 (MPEG-2) 

compression, that’s enough to contain approximately 133 minutes of video, which is enough for a 

full-length, full-screen, full-motion feature film—including three channels of CD-quality audio and 

four channels of subtitles. Using both layers, a single-sided disc could easily hold 240 minutes of

DVD Chapter 13 

719 

video or more. This initial capacity is no coincidence; the creation of DVD was driven by the film 

industry, which has long sought a storage medium cheaper and more durable than videotape. 

Note 

It is important to know the difference between the DVD-Video and DVD-ROM standards. DVD-Video discs contain only 

video programs and are intended to be played in a DVD player, connected to a television and possibly an audio system. 

DVD-ROM is a data storage medium intended for use by PCs and other types of computers. The distinction is similar to 

that between an audio CD and a CD-ROM. Computers might be capable of playing audio CDs as well as CD-ROMs, 

but dedicated audio CD players can’t use a CD-ROM’s data tracks. Likewise, computer DVD drives can play DVD-video 

discs (with MPEG-2 decoding in either hardware or software), but DVD video players can’t access data on a DVD-ROM. 

The initial application for DVDs was as an upgrade for CDs as well as a replacement for prerecorded 

videotapes. DVDs can be rented or purchased like prerecorded VCR tapes, but they offer much higher 

resolution and quality with greater content. As with CDs, which initially were designed only for 

music, DVDs have since developed into a wider range of uses, including computer data storage. 

DVD History 

DVD had a somewhat rocky start. During 1995, two competing standards for high-capacity CD-ROM 

drives were being developed to compete with each other for future market share. One standard, called 

Multimedia CD, was introduced and backed by Philips and Sony, whereas a competing standard, 

called the Super Density (SD) disk, was introduced and backed by Toshiba, Time Warner, and several 

other companies. If both standards had hit the market as is, consumers as well as entertainment and 

software producers would have been in a quandary over which one to choose. 

Fearing a repeat of the Beta/VHS situation that occured in the videotape market, several organizations, 

including the Hollywood Video Disc Advisory Group and the Computer Industry Technical Working 

Group, banded together to form a consortium to develop and control the DVD standard. The consortium 

insisted on a single format for the industry and refused to endorse either competing proposal. 

With this incentive, both groups worked out an agreement on a single, new, high-capacity CD type 

disc in September of 1995. The new standard combined elements of both previously proposed standards 

and was called DVD, which originally stood for digital video disc, but has since been changed 

to digital versatile disc. The single DVD standard has avoided a confusing replay of the VHS versus 

Beta tape fiasco and has given the software, hardware, and movie industries a single, unified standard 

to support. 

After agreeing on copy protection and other items, the DVD-ROM and DVD-Video standards were 

officially announced in late 1996. Players, drives, and discs were announced in January 1997 at the 

Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in Las Vegas, and the players and discs became available in March 

of 1997. The initial players were about $1,000 each. Only 36 movies were released in the first wave, 

and they were available only in seven cities nationwide (Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, New York, 

San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington, D.C.) until August 1997 when the full release began. After a 

somewhat rocky start (much had to do with agreements on copy protection to get the movie companies 

to go along, and there was a lack of titles available in the beginning), DVD has become an 

incredible success. It will likely continue to grow after the rewritable +RW format becomes available in 

2001 and changes DVD from a read-only to a fully rewritable consumer as well as computer device. 

The organization that controls the DVD standard is called the DVD Forum and was founded by 10 

companies, including Hitachi, Matsushita, Mitsubishi, Victor, Pioneer, Sony, Toshiba, Philips, 

Thomson, and Time Warner. Since its founding in 1995, more than 230 companies have joined the 

forum. Because it is a public forum, anybody can join and attend the meetings; the site for the DVD 

forum is http://www.dvdforum.org.


DVD Technology 

DVD technology is similar to CD technology. Both use the same size (120mm diameter, 1.2mm thick, 

with a 15mm hole in the center) discs with pits and lands stamped in a polycarbonate base. Unlike a 

CD, though, DVDs can have two layers of recordings on a side and be double-sided as well. Each layer 

is separately stamped, and they are all bonded together to make the final 1.2mm-thick disc. The manufacturing 

process is largely the same, with the exception that each layer on each side is stamped 

from a separate piece of polycarbonate plastic and are then bonded together to form the completed 

disc. The main difference between CD and DVD is that DVD is a higher-density recording read by a 

laser with a shorter wavelength, which enables more information to be stored. Also, whereas CDs are 

single-sided and have only one layer of stamped pits and lands, DVDs can have up to two layers per 

side and can have information on both sides. 

As with CDs, each layer is stamped or molded with a single physical track in a spiral configuration 

starting from the inside of the disc and spiraling outward. The disc rotates counterclockwise (as 

viewed from the bottom), and each spiral track contains pits (bumps) and lands (flat portions) just as 

on a CD. Each recorded layer is coated with a thin film of metal to reflect the laser light. The outer 

layer has a thinner coating to allow the light to pass through to read the inner layer. If the disc is 

single-sided, a label can be placed on top; otherwise, if it’s double-sided, only a small ring near the 

center provides room for labeling. 

Reading the information back is a matter of bouncing a low-powered laser beam off one of the reflective 

layers in the disc. The laser shines a focused beam on the underside of the disc, and a photosensitive 

receptor detects when the light is reflected back. When the light hits a land (flat spot) on the 

track, the light is reflected back; when the light hits a pit (raised bump), no light is reflected back. 

As the disc rotates over the laser and receptor, the laser shines continuously while the receptor sees 

what is essentially a pattern of flashing light as the laser passes over pits and lands. Each time the 

laser passes over the edge of a pit the light seen by the receptor changes in state from being reflected 

to not reflected or vice versa. Each change in state of reflection caused by crossing the edge of a pit is 

translated into a 1 bit digitally. Microprocessors in the drive translate the light/dark and dark/light 

(pit edge) transitions into 1 bits, translate areas where there are no transitions into 0 bits, and then 

translate the bit patterns into actual data or sound. 

The individual pits on a DVD are 0.105 microns deep and 0.4 microns wide. Both the pits and lands 

vary in length from about 0.4 microns at their shortest to about 1.9 microns at their longest (on 

single-layer discs). 

See the section “CD-ROM Technology” earlier in this chapter for more information on how the pits 

and lands are read and converted into actual data, as well as how the drives physically and mechanically 

work. 

DVD uses the same optical laser read pit and land storage that CDs do. The greater capacity is made 

possible by several factors, including the following: 

■ A 2.25 times smaller pit length (0.9–0.4 microns) 

■ A 2.16 times reduced track pitch (1.6–0.74 microns) 

■ A slightly larger data area on the disc (8,605–8,759 square millimeters) 

■ About 1.06 times more efficient channel bit modulation 

■ About 1.32 times more efficient error correction code 

■ About 1.06 times less sector overhead (2,048/2,352–2,048/2,064 bytes)

DVD Chapter 13 721 

The DVD disc’s pits and lands are much smaller and closer together than those on a CD, allowing the 

same physical-sized platter to hold much more information. Figure 13.7 shows how the grooved 

tracks with pits and lands are just over four times as dense on a DVD as compared to a CD. 

DVD CD 

Figure 13.7 DVD data markings (pits and lands) versus those of a standard CD. 

DVD drives use a shorter wavelength laser to read these smaller pits and lands. DVD can have nearly 

double the initial capacity by using two separate layers on one side of a disc and double it again by 

using both sides of the disc. The second data layer is written to a separate substrate below the first 

layer, which is then made semireflective to enable the laser to penetrate to the substrate beneath it. 

By focusing the laser on one of the two layers, the drive can read roughly twice the amount of data 

from the same surface area. 

DVD Tracks and Sectors 

The pits are stamped into a single spiral track (per layer) with a spacing of 0.74 microns between 

turns, corresponding to a track density of 1,351 turns per millimeter or 34,324 turns per inch. This 

equates to a total of 49,324 turns and a total track length of 11.8km or 7.35 miles in length. The track 

is comprised of sectors, with each sector containing 2,048 bytes of data. The disc is divided into four 

main areas: 

■ Hub clamping area. The hub clamp area is just that, a part of the disc where the hub mechanism 

in the drive can grip the disc. No data or information is stored in that area. 

■ Lead-in zone. The lead-in zone contains buffer zones, reference code, and mainly a control data 

zone with information about the disc. The control data zone consists of 16 sectors of information 

repeated 192 times for a total of 3,072 sectors. Contained in the 16 (repeated) sectors is 

information about the disc, including disc category and version number, disc size and maximum 

transfer rate, disc structure, recording density, and data zone allocation. The entire lead-in 

zone takes up to 196,607 (2FFFFh) sectors on the disc. Unlike CDs, the basic structure of all sectors 

on a DVD are the same. The buffer zone sectors in the lead-in zone have all 00h (zero hex) 

recorded for data. 

■ Data zone. The data zone contains the video, audio, or other data on the disc and starts at sector 

number 196,608 (30000h). The total number of sectors in the data zone can be up to 2,292,897 

per layer for single layer discs. 

■ Lead-out (or middle) zone. The lead-out zone marks the end of the data zone. The sectors in the 

lead-out zone all contain zero (00h) for data. This is called the middle zone if the disc is dual 

layer and is recorded in opposite track path (OPT) mode, in which the second layer starts from 

the outside of the disc and is read in the opposite direction from the first layer.


The center hole in a DVD is 15mm in diameter, so it has a radius of 7.5mm from the center of the 

disc. From the edge of the center hole to a point at a radius of 16.5mm is the hub clamp area. The 

lead-in zone starts at a radius of 22mm from the center of the disc. The data zone starts at a radius of 

24mm from the center and is followed by the lead-out (or middle) zone at 58mm. The disc track officially 

ends at 58.5mm, which is followed by a 1.5mm blank area to the edge of the disc. Figure 13.8 

shows these zones in actual relative scale as they appear on a DVD. 

Figure 13.8 Areas on a DVD (side view). 

Officially, the spiral track of a standard DVD starts with the lead-in zone and ends at the finish of the 

lead-out zone. This single spiral track is about 11.84 kilometers or 7.35 miles long. An interesting fact 

is that in a 20x CAV drive, when reading the outer part of the track, the data moves at an actual speed 

of 156 miles per hour (251km/h) past the laser. What is more amazing is that even when the data is 

traveling at that speed, the laser pickup can accurately read bits (pit/land transitions) spaced as little 

as only 0.4 microns or 15.75 millionths of an inch apart! 

DVDs come in both single- and dual-layer as well as single- and double-sided versions. The doublesided 

discs are essentially the same as two single-sided discs glued together back to back, but subtle 

differences do exist between the single- and dual-layer discs. Table 13.17 shows some of the basic 

information about DVD technology, including single- and dual-layer DVDs. The dual-layer versions 

are recorded with slightly longer pits, resulting in slightly less information being stored in each layer. 

Table 13.17 DVD Technical Parameters 

DVD Type: Single-Layer Dual-Layer 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

1x read speed (m/sec) 3.49 3.84 

Laser wavelength (nm) 650 650 

Media refractive index 1.55 1.55 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Track (turn) spacing (um) 0.74 0.74 

Turns per mm 1,351 1,351 

Turns per inch 34,324 34,324 

Total track length (m) 11,836 11,836 

Total track length (feet) 38,832 38,832 

Total track length (miles) 7.35 7.35 

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


Media bit cell length (nm) 133.3 146.7 

Media byte length (um) 1.07 1.17 

Media sector length (mm) 5.16 5.68 

Pit width (um) 0.40 0.40 

Pit depth (um) 0.105 0.105 

Min. nominal pit length (um) 0.40 0.44 

Max. nominal pit length (um) 1.87 2.05 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Lead-in inner radius (mm) 22 22 

Data zone inner radius (mm) 24 24 

Data zone outer radius (mm) 58 58 

Lead-out outer radius (mm) 58.5 58.5 

Data zone width (mm) 34 34 

Data zone area (mm2) 8,759 8,759 

Total track area width (mm) 36.5 36.5 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Max. rotating speed 1x CLV (rpm) 1,515 1,667 

Min. rotating speed 1x CLV (rpm) 570 627 

Track revolutions (data zone) 45,946 45,946 

Track revolutions (total) 49,324 49,324 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Data zone sectors per layer per side 2,292,897 2,083,909 

Sectors per second 676 676 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Media data rate (mbits/sec) 26.15625 26.15625 

Media bits per sector 38,688 38,688 

Media bytes per sector 4,836 4,836 

Interface data Rate (mbits/sec) 11.08 11.08 

Interface data bits per sector 16,384 16,384 

Interface data bytes per sector 2,048 2,048 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Track time per layer (minutes) 56.52 51.37 

Track time per side (minutes) 56.52 102.74 

MPEG-2 video per layer (minutes) 133 121 

MPEG-2 video per side (minutes) 133 242 


B = Byte (8 bits) mm2 = square millimeters 

KB = Kilobyte (1,000 bytes) um = micrometers = microns (millionths of a meter) 

KiB = Kibibyte (1,024 bytes) nm = nanometers (billionths of a meter) 

MB = Megabyte (1,000,000 bytes) rpm = revolutions per minute 

MiB = Mebibyte (1,048,576 bytes) ECC = Error correction code 

GB = Gigabyte (1,000,000,000 bytes) EDC = Error detection code 

GiB = Gibibyte (1,073,741,824 bytes) CLV = Constant linear velocity 

m = meters 

mm = millimeters (thousandths of a meter) 

CAV = Constant angular velocity 

As you can see from the information in Table 13.17, the spiral track is divided into sectors that are 

stored at the rate of 676 sectors per second. Each sector contains 2,048 bytes of data.


When being written, the sectors are first formatted into data frames of 2,064 bytes, of which 2,048 are 

data, 4 bytes contain ID information, 2 bytes contain ID error detection (IED) codes, 6 bytes contain 

copyright information, and 4 bytes contain EDC for the frame. 

The data frames then have ECC information added to convert them into ECC frames. Each ECC 

frame contains the 2,064-byte data frame plus 182 parity outer (PO) bytes and 120 parity inner (PI) 

bytes, for a total of 2,366 bytes for each ECC frame. 

Finally, the ECC frames are converted into physical sectors on the disc. This is done by taking 91 

bytes at a time from the ECC frame and converting them into recorded bits via 8 to 16 modulation. 

This is where each byte (8 bits) is converted into a special 16-bit value, which is selected from a table. 

These values are designed using an RLL 2,10 scheme, which is designed so that the encoded information 

never has a run of less than 2 or more than 10 0 bits in a row. After each group of 91 bytes is 

converted via the 8 to 16 modulation, 320 bits (4 bytes) of synchronization information is added. 

After the entire ECC frame is converted into a physical sector, 4,836 total bytes are stored. 

Table 13.18 shows the sector, frame, and audio data calculations. 

Table 13.18 DVD Data Frame, ECC Frame, and Physical Sector Layout and Information 

DVD Data Frame: 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Identification data (ID) bytes 4 

ID Error detection code (IED) bytes 2 

Copyright Info (CI) bytes 6 


Error detection code (EDC) 4 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Data frame total bytes 2,064 

DVD ECC Frame: 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Data frame total bytes 2,064 

Parity outer (PO) bytes 182 

Parity inner (PI) bytes 120 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

ECC Frame total bytes 2,366 

DVD Media Physical Sectors: 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

ECC frame bytes 2,366 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

8 to 16 modulation bits 37,856 

Syncronization bits 832 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Total encoded media bits/sector 38,688 

Total encoded media bytes/sector 4,836 

Original data bits/sector 16,384 

Original data bytes/sector 2,048 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Ratio of original to media data 2.36


725 

Unlike CDs, DVDs do not use subcodes and instead use the ID bytes in each data frame to store the 

sector number and information about the sectors. 

Handling Errors 

DVDs use more powerful error correcting codes than were first devised for CDs. Unlike CDs, which 

have different levels of error correction depending on whether audio/video or data is being stored, 

DVDs treat all information equally and apply the full error correction to all sectors. 

The main error correcting in DVDs takes place in the ECC frame. Parity outer (column) and parity 

inner (row) bits are added to detect and correct errors. The scheme is simple and yet very effective. 

The information from the data frames is first broken up into 192 rows of 172 bytes each. Then, a 

polynomial equation is used to calculate and add 10 PI bytes to each row, making the rows now 182 

bytes each. Finally, another polynomial equation is used to calculate 16 PO (Parity Outer) bytes for 

each column, resulting in 16 bytes (rows) being added to each column. What started out as 192 rows 

of 172 bytes becomes 208 rows of 182 bytes with the PI and PO information added. 

The function of the PI and PO bytes can be explained with a simple example using simple parity. In 

this example, 2 bytes are stored (01001110 = N, 01001111 = O). To add the error correcting information, 

they are organized in rows, as shown in the following: 

Data bits 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

------------------------------------- 

Byte 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 

Byte 2 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 

------------------------------------- 

Then, 1 PI bit is added for each row, using odd parity. This means you count up the 1 bits: In the first 

row there are 4, so the parity bit is created as a 1, making the sum an odd number. In the second row, 

the parity bit is a 0 because the sum of the 1s was already an odd number. The result is as follows: 

Data bits | 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | PI 

---------------------------------------|--------- 

Byte 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 | 1 

Byte 2 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 | 0 

---------------------------------------|--------- 

Next, the parity bits for each column are added and calculated the same as before. In other words, 

the parity bit will be such that the sum of the 1s in each column is an odd number. The result is as 

follows: 

Data bits | 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | PI 

---------------------------------------|--------- 

Byte 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 | 1 

Byte 2 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 | 0 

---------------------------------------|--------- 

PO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 | 1 

Now the code is complete, and the extra bits are stored along with the data. So, instead of just the 2 

bytes being stored, 11 addition bits are stored for error correction. When the data is read back, the 

error correction bit calculations are repeated and they’re checked to see whether they are the same as


before. To see how it works, let’s change one of the data bits (due to a read error) and recalculate the 

error correcting bits as follows: 

Data bits | 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | PI 

---------------------------------------|--------- 

Byte 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 | 0 

Byte 2 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 | 0 

---------------------------------------|--------- 

PO 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 | 1 

Now, when you compare the PI and PO bits you calculated after reading the data to what was originally 

stored, you see a change in the PI bit for byte (row) 1 and in the PO bit for bit (column) 6. This 

identifies the precise row and column where the error was, which is at byte 1 (row 1), bit 6 (column 

6). That bit was read as a 0, and you now know it is wrong, so it must have been a 1. The error correction 

circuitry then simply changes it back to a 1 before passing it back to the system. As you can see, 

with some extra information added to each row and column, error correction codes can indeed detect 

and correct errors on-the-fly. 

Besides the ECC frames, DVDs also scramble the data in the frames using a bit-shift technique and 

also interleave parts of the ECC frames when they are actually recorded on the disc. These schemes 

serve to store the data somewhat out of sequence, preventing a scratch from corrupting consecutive 

pieces of data. 

DVD Capacity (Sides and Layers) 

Four main types of DVD discs are available, categorized by whether they are single- or double-sided, 

and single- or dual-layered. They are designated as follows: 

■ DVD-5 - 4.7GB Single-Side, Single-Layer. A DVD-5 is constructed from two substrates bonded 

together with adhesive. One is stamped with a recorded layer (called Layer 0), and the other is 

blank. An aluminum coating typically is applied to the single recorded layer. 

■ DVD-9 - 8.5GB Single-Side, Dual-Layer. A DVD-9 is constructed of two stamped substrates bonded 

together to form two recorded layers for one side of the disc, along with a blank substrate for 

the other side. The outer stamped layer (0) is coated with a semitransparent gold coating to 

both reflect light if the laser is focused on it and pass light if the laser is focused on the layer 

below. A single laser is used to read both layers; only the focus of the laser is changed. 

■ DVD-10 - 9.4GB Double-Side, Single-Layer. A DVD-10 is constructed of two stamped substrates 

bonded together back to back. The recorded layer (Layer 0 on each side) usually is coated with 

aluminum. Note that these discs are double-sided; however, drives have a read laser only on the 

bottom, which means the disc must be removed and flipped to read the other side. 

■ DVD-18 - 17.1GBDouble-Side, Dual-Layer. A DVD-18 combines both double layers and double 

sides. Two stamped layers form each side, and the substrate pairs are bonded back to back. The 

outer layers (Layer 0 on each side) are coated with semitransparent gold, whereas the inner layers 

(Layer 1 on each side) are coated with aluminum. The reflectivity of a single-layer disc is 

45%–85%, and for a dual-layer disc the reflectivity is 18%–30%. The automatic gain control 

(AGC) circuitry in the drive compensates for the different reflective properties. 

Figure 13.9 shows the construction of each of the DVD disc types. 

Note that although Figure 13.9 shows two lasers reading the bottom of the dual-layer discs, in actual 

practice only one laser is used. Only the focus is changed to read the different layers.

Figure 13.9 DVD disk types and construction. 


Dual-layer discs can have the layers recorded in two ways: either OTP or parallel track path (PTP). OTP 

minimizes the time needed to switch from one layer to the other when reading the disc. When reaching 

the inside of the disc (end of Layer 0), the laser pickup remains in the same location—it merely 

moves towards the disc slightly to focus on Layer 1. When written in OTP mode, the lead-out zone 

toward the outer part of the disc is called a middle zone instead. 

Discs written in PTP have both spiral layers written (and read) from the inside out. When changing 

from Layer 0 to Layer 1, PTP discs require the laser pickup to move from the outside (end of the first 

layer) back to the inside (start of the second layer), as well as for the focus of the laser to change. 

Virtually all discs are written in OTP mode to make the layer change quicker. 

To allow the layers to be read more easily even though they are on top of one another, discs written 

in PTP mode have the spiral direction changed from one layer to the other. Layer 0 has a spiral winding 

clockwise (which is read counterclockwise), whereas Layer 1 has a spiral winding counterclockwise. 

This typically requires that the drive spin the disc in the opposite direction to read that layer, 

but with OTP the spiral is read from the outside in on the second layer. So Layer 0 spirals from the 

inside out, and Layer 1 spirals from the outside in. 

Figure 13.10 shows the differences between PTP and OTP on a DVD: 

DVDs store up to 4.7GB–17.1 GB, depending on the type. Table 13.19 shows the precise capacities of 

the various types of DVDs.


Figure 13.10 PTP versus OTP. 

Table 13.19 DVD Capacity 

Single-Layer Dual-Layer 

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

DVD Designation DVD-5 DVD-9 

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

B 4,695,853,056 8,535,691,264 

KiB 4,585,794 8,335,636 

KB 4,695,853 8,535,691 

MiB 4,586 8,336 

MB 4,696 8,536 

GiB 4.6 8.3 

GB 4.7 8.5 

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

MPEG-2 video (approx. minutes) 133 242 

MPEG-2 video (hours:minutes) 2:13 4:02 

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Single Layer Dual Layer 

Double Sided Double Sided 

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

DVD Designation DVD-10 DVD-18 

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

B 9,391,706,112 17,071,382,528 

KiB 9,171,588 16,671,272 

KB 9,391,706 17,071,383 

MiB 9,172 16,671 

MB 9,392 17,071 

GiB 9.2 16.7 

GB 9.4 17.1 

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


MPEG-2 video (approx. minutes) 266 484 

MPEG-2 video (hours:minutes) 4:26 8:04 

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

B = Byte (8 bits) MiB = Mebibyte (1,048,576 bytes) 

KB = Kilobyte (1,000 bytes) GB = Gigabyte (1,000,000,000 bytes) 

KiB = Kibibyte (1,024 bytes) 

MB = Megabyte (1,000,000 bytes) 

GiB = Mebibyte (1,073,741,824 bytes) 


As you might notice, the capacity of dual-layer discs is slightly less than twice of single-layer discs, 

even though the layers take up the same space on the discs (the spiral tracks are the same length). 

This was done intentionally to improve the readability of both layers in a dual-layer configuration. To 

do this, the bit cell spacing was slightly increased, which increases the length of each pit and land. 

When reading a dual-layer disc, the drive spins slightly faster to compensate, resulting in the same 

data rate. However, because the distance on the track is covered more quickly, less overall data can be 

stored. 

Besides the standard four capacities listed here, a double-sided disc with one layer on one side and 

two layers on the other can also be produced. This would be called a DVD-14 and have a capacity of 

13.2GB, or about 6 hours and 15 minutes of MPEG-2 video. Additionally, 80mm discs, which store 

less data in each configuration than the standard 120mm discs, can be produced. 

Because of the manufacturing difficulties and the extra expense of double-sided discs—and the fact 

that they must be ejected and flipped to play both sides—most DVDs are configured as either a DVD- 

5 (single-sided, single-layer) or a DVD-9 (single-sided, dual-layer), which allows up to 8.5GB of data or 

242 minutes of uninterrupted MPEG-2 video to be played. The 133-minute capacity of DVD-5 video 

discs accomodates 95% or more of the movies ever made. 

Data Encoding on the Disc 

As with CDs, the pits and lands themselves do not determine the bits; instead, the transitions 

(changes in reflectivity) from pit to land and land to pit are what determines the actual bits on the 

disc. The disc track is divided into bit cells or time intervals (T), and a pit or land used to represent 

data is required to be a minimum of 3T or a maximum of 11T intervals (cells) long. A 3T-long pit or 

land represents a 1001, and a 11T long pit or land represents a 100000000001. 

Data is stored using 8 to 16 modulation, which is a modified version of the 8 to 14 modulation (EFM) 

used on CDs. Because of this, 8 to 16 modulation is sometimes called EFM+. This modulation takes 

each byte (8 bits) and converts it into a 16-bit value for storage. The 16-bit conversion codes are 

designed so that there are never less than 2 or more than 10 adjacent 0 bits (resulting in no less than 

3 or no more than 11 time intervals between 1s). EFM+ is a form of RLL encoding called RLL 2,10 

(RLL x,y where x = the minimum and y = the maximum run of 0s). This is designed to prevent long 

strings of 0s, which could more easily be misread due to clocks becoming out of sync, as well as to 

limit the minimum and maximum frequency of transitions actually placed on the recording media. 

Unlike CDs, no merge bits exist between codes. The 16-bit modulation codes are designed so that 

they will not violate the RLL 2,10 form without needing merge bits. Because the EFM used on CDs 

really requires more than 17 bits for each byte (because of the added merge and sync bits), EFM+ is 

slightly more efficient since only slightly more than 16 bits are generated for each byte encoded.


Note that although no more than 10 0s are allowed in the modulation generated by EFM+, the sync 

bits added when physical sectors are written can have up to 13 0s, meaning a time period of up to 

14T between 1s written on the disc and pits or lands up to 14T intervals or bit cells in length. 

DVD Drive Speed 

As with CDs, DVDs rotate counterclockwise (as viewed from the reading laser) and typically are 

recorded at a constant data ratecalled CLV. This means that the track (and thus the data) is always 

moving past the read laser at the same speed, which originally was defined as 3.49 meters per second 

(or 3.84m/sec on dual-layer discs). Because the track is a spiral that is wound more tightly near the 

center of the disc, the disc must spin at varying rates to maintain the same track linear speed. In 

other words, to maintain a CLV, the disk must spin more quickly when reading the inner track area 

and more slowly when reading the outer track area. The speed of rotation in a 1x drive (3.49 meters 

per second is considered 1x speed) varies from 1,515rpm when reading the start (inner part) of the 

track down to 570rpm when reading the end (outer part) of the track. 

Single-speed (1x) DVD-ROM drives provide a data transfer rate of 1.385MB/second, which means the 

data transfer rate from a DVD-ROM at 1x speed is roughly equivalent to a 9x CD-ROM (1x CD-ROM 

data transfer rate is 153.6KB/s, or 0.1536MB/s). This does not mean, however, that a 1x DVD drive 

can read CDs at 9x rates: DVD drives actually spin at a rate that is just under three times faster than a 

CD-ROM drive of the same speed. So, a 1x DVD drive spins at about the same rotational speed as a 

Table 13.20 DVD Speeds and Transfer Rates 

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Column 7 

Time Time Transfer Actual Minimum 

Advertised to Read to Read Rate DVD Speed Transfer Average 

DVD-ROM Speed Single Layer Dual Layer (Bytes/sec) Minimum Rate if CAV DVD Speed 

(Max. if CAV) DVD if CLV DVD if CLV (Max. if CAV) if CAV (Bytes/sec) if CAV 

1x 56.5 51.4 1,384,615 0.4x 553,846 0.7x 

2x 28.3 25.7 2,769,231 0.8x 1,107,692 1.4x 

4x 14.1 12.8 5,538,462 1.7x 2,353,846 2.9x 

6x 9.4 8.6 8,307,692 2.5x 3,461,538 4.3x 

8x 7.1 6.4 11,076,923 3.3x 4,569,231 5.7x 

10x 5.7 5.1 13,846,154 4.1x 5,676,923 7.1x 

12x 4.7 4.3 16,615,385 5.0x 6,923,077 8.5x 

16x 3.5 3.2 22,153,846 6.6x 9,138,462 11.3 

20x 2.8 2.6 27,692,308 8.3x 11,492,308 14.2 

24x 2.4 2.1 33,230,769 9.9x 13,707,692 17.0 

32x 1.8 1.6 44,307,692 13.2x 18,276,923 22.6 

40x 1.4 1.3 55,384,615 16.6x 22,984,615 28.3 

48x 1.2 1.1 66,461,538 19.9x 27,553,846 34.0 

50x 1.1 1.0 69,230,769 20.7x 28,661,538 35.4


2.7x CD drive. Many DVD drives list two speeds, one for reading DVD discs and another for reading 

CD discs. For example, a DVD-ROM drive listed as a 16x/40x would indicate the performance when 

reading DVD/CD discs, respectively. 

As with CDs, drive manufacturers began increasing the speeds of their drives by making them spin 

more quickly. A drive that spins twice as fast was called a 2x drive, drive that spins four times faster 

was 4x, and so on. At higher speeds, it became difficult to build motors that could change speeds 

(spin up or down) as quickly as needed when data was read from different parts of the disc. Because of 

this, most faster DVD drives spin the disc at a fixed rotational, rather than linear speed. This istermed 

constant angular velocity (CAV) because the angular velocity (or rotational speed) is what remains a 

constant. 

The faster drives are useful primarily for data, not video. Having a faster drive can reduce or eliminate 

the pause during layer changes when playing a DVD video disc, but having a faster drive has no effect 

on video quality. 

DVD-ROM drives have been available in speeds up to 20x or more, but because virtually all are CAV, 

they actually achieve the rated transfer speed only when reading the outer part of a disc. Table 13.20 

shows the data rates for DVD drives reading DVD discs and how that rate compares to a CD-ROM 

drive. 

Column 8 Column 9 Column 10 Column 11 Column 12 Column 13 

Single Layer Usual 

Average Maximum Maximum Rot. Speed Single Layer Transfer 

Transfer Linear Linear Min. if CLV Rot. Speed Rate When 

Rate if CAV Speed Speed Max. if CAV Max. if CLV Reading 

(Bytes/sec) (m/sec) (mph) (rpm) (rpm) CD-ROMs 

969,231 3.5 7.8 570 1,515 2.7x 

1,938,462 7.0 15.6 1,139 3,030 5.4x 

3,946,154 14.0 31.2 2,279 6,059 11x 

5,884,615 20.9 46.8 3,418 9,089 16x 

7,823,077 27.9 62.5 4,558 12,119 21x 

9,761,538 34.9 78.1 5,697 15,149 27x 

11,769,231 41.9 93.7 6,836 18,178 32x 

15,646,154 55.8 124.9 9,115 24,238 43x 

19,592,308 69.8 156.1 11,394 30,297 54x 

23,469,231 83.8 187.4 13,673 36,357 64x 

31,292,308 111.7 249.8 18,230 48,476 86x 

39,184,615 139.6 312.3 22,788 60,595 107x 

47,007,692 167.5 374.7 27,345 72,714 129x 

48,946,154 174.5 390.3 28,485 75,743 134x


■ Column 1. Indicates the advertised drive speed. This is a constant speed if the drive is CLV or a 

maximum speed only if CAV (most DVD-ROM drives are CAV). 

■ Columns 2 and 3. Indicate how long it would take to read a full disc (single- or dual-layer) if the 

drive were CLV. For CAV drives, those figures are longer because the average read speed is less 

than the advertised speed. The fourth column indicates the data transfer rate, which for CAV 

drives is a maximum figure seen only when reading the end of a disc. 

■ Columns 4–8. Indicate the actual minimum “x” speed for CAV drives, along with the minimum 

transfer speed (when reading the start of any disc) and an optimistic average speed (true only 

when reading a full disc; otherwise, it’s even lower) in both “x” and byte-per-second formats. 

■ Columns 9 and 10. Indicate the maximum linear speeds the drive attains, in both meters per second 

and miles per hour. CLV drives maintain those speeds everywhere on the disc, whereas CAV 

drives reach those speeds only on the outer part of a disc. 

■ Columns 11 and 12. Indicate the rotational speeds of a drive. The first of those shows how 

quickly the disc spins when reading the start of a disc. This applies to either CAV or CLV drives. 

For CAV drives, that figure is constant no matter where on the disc is being read. The second of 

those two colums shows the maximum rotational speed if the drive were a CLV type. Because 

most faster drives are CAV, those figures are mostly theoretical for the faster drives. 

■ Column 13. Shows the speed the drive would be rated if it were a CD-ROM drive. This is based 

on the rotational speed, not the transfer rate. In other words, a 12x DVD drive would perform 

as a 32x CD-ROM drive when reading CDs. Most DVD drives list their speeds when reading CDs 

in the specifications. Due to the use of PCAV (Partial CAV) designs, some might have higher CD 

performances than the table indicates. 

DVD Formats and Standards 

As with the CD standards, the DVD standards are published in reference books produced mainly by 

the DVD forum, but also by other companies. 

The DVD-Video and DVD-ROM standards are pretty well established, but recordable DVD technology 

is still evolving. The standards situation for recordable DVD is more confusing than usual, especially 

because there are at least four different (and somewhat incompatible) recording formats! It remains to 

be seen which will have the best support and become the most popular, but so far the DVD+RW format 

looks to be the most promising. 

The current standard DVD formats are shown in Table 13.21. 

Table 13.21 Standard DVD Formats and Capacities 

Data Video 

Format Disc Size Sides Layers Capacity Capacity 

DVD-ROM Formats and Capacities 

DVD-5 120mm Single Single 4.7GB 2.2 hours 

DVD-9 120mm Single Double 8.5GB 4.0 hours 

DVD-10 120mm Double Single 9.4GB 4.4 hours 

DVD-14 120mm Double Both 13.2GB 6.3 hours 

DVD-18 120mm Double Double 17.1GB 8.1 hours 

DVD-1 80mm Single Single 1.5GB 0.7 hours 

DVD-2 80mm Single Double 2.7GB 1.3 hours


Data Video 

Format Disc Size Sides Layers Capacity Capacity 

DVD-3 80mm Double Single 2.9GB 1.4 hours 

DVD-4 80mm Double Double 5.3GB 2.5 hours 

Recordable DVD Formats and Capacities 

DVD-R 1.0 120mm Single Single 3.95GB N/A 

DVD-R 2.0 120mm Single Single 4.7GB N/A 

DVD-RAM 1.0 120mm Single Single 2.58GB N/A 

DVD-RAM 1.0 120mm Double Single 5.16GB N/A 





DVD-RW 2.0 120mm Single Single 4.7GB N/A 

DVD+RW 2.0 120mm Single Single 4.7GB N/A 

DVD+RW 2.0 120mm Double Single 9.4GB N/A 

CD-ROM Formats and Capacities (for comparison) 

CD-ROM/R/RW 120mm Single Single 0.737GB N/A 

CD-ROM/R/RW 80mm Single Single 0.194GB N/A 


With advancements coming in blue-light lasers, this capacity will be increased several-fold in the 

future with a HD-DVD format that can store up to 20GB per layer. Prototype players have already 

been shown by major manufacturers, although you shouldn’t expect to see HD-DVD on the market 

for several years yet. 

DVD drives are fully backward compatible, and as such, are capable of playing today’s CD-ROMs as 

well as audio CDs. When playing existing CDs, the performance of current models is equivalent to a 

40x or faster CD-ROM drive. As such, users who currently own slower CD-ROM drives might want to 

consider a DVD drive instead of upgrading to a faster CD-ROM drive. Several manufacturers have 

announced plans to phase out their CD-ROM drive products in favor of DVD. DVD is rapidly making 

CD-ROMs obsolete, in the same way that audio CDs displaced vinyl records in the 1980s. The only 

thing keeping the CD-ROM format alive is the battle between competing DVD recordable standards 

and the fact that CD-R and CD-RW are rapidly becoming the de facto replacement for the floppy 

drive. 

The current crop of DVD drives feature several improvements over the first-generation models of 

1997. Those units were expensive, slow, and incompatible with either CD-R or CD-RW media. Many 

early units asked your overworked video card to try to double as an MPEG decoder to display DVD 

movies, with mediocre results in speed and image quality. As is often the case with “leading-edge” 

devices, their deficiencies make them eminently avoidable. 

Many PC vendors have integrated DVD-ROM drives into their new high-end computers, usually as an 

option. Originally, most of these installations included an MPEG-2 decoder board for processing the 

compressed video on DVD discs. This offloads the intensive MPEG calculations from the system 

processor and enables the display of full-screen, full-motion video on a PC. After processors crossed 

400MHz in speed, performing MPEG-2 decoding reliably in software became possible, so any systems 

faster than that usually doesn’t include a hardware decoder card.


Some manufacturers of video display adapters have begun to include MPEG decoder hardware on 

their products. These adapters are called “DVD MPEG-2 accelerated” and call for some of the MPEG 

decoding tasks to be performed by software. Any software decoding involved in an MPEG solution 

places a greater burden on the main system processor and can therefore yield less satisfactory results 

on slower systems. 

DIVX (Discontinued Standard) 

DIVX (Digital Video Express) was a short-lived proprietary and incompatible DVD format developed 

by Digital Video Express (a Hollywood law firm) and Circuit City. It was discontinued on June 16, 

1999, less than a year after it was released. 

Note 

More detailed coverage of DIVX is included in the 11th and 12th editions of this book, both of which are included in 

their entirety on the CD accompanying this book. 

DVD Drive Compatibility 

When DVD drives first appeared on the market, they were touted to be fully backward compatible 

with CD-ROM drives. Although that might be the case when reading commercially pressed CD-ROM 

discs, that was not necessarily true when reading CD-R or CD-RW media. Fortunately, the industry 

has responded with standards that let you to know in advance how compatible your DVD drive will 

be. These standards are called MultiRead for computer-based drives and MultiPlay for consumer standalone 

devices, such as DVD-Video or CD-DA players. See the section “MultiRead Specifications,” later 

in this chapter. 

DVD Copy Protection 

DVD video discs employ several levels of protection, which are mainly controlled by the DVD Copy 

Control Association (DVD CCA) and a third-party company called Macrovision. This protection typically 

applies only to DVD-Video discs, not DVD-ROM software. So, for example, copy protection 

might affect your ability to make backup copies of The Matrix, but it won’t affect a DVD encyclopedia 

or other software application distributed on DVD-ROM discs. 

Note that every one of these protection systems has been broken, which means that with a little extra 

expense or the correct software, the protection can be defeated and you can make copies of your 

DVDs either to other digital media (hard drive, DVD+RW, CD-R/RW, and so on) or to analog media 

(such as a VHS or other tape format). 

A lot of time and money are wasted on these protection schemes, which can’t really foil the professional 

bootleggers willing to spend the time and money to work around them. But they can make it 

difficult for the average person to legitimately back up her expensive media. 

The three main protection systems used with DVD-Video discs are 

■ Regional Playback Control (RPC) 

■ Content Scrambling System (CSS) 

■ Analog Protection System (APS)


735 

Regional Playback Control 

Regional playback was designed to allow discs sold in specific geographical regions of the world to 

play only on players sold in those same regions. The idea was to allow a movie to be released at different 

times in different parts of the world, and to prevent people from ordering discs from regions in 

which the movie had not been released yet. 

Eight regions are defined in the RPC standard. Discs (and players) usually are identified by a small 

logo or label showing the region number superimposed on a world globe. Multiregion discs are possible, 

as are discs that are not region locked. If a disc plays in more than one region, it will have more 

than one number on the globe. The regions are 

■ United States, Canada, U.S. Territories 

■ Japan, Europe, South Africa, and the Middle East 

■ Southeast Asia and East Asia 

■ Australia, New Zealand, Pacific Islands, Central America, Mexico, South America, and the 

Caribbean 

■ Eastern Europe, Indian subcontinent, Africa, North Korea, and Mongolia 

■ China 

■ Reserved 

■ Special international or mobile venues, such as airplanes, cruise ships, and so on 

The region code is embedded in the hardware of DVD video players. Most players are preset for a specific 

region and can’t be changed. Some companies who sell the players modify them to play discs 

from all regions; these are called region-free or code-free players. Some newer discs have an added region 

code enhancement (RCE) function that checks to see whether the player is configured for multiple or 

all regions and then refuses to play. Most newer region-free modified players know how to query the 

disc first to circumvent this check as well. 

DVD-ROM drives used in PCs originally did not have RPC in the hardware, placing that responsibility 

instead on the software used to play DVD video discs on the PC. The player software would normally 

lock the region code to the first disc that was played and then from that point on, play only discs 

from that region. Reinstalling the software enabled the region code to be reset, and numerous patches 

were posted on Web sites to enable resetting the region code even without reinstalling the software. 

Because of the relative ease of defeating the region-coding restrictions with DVD-ROM drives, starting 

on January 1, 2000, all DVD-ROM drives were required to have RPC-II, which embeds the region coding 

directly into the drive. 

RPC-II (or RPC-2) places the region lock in the drive, and not in the playing or MPEG-2 decoding software. 

You can set the region code in RPC-II drives up to five times total, which basically means you 

can change it up to four times after the initial setting. Usually, the change can be made using the 

player software you are using, or you can download region change software from the drive manufacturer. 

Upon making the fourth change (which is the fifth setting), the drive is locked on the last 

region set. 

Content Scramble System 

The Content Scramble System (CSS) provides the main protection for DVD-Video discs. It wasn’t until 

this protection was implemented that the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) would agree 

to release movies in the DVD format, which is the main reason the rollout of DVD had been significantly 

delayed.


CSS originally was developed by Matsushita (Panasonic) and is used to digitally scramble and encrypt 

the audio and video data on a DVD-Video disc. Descrambling requires a pair of 40-bit (5-byte) keys 

(numeric codes). One of the keys is unique to the disc, whereas the other is unique to the video title 

set (VTS file) being descrambled. The disc and title keys are stored in the lead-in area of the disc in an 

encrypted form. The CSS scrambling and key writing are carried out during the glass mastering procedure, 

which is part of the disc manufacturing process. 

You can see this encryption in action if you put a DVD disc into a DVD-ROM drive on a PC, copy the 

files to your hard drive, and then try to view the files. The files are usually called VTS_xx_yy.VOB 

(video object), where the xx represents the title number and the yy represents the section number. 

Usually, all the files for a given movie have the same title number, and the movie is spread out among 

several 1GB or smaller files with different section numbers. These .VOB files contain both the 

encrypted video and audio streams for the movie interleaved together. Other files with an .IFO extention 

contain information used by the DVD player to decode the video and audio streams in the .VOB 

files. If you copy the .VOB and .IFO files onto your hard drive and try to click or play the .VOB files 

directly, you either see and hear scrambled video and audio or receive an error message about playing 

copy protected files. 

This encryption is not a problem if you use a CSS-licensed player (either hardware or software) and 

play the files directly from the DVD disc. All DVD players, whether they are consumer standalone 

units or software players on your PC, have their own unique CSS unlock key assigned to them. Every 

DVD video disc has 400 of these 5-byte keys stamped onto the disc in the lead-in area (which is not 

usually accessible by programs) on the DVD in encrypted form. The decryption routine in the player 

uses its unique code to retrieve and unencrypt the disc key, which is then used to retrieve and unencrypt 

the title keys. CSS is essentially a three-level encryption that originally was thought to be very 

secure, but has proven otherwise. 

In October 1999, a 16-year-old Norwegian programmer was able to extract the first key from one of 

the commercial PC-based players, which allowed him to very easily decrypt disc and title keys. A now 

famous program called DeCSS was then written that can break the CSS protection on any DVD video 

title and save unencrypted .VOB files to a hard disk that can be played by any MPEG-2 decoder program. 

Needless to say, this utility (and others based on it) has been the cause of much concern in the 

movie industry and has caused many legal battles over the distribution and even links to this code on 

the Web. Do a search on DeCSS for some interesting legal reading. 

As if that wasn’t enough, in March 2001, two MIT students published an incredibly short (only seven 

lines long!) and simple program that can unscramble CSS so quickly that a movie can essentially be 

unscrambled in real-time while it is playing. They wrote and demonstrated the code as part of a twoday 

seminar they conducted on the controversial Digital Millenium Copyright Act, illustrating how 

trivial the CSS protection really is. 

Because of the failure of CSS, the DVD forum is now actively looking into other means of protection, 

especially including digital watermarks, which consists essentially of digital noise buried into the data 

stream, which is supposed to be invisible to normal viewing. Unfortunately, when similar technology 

was applied to DIVX (the discontinued proprietary DVD standard), these watermarks caused slight 

impairment of the image—a raindrop or bullet-hole effect could be seen by some in the picture. 

Watermarks also might require new equipment to play the discs. 

Analog Protection System 

APS (also called CopyGuard by Macrovision) is an analog protection system developed by 

Macrovision and is designed to prevent making VCR tapes of DVD-Video discs. APS requires codes to 

be added to the disc, as well as special modifications in the player. APS starts with the creation or 

mastering of a DVD, where APS is enabled by setting predefined control codes in the recording.


737 

During playback in an APS-enabled (Macrovision-enabled) player, the digital-to-analog converter 

(DAC) chip inside the player adds the APS signals to the analog output signal being sent to the screen. 

These additions to the signal are designed so that they are invisible when viewed on a television or 

monitor but cause copies made on most VCRs to appear distorted. Unfortunately, some TVs or other 

displays can react to the distortions added to creat a less-than-optimum picture. 

APS uses two signal modifications called automatic gain control and colorstripe. The automatic gain 

control process consists of pulses placed in the vertical scan interval of the video signal, which TVs 

can’t detect but which cause dim and noisy pictures, loss of color, loss of video, tearing, and so on on 

a VCR. This process has been used since 1985 on many prerecorded video tapes to prevent copying. 

The colorstripe process modifies colorburst information that is also transparent on television displays 

but produces lines across the picture when recorded on a VCR. 

Note that many older players don’t have the licensed Macrovision circuits and simply ignore the code 

to turn on the APS signal modifications. Also, various image stabilizer, enhancer, or copyguard 

decoder units are available that can plug in between the player and VCR to remove the APS copyguard 

signal and allow a perfect recording to be made. 

Adding a DVD Drive to Your System 

A DVD drive installs in a manner similar to that of a CD-ROM or any other type of drive. See Chapter 

14, “Physical Drive Installation and Configuration,” to learn how to install a 5 1/4-inch DVD drive. 

Following are some basic principles to keep in mind when installing a DVD drive: 

■ Most DVD drives are ATAPI devices. So, you have the issue of master/slave setups on the dual-connector 

40-pin ATA cable. If you’re replacing an old CD-ROM drive, simply note its master/slave 

configuration when you remove it from your system, set the new DVD drive the same way, 

attach it to the data cable, connect the power, and you’re finished. 

■ Many current DVD drives require that you connect them to a busmastering ATA interface. If your drive 

requires a busmastering interface, check out the tips later in this chapter. 

■ If you want to play DVD movies using your drive, you need an MPEG-2 decoder. This can be either a 

card (hardware decoder) or a program (software decoder). If you are using a hardware decoder, it 

requires an open PCI expansion slot, as well as an IRQ (interrupt request) resource from your 

system. Also, to view the movies on your PC’s display, you must somehow connect the decoder 

card to your existing video card. This can be accomplished via an internal connection to the 

card, or it can use a loop through connection to the monitor port on the back of the card. Some 

video cards include MPEG-2 decoders (players) built in. Table 13.22 compares MPEG decoder 

cards to video cards with built-in MPEG players. 

Table 13.22 MPEG Decoder Cards Versus Video Cards with MPEG Players 

Consideration MPEG Decoder MPEG Player 

PCI slot usage One for decoder; one for VGA One slot only 

Movie image quality High Varies 

Playback speed High Varies 

MPEG game compatibility Yes No 

Note that as processors have become more powerful, many DVD drives now ship with MPEG-2 software 

decoders. These eliminate the need for an MPEG-2 decoder card, and if your processor is fast 

enough, it allows for adequate performance when playing DVD video discs. Most of the decoders


recommend a minimum of a 400MHz processor, and of course, even faster would be better. Although 

the software decoders can work well, in most cases if you really plan on using your PC to watch DVD 

movies, it is worth the extra cost for a hardware MPEG-2 decoder card. 

Another performance issue is related to data transfer. Most ATAPI DVD drives support Ultra-DMA 

transfers. Be sure you enable DMA transfers in your BIOS setup and in the DVD driver installed in 

your operating system. Most installation programs automatically enable DMA support in the driver, 

but it’s a good idea to check anyway. Enabling DMA dramatically reduces the load on your processor 

and greatly enhances system performance when playing or reading DVDs. 

CD/DVD Drives and Specifications 

When purchasing a CD or DVD drive for your PC, you should consider three distinct sets of criteria, 

as follows: 

■ The drive’s performance specifications 

■ The interface the drive requires for connection to your PC 

■ The physical disc-handling system the drive uses 

Performance Specifications 

Typical performance figures published by manufacturers are the data transfer rate, the access time, the 

internal cache or buffers (if any), and the interface the drive uses. 

Data Transfer Rate 

The data transfer rate tells you how quickly the drive can read from the disc and transfer to the host 

computer. Normally, transfer rates indicate the drive’s capability for reading large, sequential streams 

of data. 

Transfer speed is measured two ways. The one most commonly quoted with CD/DVD drives is the “x” 

speed, which is defined as a multiple of the particular standard base rate. For example, CD-ROM drives 

transfer at 153.6KB/sec according to the original standard. Drives that transfer twice that are 2x, 

40 times that are 40x, and so on. DVD drives transfer at 1,385KB/sec at the base rate, whereas drives 

that are 20 times faster than that are listed as 20x. Note that because almost all faster drives feature 

CAV, the “x” speed is usually indicated is a maximum that is seen only when reading data near the 

outside (end) of a disc. The speed near the beginning of the disc might be as little as half that, and of 

course, average speeds are somewhere in the middle. 

With recordable CD drives, the speed is reported for various modes. CD-R drives have two speeds 

listed (one for writing, the other for reading), and CD-RW drives have three. On a CD-RW drive, the 

speeds are in the form A/B/C, where A is the speed when writing CD-Rs, B is the speed when writing 

CD-RWs, and C is the speed when reading. The first CD-RW drive on the market was 2/2/6, with versions 

up to 20/10/40 available today. 

See the previous sections “CD Drive Speed” and “DVD Drive Speed,” earlier in this chapter, for more 

information about speeds and transfer rates. 

Access Time 

The access time for a CD or DVD drive is measured the same way as for PC hard disk drives. In other 

words, the access time is the delay between the drive receiving the command to read and its actual 

first reading of a bit of data. The time is recorded in milliseconds; a typical manufacturer’s rating 

would be listed as 95ms. This is an average access rate; the true access rate depends entirely on where

CD/DVD Drives and Specifications Chapter 13 

739 

the data is located on the disc. When the read mechanism is positioned to a portion of the disc nearer 

to the narrower center, the access rate is faster than when it is positioned at the wider outer perimeter. 

Access rates quoted by many manufacturers are an average taken by calculating a series of random 

reads from a disc. 

Obviously, a faster (that is, a lower) average access rate is desirable, especially when you rely on the 

drive to locate and pull up data quickly. Access times for CD and DVD drives have been steadily 

improving, and the advancements are discussed later in this chapter. Note that these average times are 

significantly slower than PC hard drives, ranging from 200ms to below 100ms, compared to the 8ms 

access time of a typical hard disk drive. Most of the speed difference lies in the construction of the 

drive itself. Hard drives have multiple-read heads that range over a smaller surface area of the 

medium; CD/DVD drives have only one laser pickup, and it must be capable of accessing the entire 

range of the disc. In addition, the data on a CD is organized in a single long spiral. When the drive 

positions its head to read a track, it must estimate the distance into the disc and skip forward or backward 

to the appropriate point in the spiral. Reading off the outer edge requires a longer access time 

than the inner segments, unless you have a CAV drive, which spins at a constant rate so the access 

time to the outer tracks is equal to that of the inner tracks. 

Access times have fallen a great deal since the original single-speed drives came out. However, recently 

a plateau seems to have been reached with most CD/DVD drives hovering right around the 100ms 

area, with some as low as 80ms. With each increase in data transfer speed, you usually see an 

improvement in access time as well. But as you can see in Table 13.23, these improvements are much 

less significant because of the physical limitation of the drive’s single-read mechanism design. 

Table 13.23 Typical CD-ROM Drive Access Times 

Drive Speed Access Time (ms) 

1x 400 

2x 300 

3x 200 

4x 150 

6x 150 

8x–12x 100 

16x–24x 90 

32x–52x or greater 85 or less 

The times listed here are typical examples for good drives; within each speed category some drives are 

faster and some are slower. Because of the additional positioning accuracy required and the overall 

longer track, DVD drives usually report two access speeds—one when reading DVDs and the other 

when reading CDs. The DVD access times run usually 10ms–20ms slower than when readingCDs. 

Buffer/Cache 

Most CD/DVD drivesinclude internal buffers or caches of memory installed onboard. These buffers are 

actual memory chips installed on the drive’s circuit board that enable it to stage or store data in larger 

segments before sending it to the PC. A typical buffer for a CD/DVD drive is 128KB, although drives 

are available that have either more or less (more is usually better). Recordable CD or DVD drives typically 

have much larger buffers of 2MB–4MB or more to prevent buffer underrun problems and to 

smooth writing operations. Generally, faster drives come with more buffer memory to handle the 

higher transfer rates.


Having buffer or cache memory for the CD/DVD drive offers a number of advantages. Buffers can 

ensure that the PC receives data at a constant rate; when an application requests data from the drive, 

the data can be found in files scattered across different segments of the disc. Because the drive has a 

relatively slow access time, the pauses between data reads can cause a drive to send data to the PC 

sporadically. You might not notice this in typical text applications, but on a drive with a slower access 

rate coupled with no data buffering, it is very noticeable—and even irritating—during the display of 

video or some audio segments. In addition, a drive’s buffer, when under the control of sophisticated 

software, can read and have ready the disc’s table of contents, speeding up the first request for data. A 

minimum size of 128KB for a built-in buffer or cache is recommended and is standard on many 24x 

and faster drives. For greater performance, look for drives with 256KB or larger buffers. 

CPU Utilization 

A once-neglected but very real issue in calculating computer performance is the impact that any piece 

of hardware or software has on the central processing unit (CPU). This “CPU utilization” factor refers 

to how much attention the CPU (such as Pentium III/4, Athlon, and so on) must provide to the hardware 

or software to help it work. A low CPU utilization percentage score is desirable because the less 

time a CPU spends on any given hardware or software process, the more time it has for other tasks, 

and thus the greater the performance for your system. On CD-ROM drives, three factors influence 

CPU utilization: drive speed, drive buffer size, and interface type. 

Drive buffer size can influence CPU utilization. For CD-ROM drives with similar performance ratings, 

the drive with a larger buffer is likely to require less CPU time (lower CPU utilization percentage) than 

the one with a smaller buffer. 

Because drive speed and buffer size are more of a given, the most important factor influencing CPU 

utilization is the interface type. Traditionally, SCSI-interface CD-ROM drives have had far lower CPU 

utilization rates than ATAPI drives of similar ratings. One review of 12x drives done several years ago 

rated CPU utilization for ATAPI CD-ROM drives at 65%–80%, whereas SCSI CD-ROM drives checked 

in at less than 11%. By using DMA or Ultra-DMA modes with an ATA interface drive, near-SCSI levels 

of low CPU utilization can be realized. Using DMA or Ultra-DMA modes can cut CPU utilization 

down to the 10% or lower range, leaving the CPU free to run applications and other functions. 

Direct Memory Access and Ultra-DMA 

Busmastering ATA controllers use Direct Memory Access (DMA) or Ultra-DMA transfers to improve 

performance and reduce CPU utilization. Virtually all modern ATA drives support Ultra-DMA. With 

busmastering, CPU utilization for ATA/ATAPI and SCSI CD-ROM drives is about equal at around 11%. 

Thus, it’s to your benefit to enable DMA access for your CD-ROM drives (and your ATA hard drives, 

too) if your system permits it. 

Most recent ATAATAPI CD-ROM drives (12x and above) support DMA or Ultra-DMA transfers, as does 

Windows 95B and above and most recent Pentium-class motherboards. To determine whether your 

Win9x or Me system has this feature enabled, check the System Properties’ Device Manager tab and 

click the + mark next to Hard Disk Controllers. A drive interface capable of handling DMA transfers 

lists “Bus Master” in the name. Next, check the hard drive and CD-ROM information for your system. 

You can use the properties sheet for your system’s CD-ROM drives under Windows 9x/Me and 

Windows 2000/XP to find this information; you might need to open the system to determine your 

hard drive brand and model. Hard disk drives and CD-ROM drives that support MultiWord DMA 

Mode 2 (16.6MB/sec), UltraDMA Mode 2 (33MB/sec), UltraDMA Mode 4 (66MB/sec), or faster can use 

DMA transfers. Check your product literature or the manufacturer’s Web sites for information. 

To enable DMA transfers if your motherboard and drives support it, open the System Properties sheet 

in Windows 9x or later, click the Device Manager tab, and open the Properties sheet for your hard 

drive. Click the Settings tab, and place a check mark in the box labeled DMA.


741 

Repeat the same steps to enable DMA transfers for any additional hard drives and ATAPI CD-ROM 

drives in your computer. Restart your computer after making these changes. 

Note 

I strongly recommend that you back up your drives and your Windows 9x Registry before you enable DMA support or 

before you install and enable the driver to allow DMA support. If your system hangs after you enable this feature, you must 

restart the system in Safe mode and uncheck the DMA box. In some cases, if you can’t access safe mode, you might have 

to replace the Registry with the pre-DMA–enabled copy you saved. Otherwise, you’ll be faced with editing Registry keys 

by hand to start your system again. Because DMA transfers bypass the CPU to achieve greater speed, DMA problems 

could result in data loss. Make backups first, instead of wishing you had later. 

Also, if your drive supports any of the Ultra-DMA (also called Ultra-ATA) modes, you should upgrade your ATA cables to 

the 80-conductor style. Using these cables prevents noise and signal distortion that will occur if you try to use a standard 

40-conductor cable with the Ultra-DMA modes. Most drives and motherboards refuse to enable Ultra-DMA modes faster 

than 33MB/sec if an 80-conductor cable is not detected. 

Drive interfaces that don’t mention busmastering can’t perform this speedup or need to have the correct 

driver installed. In some cases, depending on your Windows version and when your motherbaord 

chipset was made, you must install chipset drivers to enable Windows to properly recognize the 

chipset and enable DMA modes. A good Web site for both Intel and non-Intel chipset support of this 

important feature is www.bmdrivers.com. Follow the links at this site to the motherboard chipset vendors, 

their technical notes (to determine whether your chipset supports busmastering), and the drivers 

you need to download. Virtually all motherboard chipsets produced since 1995 provide busmaster 

ATA support. Most of those produced since 1997 also provide UltraDMA support, for up to 33MHz 

(Ultra-ATA/33) or 66MHz (Ultra-ATA/66) speed operation. Still, you should make sure that DMA is 

enabled to ensure you are benefiting from the performance it offers. Enabling DMA can dramatically 

improve DVD performance, for example. 

Interface 

The drive’s interface is the physical connection of the drive to the PC’s expansion bus. The interface is 

the data pipeline from the drive to the computer, and its importance shouldn’t be minimized. Five 

types of interfaces are available for attaching a CD-ROM, CD-R, or CD-RW drive to your system: 

■ SCSI/ASPI (Small Computer System Interface/Advanced SCSI Programming Interface) 

■ ATA/ATAPI (AT Attachment/AT Attachment Packet Interface) 

■ Parallel port 

■ USB port 

■ FireWire (IEEE 1394) 

The following sections examine these interface choices. 

SCSI/ASPI 

SCSI (pronounced scuzzy), or the Small Computer System Interface, is a name given to a special interface 

bus that allows many types of peripherals to communicate. 

A standard software interface called ASPI (Advanced SCSI Programming Interface) enables CD-ROM 

drives (and other SCSI peripherals) to communicate with the SCSI host adapter installed in the computer. 

SCSI offers the greatest flexibility and performance of the interfaces available for CD-ROM 

drives and can be used to connect many other types of peripherals to your system as well.


The SCSI bus enables computer users to string a group of devices along a chain from one SCSI host 

adapter, avoiding the complication of installing a separate adapter card into the PC bus slots for each 

new hardware device, such as a tape unit or additional CD-ROM drive added to the system. These 

traits make the SCSI interface preferable for connecting a peripheral such as a CD-ROM to your PC. 

Not all SCSI adapters are created equal, however. Although they might share a common command 

set, they can implement these commands differently, depending on how the adapter’s manufacturer 

designed the hardware. ASPI was created to eliminate these incompatibilities. ASPI was originally 

developed by Adaptec, Inc., a leader in the development of SCSI controller cards and adapters who 

originally named it the Adaptec SCSI Programming Interface before it became a de facto standard. 

ASPI consists of two main parts. The primary part is an ASPI-Manager program, which is a driver that 

functions between the operating system and the specific SCSI host adapter. The ASPI-Manager sets up 

the ASPI interface to the SCSI bus. 

The second part of an ASPI system is the individual ASPI device drivers. For example, you would get 

an ASPI driver for your SCSI CD-ROM drive. You can also get ASPI drivers for your other SCSI peripherals, 

such as tape drives and scanners. The ASPI driver for the peripheral talks to the ASPI-Manager 

for the host adapter. This is what enables the devices to communicate together on the SCSI bus. 

The bottom line is that if you are getting a SCSI interface CD-ROM, be sure it includes an ASPI driver 

that runs under your particular operating system. Also, be sure that your SCSI host adapter has the 

corresponding ASPI-Manager driver as well. There are substantial differences between SCSI adapters 

because SCSI can be used for a wide variety of peripherals. Low-cost, SCSI-3–compliant ISA or PCI 

adapters can be used for CD-ROM interfacing. In contrast, higher-performance PCI adapters that support 

more advanced SCSI standards, such as Wide, Ultra, UltraWide, Ultra2Wide, and so on, can be 

used with both CD-ROM drives and other devices, such as CD-R/CD-RW drives, hard drives, scanners, 

tape backups, and so forth. To help you choose the appropriate SCSI adapter for both your CD-ROM 

drive and any other SCSI-based peripheral you’re considering, visit Adaptec’s Web site. 

The SCSI interface offers the most powerful and flexible connection for CD-ROMs and other devices. 

It provides better performance, and seven or more drives can be connected to a single host adapter. 

The drawback is cost. If you do not need SCSI for other peripherals and intend on connecting only 

one CD-ROM drive to the system, you will be spending a lot of money on unused potential. In that 

case, an ATAPI interface CD-ROM drive would be a more cost-effective choice. 

√√ See “Small Computer System Interface,” p. 514. 

ATA/ATAPI 

The ATA/ATAPI (AT Attachment/AT Attachment Packet Interface) is an extension of the same ATA (AT 

Attachment) interface most computers use to connect to their hard disk drives. ATA is sometimes also 

refered to as IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics). ATAPI is an industry-standard ATA ATA/ATAPI is an 

extension of the same ATA interface most computers use to connect to their hard disk drives. ATA is 

sometimes also refered to as IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics). ATAPI is an industry-standard ATA 

interface used for CD/DVD and other drives. ATAPI is a software interface that adapts the SCSI/ASPI 

commands to the ATA interface. This enables drive manufacturers to take their high-end CD/DVD 

drive products and quickly adapt them to the ATA interface. This also enables the ATA drives to 

remain compatible with the MSCDEX (Microsoft CD-ROM Extensions) that provide a software interface 

with DOS. With Windows 9x and later, the CD-ROM extensions are contained in the CD file system 

(CDFS) VxD (virtual device) driver. 

ATA/ATAPI drives are sometimes also called enhanced IDE (EIDE) drives because this is an extension 

of the original IDE (technically the ATA) interface. In most cases, an ATA drive connects to the system 

via a second ATA interface connector and channel, leaving the primary one for hard disk drives only.


743 

This is preferable because ATA does not share the single channel well and would cause a hard disk 

drive to wait for CD/DVD commands to complete and vice versa. SCSI does not have this problem 

because a SCSI host adapter can send commands to different devices without having to wait for each 

previous command to complete. 

The ATA interface represents the most cost-effective and high-performance interface for CD-ROM 

drives. Most new systems that include a CD and/or DVD drive have it connected through ATA. You 

can connect up to two drives to the secondary ATA connector; for more than that, SCSI is your only 

choice and provides better performance as well. 

Many systems on the market today can use the ATA/ATAPI CD/DVD drive as a bootable device, which 

allows the vendor to supply a recovery CD that can restore the computer’s software to its factoryshipped 

condition. Later, you’ll see how bootable CDs differ from ordinary CDs and how you can use 

low-cost CD-R/CD-RW drives, along with mastering and imaging software to make your own bootable 

CDs with your own preferred configuration. 

√√ See “An Overview of the IDE Interface,” p. 476. 

◊◊ See “Creating a Bootable Floppy with CD-ROM Support,” p. 772. 

Parallel Port 

Rather than opening the case to insert a SCSI adapter or connect an internal drive, you can install 

some CD-ROM drives simply by connecting a cable to the PC’s parallel port and loading the appropriate 

software. Although parallel port drives have been available for some time now, USB has for the 

most part replaced the parallel port for this type of use. 

Obviously, the advantages of CD-ROMs that use the parallel port interface are their ease of installation 

and their portability. In an office environment where the primary function of CD-ROMs is to 

install software, you can easily move one parallel port drive from machine to machine, rather than 

purchase a drive for each system. If you use an operating system that supports Plug and Play (PnP), 

such as Windows 9x, simply plugging a PnP drive into the parallel port causes the OS to detect the 

new hardware and load the appropriate driver for you automatically. 

For best performance, it’s recommended that you set your printer port to use IEEE-1284 standards, 

such as ECP/EPP or ECP, before connecting your parallel-port CD-ROM. These are bidirectional, highspeed 

extensions to the standard Centronics parallel port standard and provide better performance for 

virtually any recent parallel device. These devices include printers, tape backups, and Zip and LS-120 

drives (also known as SuperDrives), as well as CD-ROM, CD-R, and CD-RW drives. 

Using the IEEE-1284 enhanced settings can make a tremendous difference in parallel-port CD- 

ROM performance. For example, bidirectional (PS/2 style) can achieve data transfer rates of 

100KB/sec–530KB/second, whereas EPP can achieve rates of about 1,200KB/second—12 times 

that of standard (unidirectional). 

◊◊ See “IEEE 1284 Parallel Port Standard,” p. 934. 

Note 

Parallel port CD-ROM drives nearly always include a cable with a pass-through connector. This connector plugs into the 

parallel port and, if necessary, a printer cable can plug into the connector. This enables you to continue using the port to 

connect to your printer while sharing the interface with the CD-ROM drive. Note there might be performance problems 

when trying to print and read from the drive at the same time.


I generally do not recommend that you purchase parallel port drives because internal drives are much 

faster and generally more compatible. And if you need an external portable drive, more universal 

interfaces, such as USB or FireWire, offer greater performance, compatability, and ease of use. 

USB Interface 

USB (Universal Serial Bus) has proven to be extremely flexible and has been used for everything from 

keyboards and joysticks to CD/DVD drives from several vendors. 

USB 1.1 and earlier drives provide read and write transfer rates that match the fastest rates possible 

with IEEE-1284 parallel ports, with read rates on typical 6x models ranging from 1,145KB/sec to 

1,200KB/sec. USB 2.0 provides a transfer rate up to 60MB/sec, which is 40 times faster than USB 1.1 

and yet fully backward compatible. 

USB also provides benefits that no parallel port drive can match: for example, hot-swappability, the 

capability to be plugged in or unplugged without removing the power or rebooting the system. 

Additionally, USB devices are fully Plug and Play (PnP), allowing the device to be automatically recognized 

by the system and the drivers automatically installed. 

For Windows 98/Me or Windows 2000/XP systems with USB ports, USB-based CD-RW drives are an 

excellent solution for backup and archiving of data onto low-cost, durable optical media. Although 

Windows 95 OSR 2.1 and above also support USB, at least in theory, USB device support with 

Windows 95 is chancy at best. It usually is recommended to run Windows 98 or later to properly support 

USB on your system. 

FireWire 

More recently, external CD/DVD drives have come on the market with a FireWire (also called IEEE- 

1394 or iLink) interface. FireWire is a high-performance external interface designed mainly for video 

use. Because very few systems include FireWire ports as a standard item, I normally recommend the 

more universally recognized USB for external CD/DVD drives instead. Also, USB 2.0 (also known as 

Hi-Speed USB) is faster and more generally available than the current FireWire implementations. 

◊◊ See “USB and IEEE-1394 (i.Link or FireWire)—Serial and Parallel Port Replacements,” p. 940. 

Loading Mechanism 

Three distinctly different mechanisms exist for loading a disc into a CD/DVD drive: the tray, caddy, 

and slot. Each one offers some benefits and features. Which type you select has a major impact on 

your use of the drive because you interact with this mechanism every time you load a disc. 

Some drives on the market allow you to insert more than one disc at a time. Some of these use a special 

cartridge that you fill with discs, much like multidisc CD-changers used in automobiles. Newer 

models are slot-loading, allowing you to push a button to select which internal cartridge slot you 

want to load with a CD/DVD. The drive’s door opens and you slide in the CD, which the drive mechanism 

grabs and pulls into place. Typical capacities range from 3 to 6 discs or more, and these are 

available in both SCSI and ATA interfaces. 

Tray 

Most current SCSI and ATAPI CD/DVD drives use a tray-loading mechanism. This is similar to the 

mechanism used with a stereo system. Because you don’t need to put each disc into a separate caddy, 

this mechanism is much less expensive overall. However, it also means that you must handle each 

disc every time you insert or remove it. 

Tray loading is more convenient and less expensive than a caddy system (see the section, “Caddy,” 

later in this chapter) because you don’t need a caddy. However, this can make it much more difficult


745 

for young children or those who work in harsh environments to use the discs without smudging or 

damaging them due to excess handling. 

The tray loader itself is also subject to damage. The trays can easily break if bumped or if something is 

dropped on them while they are extended. Also, any contamination you place on the tray or disc is 

brought right into the drive when the tray is retracted. Tray-loaded drives should not be used in a 

harsh environment, such as a commercial or an industrial application. Make sure both the tray and 

the data surface of the disc are clean whenever you use a tray-loading drive. 

The tray mechanism also does not hold the disc as securely as the caddy. If you don’t have the disc 

placed in the tray properly when it retracts, the disc or tray can be damaged. Even a slight misalignment 

can prevent the drive from reading the disc properly, forcing you to open the tray and reset the 

disc. 

Some tray drives can’t operate in a vertical (sideways) position because gravity prevents proper loading 

and operation. Check to see whether the drive tray has retaining clips, which grab the hub of the 

disc. If so, you can run the drive in either horizontal or vertical position. 

Some drives equipped with retaining clips still aren’t capable of running reliably in the vertical position. 

If this is a critical feature for you, be sure to test a unit before you install it in a system, or make 

sure you can return it if it doesn’t work properly. 

Apart from the convenience, the other advantage of the tray mechanism over the caddy system is in 

cost, and that is a big factor. If you do not have young children and plan to use the drive in a clean 

environment where careful handling and cleanliness can be assured, the tray mechanism is recommended 

because of its significantly lower cost. 

Caddy 

At one time, the caddy system was used on most high-end CD-ROM drives as well as the early CD-R 

and DVD-RAM drives. It has since declined in popularity because of the convenience of the tray. The 

caddy system requires that you place the disc itself into a special caddy, which is a sealed container 

with a metal shutter. The caddy has a hinged lid that you open to insert the disc, but after that the lid 

remains shut. When you insert the caddy containing the disc into the drive, the drive opens a metal 

shutter on the bottom of the caddy, allowing access to the disc by the laser. 

The caddy is not the most convenient loading mechanism, although if all your discs are in their own 

caddies, all you have to do is grab the caddy containing the disc you want and insert it into the drive. 

This makes the drive operate similar to a 3 1/2-inch disk. You can handle the caddy without worrying 

about touching or contaminating the disc or the drive, making this the most accurate and durable 

mechanism as well. Young children can easily handle the caddies and don’t have to touch the compact 

discs themselves. 

Because the caddy is sealed, the discs are protected from damage caused by handling. The only time 

you actually handle the disc is when you first put it into the caddy. The caddy loading system also 

ensures that the disc is properly located when inside the drive. This allows for more accurate laserhead 

positioning mechanisms, and caddy drives generally have faster access times, as well. 

The drawbacks to the caddy system are the expense and the inconvenience. You only get one caddy 

with the drive, so if you want to store your discs in their own caddies, you must buy many more. 

Additional caddies can cost $4–$10 each, which can lead to a significant expense if you have a large 

number of discs. 

The best application for caddy drives is in severe environments such as machine shops, repair shops, 

factories, or anywhere somebody with dirty hands or gloves on will have to change discs.


When DVD-RAM was first introduced, the disc had to remain in a caddy because the recordable surface 

is delicate. Since then, DVD-RAM drives have been made caddy-less, but especially with doublesided 

discs the information is at risk every time you handle the disc. Because of this fragility, as well 

as the general incompatibility of DVD-RAM with DVD-ROM, I recommend DVD+RW as the best solution 

for recordable DVD. No caddy is required with DVD+RW, and the format is fully two-way compatible 

with DVD-Video and DVD-ROM. 

Slot 

Some drives now use a slot-loading mechanism, identical to that used in most automotive CD players. 

This is very convenient, because you just slip the disc into the slot, where the mechanism grabs it and 

draws it inside. There are drives that can load several CDs at a time this way, holding them internally 

inside the drive and switching discs as access is required. 

The primary drawback to this type of mechanism is that if a jam occurs, it can be much more difficult 

to repair because you might have to remove the drive to free the disc. Another drawback is that slotloading 

drives normally can’t handle the smaller 80mm discs, card-shaped discs, or other modified 

disc physical formats or shapes. 

Other Drive Features 

Although drive specifications are of the utmost importance, you should also consider other factors 

and features when evaluating CD-ROM drives. Besides quality of construction, the following criteria 

bear scrutiny when making a purchasing decision: 

■ Drive sealing 

■ Self-cleaning lenses 

■ Internal versus external drive 

Drive Sealing 

Dirt is your CD/DVD drive’s biggest enemy. Dust or dirt, when it collects on the lens portion of the 

mechanism, can cause read errors or severe performance loss. Many manufacturers seal off the lens 

and internal components from the drive bay in airtight enclosures. Other drives, although not sealed, 

have double dust doors—one external and one internal—to keep dust from the inside of the drive. All 

these features help prolong the life of your drive. 

Some drives are sealed, which means that no air flows through the chamber in which the laser and 

lens reside. Always look for sealed drives in harsh industrial or commercial environments. In a standard 

office or home environment, it is probably not worth the extra expense. 

Self-Cleaning Lenses 

If the laser lens gets dirty, so does your data. The drive will spend a great deal of time seeking and 

reseeking or will finally give up. Lens-cleaning discs are available, but built-in cleaning mechanisms 

are now included on virtually all good-quality drives. This might be a feature you’ll want to consider, 

particularly if you work in a less-than-pristine work environment or have trouble keeping your desk 

clean, let alone your drive laser lens. You can clean the lens manually, but it is generally a delicate 

operation requiring that you partially disassemble the drive. Also, damaging the lens mechanism by 

using too much force is pretty easy to do. Because of the risks involved, in most cases I do not recommend 

the average person dissasemble and try to manually clean the laser lens.

Writable CDs Chapter 13 

747 

Internal Versus External Drives 

When deciding whether you want an internal or external drive, think about where and how you’re 

going to use your drive. What about the future expansion of your system? Both types of drives have 

advantages and disadvantages, such as the following: 

■ External enclosure. These tend to be rugged, portable, and large—in comparison to their internal 

versions. External drives are ideal for sharing a drive with multiple systems or especially with 

laptops or notebook portable systems. Parallel port drives are very portable and supported on a 

broad range of machines, but USB drives are a better choice for Windows 98 or later systems 

that have USB ports. 

SCSI drives are also ideal for external configurations because performance is even better than 

with internal ATA drives. If each PC has its own SCSI adapter with an external connection, all 

you need to do is unplug the drive from one adapter and plug it in to the other. I use SCSI 

drives extensively, and with SCSI I can get the same level of performance when the drive is 

connected to my laptop as when it is connected to a desktop system. 

■ Internal enclosure. Internal drives won’t take up any space on your desk. Buy an internal drive if 

you have a free drive bay and a sufficient power supply and you plan to keep the drive exclusively 

on one machine. The internal drives are also nice because you can connect the audio 

connector to your sound card and leave the external audio connectors free for other inputs. 

Internal drives can be ATA or SCSI. 

Writable CDs 

Although the CD originally was concieved as a read-only device, these daysyou easily can create your 

own data and audio CDs. By purchasing CD-R or CD-RW discs and drives, you can record (or burn) 

your own CDs. This enables you to store large amounts of data at a cost that is lower than most other 

removable, random-access mediums. 

It might surprise newcomers to the world of PCs to see just how far recordable CD technology, performance, 

and pricing has come. Today you can buy recorders that operate at up to 20x speeds and cost 

as little as $100. You can even purchase slimline CD drives for laptops. This is compared to the first 

CD-R recording system on the market in 1988, which cost more than $50,000 (back then, they used a 

$35,000 Yamaha audio recording drive along with thousands of dollars of additional error correction 

and other circuitry for CD-ROM use), operated at 1x speed only, and was part of a subsystem that was 

the size of a washing machine! The blank discs also cost about $100 each—a far cry from the 25 cents 

or less they cost today (if you purchase in bulk and are willing to supply your own jewel cases). With 

prices that high, the main purpose for CD recording was to produce prototype CDs that could then be 

replicated via the standard stamping process. 

In 1991, Philips introduced the first 2x recorder (the CDD 521), which was about the size of a stereo 

receiver and cost about $12,000. Sony in 1992 and then JVC in 1993 followed with their 2x recorders, 

and the JVC was the first drive that had the half-height 5 1/4-inch form factor that most desktop system 

drives still use today. In 1995, Yamaha released the first 4x recorder (the CDR100), which sold for 

$5,000. A breakthrough in pricing came in late 1995 when Hewlett-Packard released a 2x recorder (the 

4020i, which was actually made for them by Philips) for under $1,000. This proved to be exactly what 

the market was waiting for. With a surge in popularity after that, prices rapidly fell to below $500, 

and then down to $200 or less. In 1996, Ricoh introduced the first CD-RW drive. 

Compared with either tape or other removable media, using a CD burner is a very cost-effective and 

easy method for transporting large files or making archival copies. Another benefit of the CD for 

archiving data is that CDs have a much longer shelf life than tapes or other removable media.


Two main types of recordable CD drives and discs are available, called CD-R (recordable) and CD-RW 

(rewritable). Because all CD-RW drives can also function as CD-R drives, and the prices of CD-R and 

RW drives are similar, virtually all drives sold today are CD-RW. Those drives can work with either 

CD-R or CD-RW discs. In addition, because the CD-RW discs are 1.5–4 times more expensive than 

CD-R discs, only half as fast (or less) as CD-R discs, and won’t work in all CD audio or CD-ROM 

drives, people usually write to CD-R media in their CD-RW drives. 

Note 

Because of differences in reflectivity of the media, older CD and DVD drives can’t read CD-RW media. Most newer CD 

or DVD-ROM drives conform to the MultiRead specification and as such can read CD-RWs. But many older drives are still 

out there that do not conform. As such, if you are recording something that many people or systems will need to read, 

CD-R is your best choice for overall compatibility. 

CD-R media is WORM, meaning that after you fill a CD-R with data, it is permanently stored and 

can’t be erased. The write-once limitation makes this type of disc less than ideal for system backups or 

other purposes in which it would be preferable to reuse the same media over and over. However, 

because of the low cost of CD-R media, you might find that making permanent backups to essentially 

disposable CD-R discs is as economically feasible as tape or other media. 

CD-RW discs can be reused up to 1,000 times, making them suitable for almost any type of data storage 

task. When first introduced, there were many CD-R–only drives; however, today most recordable 

CD drives are both CD-R and CD-RW in one. The following sections examine these two standards and 

how you can use them for your own data storage needs. 

CD-R 

Once recorded, CD-R discs can be played back or read in any standard CD-ROM drive. CD-R discs are 

useful for archival storage and creating master CDs, which can be duplicated for distribution within a 

company. 

CD-Rs function using the same principle as standard CD-ROMs, by bouncing laser light off the disc 

and tracking the changes in reflectivity when pit/land and land/pit boundaries are encountered. The 

main difference is that instead of being stamped or embossed into plastic as on regular CDs, CD-Rs 

have images of pits burned onto a raised groove instead. Therefore, the pits are not really raised 

bumps like on a standard CD, but instead are rendered as dark (burned) areas on the groove that 

reflect less light. Because the overall reflectivity of pit and land areas remains the same as on a 

stamped disc, normal CD-ROM or CD audio drives can read CD-Rs exactly as if they were stamped 

discs. 

Part of the recording process with CD-Rs starts before you even insert the disc into the drive. CD-R 

media is manufactured much like a standard CD—a stamper is used to mold a base of polycarbonate 

plastic. However, instead of stamping pits and lands, the stamper imprints a spiral groove (called a 

pre-groove), into the disc. From the perspective of the reading (and writing) laser underneath the disc, 

this groove is seen as a raised spiral ridge and not a depression. 

The pre-groove (or ridge) is not perfectly straight; instead it has a slight wobble. The amplitude of the 

wobble is generally very small compared to the track pitch (spacing). The groove separation is 1.6 

microns, but it wobbles only 0.030 microns from side to side. The wobble of a CD-R groove is modulated 

to carry supplemental information read by the drive. The signal contained in the wobble is 

called absolute time in pre-groove (ATIP) because it is modulated with time code and other data. The 

time code is the same minutes:seconds:frame format that will eventually be found in the Q-subcode 

of the frames after they are written to the disc. The ATIP enables the drive to locate positions on the

Writable CDs Chapter 13 749 

disc before the frames are actually written. Technically, the wobble signal is frequency shift keyed 

with a carrier frequency of 22.05KHz and a deviation of 1KHz. The wobble uses changes in frequency 

to carry information. 

To complete the CD-R disc, an organic dye is evenly applied across the disc by a spin-coating process. 

Next, a gold reflective layer is then applied, followed by a protective coat of UV-cured lacquer to protect 

the gold and dye layers. Gold is used in CD-R discs to get the reflectivity as high as possible, and 

it was found that the organic dye tends to oxidize aluminum. Then, silk-screen printing is applied on 

top of the lacquer for identification and further protection. When seen from the underside, the laser 

used to read (or write) the disc first passes through the clear polycarbonate and the dye layer, hits the 

gold layer where it is reflected back through the dye layer and the plastic, and finally is picked up by 

the optical pickup sensor in the drive. 

The dye and reflective layer together have the same reflective properties as a virgin CD. In other 

words, a CD reader would read the groove of an unrecorded CD-R disc as one long land. To record on 

a CD-R disc, a laser beam of the same wavelength (780nm) as is normally used to read the disc, but 

with 10 times the power, is used to heat up the dye. The laser is fired in a pulsed fashion at the top of 

the ridge (groove), heating the layer of organic dye to between 482° and 572°F (250°–300°C). This 

temperature literally burns the organic dye, causing it to become opaque. When read, this prevents 

the light from passing through the dye layer to the gold and reflecting back, having the same effect of 

cancelling the laser reflection that an actual raised pit would on a normal stamped CD. 

Figure 13.11 shows the CD-R media layers, along with the pre-groove (raised ridge from the laser perspective) 

with burned pits. 

Figure 13.11 CD-R media layers. 

The drive reading the disc is fooled into thinking a pit exists, but no actual pit exists—there’s simply a 

spot of less-reflective material on the ridge. This use of heat to create the pits in the disc is why the 

recording process is often referred to as burning a CD. When burned, the dye changes from a reflective 

to a nonreflective state. This change of state is permanent and can’t be undone, which is why CD-R is 

considered a write-once medium. 

CD-R Capacity 

All CD-R drives can work with the standard 650MiB (682MB) CD-R media (equal to 74 minutes of 

recorded music), as well as the higher-capacity 700MiB (737MB) CD-R blanks(equal to 80 minutes of 

recorded music). The 80-minute discs cost only about 2 cents more than the 74-minute discs, so most 

would figure why not purchase only the higher-capacity media? Although the extra 55MB of storage 

can be useful and the cost difference is neglegible, the 80-minute discs can actually be harder to read 

on older CD-ROM and CD-DA drives, especially car audio units. This is because to get the extra 

55MB/6 minutes of capacity, the spiral track is wound a little more tightly, making them a bit more 

difficult read. If you’ll be using the discs for audio or interchange purposes and might be dealing with 

older equipment, you might want to stick with the 74-minute discs instead. If not, the 80-minute 

media will be just fine.


Some drives and burning software are capable of overburning, whereby they write data partially into 

the lead-out area and essentially extend the data track. This is definitely risky as far as compatibility is 

concerned. Many drives, especially older ones, fail when reading near the end of an overburned disc. 

It’s best to consider this form of overclocking CDs somewhat experimental. It might be useful for your 

own purposes if it works with your drives and software, but interchangeability will be problematic. 

CD-R Media Color 

There’s been some controversy over the years about which colors of CD-R media provide the best performance. 

Table 13.24 shows the most common color combinations, along with which brands use 

them and some technical information. 

Some brands are listed with more than one color combination, due to production changes or different 

product lines. You should check color combinations whenever you purchase a new batch of CD-R 

media if you’ve found that particular color combinations work better for you in your applications. 

Table 13.24 CD-R Media Color and Its Effect on Recording 

Media Color 

(first color is 

reflective layer; 

second is die layer) Brands Technical Notes 

Gold-gold Mitsui, Kodak, Maxell, Ricoh Phthalocyanine dye 

Less tolerance for power variations 

Might be less likely to work in a wide variety of 

drives 

Invented by Mitsui Toatsu Chemicals 

Works best in drives that use a Long Write Strategy 

(longer laser pulse) to mark media 

Gold-green Imation (nee 3M), Memorex, Cyanine dye; more forgiving of disc-write and 

Kodak, BASF, TDK disc-read variations 

Has a rated life span of 10 years 

Color combination developed by Taiyo Yuden 

Used in the development of the original CD-R 

standards 

De facto standard for CD-R industry and was the 

original color combination used during the 

development of CD-R technology 

Works best in drives that use a Short Write 

Strategy (shorter laser pulse) to mark media 

Silver-blue Verbatim, DataLifePlus, 

HiVal, Maxell, TDK 

Process developed by Verbatim 

Azo dye 

Similar performance to green media plus rated to 

last up to 100 years 

A good choice for long-term archiving 

Ultimately, although the various color combinations have their advantages, the best way to choose a 

media type is to try a major brand of media in your CD-R/CD-RW drive with both full-disc and


751 

small-disc recording jobs and then try the completed CD-R in as wide a range of CD-ROM drive 

brands and speeds as you can. 

The perfect media for you will be the ones that offer you 

■ High reliability in writing 

■ No dye or reflective surface dropouts (areas where the media won’t record properly) 

■ Durability through normal handling (scratch-resistant coating on media surface) 

■ Compatibility across the widest range of CD-ROM drives 

■ Lowest unit cost 

Choosing the Best Media 

After you determine which media works the best for you and your target drives, you might still be 

faced with a wide variety of choices, including conventional surface, printable surface, unbranded, 

jewel case, and bulk on spindle. The following list discusses these options: 

■ Conventional surface. Choose this type of media if you want to use a marker to label the CD 

rather than adding a paper label. This type of CD often has elaborate labeling, including areas 

to indicate CD title, date created, and other information as well as prominent brand identification. 

Because of the surface marking, it’s not suitable for relabeling unless you use very opaque 

labels. It’s a good choice for internal backups and data storage, though, where labeling is less 

important. 

■ Printable surface. Choose this type of media if you have a CD printer (a special type of inkjet 

printer that can print directly onto the face of the CD). Because the brand markings are usually 

low-contrast or even nonexistent (to allow overprinting), this type also works well with labeling 

kits such as NEATO and others. 

■ Unbranded. Usually sold in bulk on spindle, these are good choices for economy or use with 

labeling kits. 

■ Jewel case. Any of the preceding versions can be sold with jewel cases (the same type of case 

used for CD-ROM software and music CDs). This is a good choice if you plan to distribute the 

media in a jewel case, but it raises your costs if you plan to distribute or store the media in 

paper, Tyvek, or plastic sleeves. Hint: Use extra jewel cases to replace your broken jewel cases in 

your CD software or music collection! 

■ Bulk on spindle. This media generally comes with no sleeves and no cases. It is usually the 

lowest-priced packaging within any brand of media. This is an excellent choice for mass duplication, 

or for those who don’t use jewel cases for distribution. 

CD-R Media Recording Speed Rating 

With CD-R mastering speeds ranging from 1x (now-discontinued first-generation units) up through 

fast 12x and state-of-the-art 20x rates, it’s important to check the speed rating (x-rating) of your CD-R 

media. 

Most branded media on the market today is rated to work successfully at up to 16x recording speeds. 

Some brands indicate this specifically on their packaging, whereas you must check the Web sites for 

others to get this information. 

If speed ratings are unavailable, you might want to restrict your burning to 8x or lower. Media that is 

16x or higher rated is now the most popular, but speed ratings higher than that might be more difficult 

to find.


CD-RW 

Beginning in early 1996, an industry consortium that included Ricoh, Philips, Sony, Yamaha, 

Hewlett-Packard, and Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation announced the CD-RW format. The design 

was largely led by Ricoh, and they were the first manufacturer to introduce a CD-RW drive in May of 

1996. It was the MP6200S, which was a 2/2/6 (2x record, 2x rewrite, 6x read) rated unit. At the same 

time, the Orange Book Part III was published, which officially defined the CD-RW standard. 

Since that time, CD-RW drives have pretty much replaced CD-R–only drives in the market today, 

mainly because CD-RW drives are fully backward compatible with CD-R drives and can read and write 

the same CD-R media with the same capabilities. So, a CD-RW drive can also function as a CD-R 

drive. CD-RW discs can be burned or written to just like CD-Rs; the main difference is that they can 

be erased and reburned again and again. They are very useful for prototyping a disc that will then be 

duplicated in less expensive CD-R or even stamped CDs for distribution. They can be rewritten at least 

1,000 times or more. Additionally, with packet-writing software, they can even be treated like a giant 

floppy disk, where you can simply drag and drop or copy and delete files at will. Although CD-RW 

discs are about twice as expensive as CD-R media, CD-RWs are still far cheaper than optical cartridges 

and other removable formats. This makes CD-RW a viable technology for system backups, file archiving, 

and virtually any other data storage task. 

Note 

The CD-RW format originally was referred to as CD-Erasable, or CD-E. 

Four main differences exist between CD-RW and CD-R media. In a nutshell, CD-RW discs are 

■ Rewritable 

■ More expensive 

■ Slower when writing 

■ Less reflective 

Besides the CD-RW media being rewritable and costing a bit more, they also are writable at about half 

(or less) the speed of CD-R discs. This is because the laser needs more time to operate on a particular 

spot on the disk when writing. They also have a lower reflectivity, which limits readability in older 

drives. Many standard CD-ROM and CD-R drives can’t read CD-RWs. However, MultiRead capability is 

now found in virtually all CD-ROM drives of 24x speed or above, enabling them to read CD-RWs 

without problems. In general, CD-DA drives—especially the car audio players—seem to have the most 

difficulty reading CD-RWs. So, for music recording or compatibility with older drives, you should 

probably stick to CD-R media. Look for the MultiRead logo on a CD-ROM drive, indicates the capability 

to read CD-RW. 

CD-RW drives and media use a phase change process to create the illusion of pits on the disc. As with 

CD-R media, the disc starts out with the same polycarbonate base with a wobbled pre-groove molded 

in, which contains ATIP information. Then, on top of the base a special dielectric (insulating) layer is 

spin-coated, followed by the phase change recording layer, another dielectric layer, an aluminum 

reflective layer, and finally a UV-cured lacquer protective layer (and optional screen printing). The 

dielectric layers above and below the recording layer are designed to insulate the polycarbonate and 

reflective layers from the intense heat used during the phase-change process. 

Figure 13.12 shows the CD-RW media layers, along with the pre-groove (raised ridge from the laser 

perspective) with burned pits in the phase change layer.

Figure 13.12 CD-RW media layers. 


753 

Instead of burning an organic dye as with CD-R, the recording layer in a CD-RW disc is made up of a 

phase-change alloy consisting of silver, indium, antimony, and tellurium (Ag-In-Sb-Te). The reflective 

part of the recording layer is an aluminum alloy, the same as used in normal stamped discs. The 

read/write laser works from the underside of the disk, where the groove again appears like a ridge, and 

the recording is made in the phase-change layer on top of this ridge. 

The recording layer of Ag-In-Sb-Te alloy normally has a polycrystalline structure that is about 20% 

reflective. When data is written to a CD-RW disc, the laser in the drive alternates between two power 

settings, called P-write and P-erase. The higher power setting (P-write) is used to heat the material in 

the recording layer to a temperature between 500° and 700°C (932°–1292°F), causing it to melt. In a 

liquid state the molecules of the material flow freely, losing their polycrystalline structure and taking 

what is called an amorphous (random) state. When the material then solidifies in this amorphous 

state, it is only about 5% reflective. When being read, these areas lower in reflectivity simulate the 

pits on a stamped CD-ROM disc. 

That would be all to the story if CD-RW discs were read-only, but because they can be rewritten, there 

must be a way to bring the material back to a polycrystalline state. This is done by setting the laser to 

the lower-power P-erase mode. This heats the active material to approximately 200°C (392°F), which 

is well below the liquid melting point but high enough to soften the material. When the material is 

softened and allowed to cool more slowly, the molecules realign from a 5% reflective amorphous state 

back to a 20% reflective polycrystalline state. These higher reflective areas simulate the lands on a 

stamped CD-ROM disc. 

Note that despite the name of the P-erase laser power setting, the disc is not ever explicitly “erased.” 

Instead, CD-RW uses a recording technique called direct overwrite, in which a spot doesn’t have to be 

erased to be rewritten; it is simply rewritten. In other words, when data is recorded the laser remains 

on and pulses between the P-write and P-erase power levels to create amorphous and polycrystalline 

areas of low and high reflectivity, regardless of which state the areas were in prior. It is similar in 

many ways to writing data on a magnetic disk that also uses direct overwrite. Every sector already has 

data patterns, so when you write data, all you are really doing is writing new patterns. Sectors are 

never really erased; they are merely overwritten. The media in CD-RW discs is designed to be written 

and rewritten up to 1,000 times. 

CD-RW Speeds 

The original Orange Book Part III Volume 1 (CD-RW specification) allowed for CD-RW writing at up 

to 4x speeds. New developments in the media and drives were required to support speeds higher than 

that, so in May 2000, Part III Volume 2 was published, defining CD-RW recording at speeds from 4x 

to 10x. This new revision of the CD-RW standard is called High-Speed Rewritable, and both the discs 

and drives capable of CD-RW speeds higher than 4x will indicate this via the logos printed on them.


Because of the differences required in the High-Speed media (discs), they can be used only in High- 

Speed CD-RW drives. If you try to write on the High-Speed media in a 2x or 4x CD-RW drive, the 

recording will fail and you will possibly see several error messages. Note that you can use the slower 

4x or less rated media in the High-Speed drives, providing you write at only the 4x or lower speed for 

which the media is rated. 

Mount Rainier 

Mountainier is a new standard being promoted by Philips, Sony, Microsoft, and Compaq; it enables 

native operating system support for data storage on CD-RW. This makes the technology much easier 

to use (no special drivers or packet-writing software is necessary) and enables CD-RW drives to 

become a fully integrated storage solution. The main features of Mount Rainier are 

■ Integral defect management 

■ Direct addressing at the 2KB sector level 

■ Background formatting 

■ Standardized command set 

■ Standardized physical layout 

This standard requires support directly in the operating system, BIOS, and requires drives with modified 

firmware and design. If it catches on, it might change the way CD-RW drives are used in 2002 

and later. 

MultiRead Specifications 

The original red and yellow bookThe original Red and Yellow Book CD standards specified that on a 

CD the landsshould have a minimum reflectance value of about 70%, and the pits should have a 

maximum reflectance of about 28%. This means that the area of a disc that represents a land should 

reflect back no less than 70% of the laser light directed at it, whereas the pits should reflect no more 

than 28%. In the early 1980s when these standards were developed, the photodetector diodes used in 

the drives were relatively insensitive, and these minimim and maximum reflectance requirements 

were deliberately designed to create enough brightness and contrast between pits and lands to accommodate 

them. 

On a CD-RW disc, the reflectance of a land is approximately 20% (plus or minus 5%), and the reflectivity 

of a pit is only 5%, obviously well below the original requirements. Fortunately, it was found 

that by the addition of a relatively simple AGC circuit, the ratio of amplification in the detector circuitry 

can be changed dynamically to allow for reading the lower-reflective CD-RW discs. Thus, 

although CD-ROM drives were not initially capable of reading CD-RW discs, modifying the existing 

designs to enable them to do so wasn’t difficult. Where you might encounter problems reading CD- 

RW discs is with CD audio drives, especially older ones. Because CD-RW first came out in 1996 (and 

took a year or more to become popular), most CD-ROM drives manufactured in 1997 or earlier have 

problems reading CD-RW discs. Reflectivity is also a problem on DVD-Video and DVD-ROM drives— 

because they use a different frequency laser, they actually have more trouble reading CD-R discs than 

CD-RWs. 

DVDs also have some compatibility problems. With DVD, the problem isn’t just simple reflectivity as 

it is an inherent incompatibility with the laser wavelength used for DVD versus CD-R and RW. The 

problem in this case stems from the dyes used in the recording layer of CD-R and RW discs, which are 

very sensitive to the wavelength of light used to read them. At the proper CD laser wavelength of 

780nm, they are very reflective, but at other wavelengths, the reflectivity falls off markedly. Normally, 

CD-ROM drives use a 780nm (infrared) laser to read the data, whereas DVD drives use a shorter


755 

wavelength 650nm (red) laser. Although the shorter wavelength laser works well for reading commercial 

CD-ROM discs because the aluminum reflective layer they use is equally reflective at the shorter 

DVD laser wavelength, it doesn’t work well at all for reading CD-R or RW discs. 

Fortunately, a solution was first introduced by Sony and then similarly by all the other DVD drive 

manufacturers. This solution consists of a dual-laser pickup that incorporates both a 650nm (DVD) 

and 780nm (CD) laser. Some of these used two discrete pickup units with separate optics mounted to 

the same assembly, but they eventually changed to dual-laser units that use the same optics for both, 

making the pickup smaller and less expensive. Because most manufacturers wanted to make a variety 

of drives—including cheaper ones without the dual-laser pickup—a standard needed to be created so 

that someone purchasing a drive would know the drive’s capabilities. 

So, how can you tell whether your drive is compatible with CD-R and RW discs? To demonstrate the 

compatibility of a particular drive, OSTA created industry standard tests and logos that would guarantee 

specific levels of compatibility. These are called the MultiRead specifications. Currently there are 

two levels, as follows: 

■ MultiRead. For CD-ROM drives 

■ MultiRead2. For DVD-ROM drives 

In addition, a similar MultiPlay standard exists that is for consumer DVD-Video and CD-DA devices. 

Table 13.25 shows the two levels of MultiRead capability that can be assigned to drives and the types 

of media guaranteed to be readable in such drives. 

Table 13.25 MultiRead and MultiRead2 Compatibility Standards for CD/DVD Drives 

Media MultiRead MultiRead2 

CD-DA X X 

CD-ROM X X 

CD-R X X 

CD-RW X X 

DVD-ROM - X 

DVD-Video - X 

DVD-Audio - X 

DVD-RAM - X 

X = Compatible; drive will read this media - = Incompatible; drive won’t read 

Note that MultiRead also indicates that the drive is capabile of reading discs written in packet writing 

mode because this mode is now being used more commonly with both CD-R and RW media. 

To determine whether your drive meets either of these standards, merely look for the MultiRead or 

MultiRead2 logo on the drive. These logos are shown in Figure 13.13. 

The presence of these logos guarantees that particular level of compatibility. If you are purchasing a 

CD-ROM or DVD drive and want to be able to read recordable or rewritable discs, be sure to look for 

the MultiRead or MultiRead2 logo on your drive. Especially in the case of DVD drives, MultiRead2 

versions generally are more expensive because of the extra cost of the dual-mode laser pickup 

required. Virtually all DVD-ROM drives for computers have the dual pickup mechanism, enabling 

them to properly read CD-R or CD-RW discs. However, most DVD video players used in entertainment 

systems do not have the dual pickups.


Figure 13.13 MultiRead and MultiRead2 logos. 

How to Reliably Record CDs 

With typical burn times for full CD-Rs ranging from under 4 minutes (20x) to as long as 80 minutes 

(1x), it is frustrating when a buffer underrun or some other problem forces you to rewrite your CD- 

RW disc, or worse yet, turn your CD-R media to a coaster—an unusable disc that must be discarded. 

Five major factors influence your ability to create a working CD-R: interface type, drive buffer size, the 

location and condition of the data you want to record to CD-R, the recording speed, and whether the 

computer is performing other tasks while trying to create the CD-R. 

To improve the odds of getting reliable CD-R/RW creation, look for drives with 

Tip 

■ A large data buffer (2MB or larger), or better yet some form of buffer underrun protection. The data 

buffer in the drive holds information read from the original data source, so that if a pause in 

data reading occurs, there’s less of a possibility of a buffer underrun until the on-drive buffer 

runs empty. A larger buffer minimizes the chance of “running out of data.” Newer drives with 

buffer underrun protection virtually eliminate this problem, no matter what size buffer is in the 

drive. 

■ Support for UDMA operating modes. As you’ve already seen, UDMA modes transfer data more 

quickly and with less CPU intervention than earlier versions of ATA. To use this feature, you’ll 

also need a motherboard with a busmastering UDMA interface with the appropriate drivers 

installed. 

Also, if you have problems with reliable CD-R creation at the drive’s maximum speed, try using a lower speed (4x instead 

of 8x, for example). Your mastering job will take twice as long, but it’s better to create a working CD-R slowly than ruin a 

blank quickly. 

An alternative approach is to use packet-writing software to create your CD-R. All late-model CD- 

R/CD-RW drives support packet writing, which allows drag-and-drop copying of individual files to the 

CD-R/RW rather than transferring all the files at once as with normal mastering software. This “a little 

at a time” approach means that less data must be handled in each write and can make the difference 

between success and failure. If your drive supports this feature, it probably includes packet-writing 

software in the package. Note that although packet-written CDs can be read with Windows 9x, Me, 

NT, and 2000, they can’t be read with Windows 3.1 and MS-DOS because these operating systems 

don’t have drivers available that support packet-written CDs. 

If your CD-R/RW drive is SCSI-based, be sure you have the correct type of SCSI interface card and 

cables. Although many drive vendors take the uncertainty out of this issue by supplying an appropriate 

card and cables, others don’t.

If you must buy your own SCSI card for your recorder, follow these tips: 

Tip 


757 

■ Forget about ISA cards. Many new motherboards no longer include ISA slots, and even if they do, 

the performance of the ISA bus presents a bottleneck that will seriously inhibit drive performance. 

■ PCI or Cardbus SCSI works well. As discussed in Chapter 17, “I/O Interfaces from Serial and 

Parallel to IEEE-1394 and USB,” PCI’s 32-bit data bus and 33MHz typical performance is far 

faster than ISA’s 16-bit data bus and 8.33MHz typical performance. Cardbus is PCI for notebooks, 

so the same benefits apply there as well. 

A number of CD-R manufacturers offer high-performance PCI SCSI cards, including Adaptec, Amedia, Promise Tech, SIIG, 

Tekram, DTC, and Advansys. 

Buffer Underruns 

Whenever a drive writes data to a CD-R/RW disc in either Disk at Once or Track at Once mode, it 

writes to the spiral track on the CD, alternating on and off to etch the pattern into the raw media. 

Because the drive can’t easily realign where it starts and stops writing like a hard drive can, after it 

starts writing it must continue until it’s finished with the track or disc. Otherwise, the recording (and 

disc if it is a CD-R) will be ruined. This means that the CD recording software, in combination with 

your system hardware, must be capable of delivering a consistent stream of data to the drive while it’s 

writing. To aid in this effort, the software uses a buffer that it creates on your hard disk to temporarily 

store the data as it is being sent to the drive. 

If the system is incapable of delivering data at a rate sufficient to keep the drive happy, you receive a 

buffer underrun message and the recording attempt fails. The buffer underrun message indicates that 

the drive had to abort recording because it ran out of data in its buffer to write to the CD. For many 

years, this was the biggest problem people had when recording to CD-R/RW media. 

And for many years, the best way to prevent buffer underruns was to either slow down the writing 

speeds or have a large buffer in the recording drive, as well as to use the fastest interface and reading 

drive as possible. Nobody wants to write at lower speeds (otherwise, why buy a fast drive?), so buffer 

sizes grew as did the interface speeds. Still, it was possible to get a buffer underrun if, for example, you 

tried browsing Web pages or doing other work while burning a disc. 

Buffer Underrun Protection 

Sanyo was the first to develop a technology that eliminates buffer underruns once and for all. They 

call the technology Burn (buffer underrun) Proof, which sounds a little confusing (some people 

thought it prevented any writing on discs), but in practice it has proven to be excellent. 

After Sanyo, several other companies have developed similar and compatible technology with various 

names. The most common you’ll see are 

■ BURN-Proof, from Sanyo 

■ JustLink, from Ricoh 

■ Waste-Proof, from Yamaha 

Buffer underrun protection technology involves having a special chipset in the drive, which monitors 

the drive buffer. When it anticipates that a buffer underrun might occur (the buffer is running low on


data), it temporarily suspends the recording until more data fills the buffer. When the buffer is sufficiently 

restocked, the drive then locates exactly where the recording left off earlier and restarts recording 

again immediately after that position. 

According to the Orange Book specification, gaps between data in a CD recording must not be more 

than 100 milliseconds in length. The buffer underrun technology can restart the recording with a gap 

of 40–45 milliseconds or less from where it left off, which is well within the specification. These small 

gaps are easily compensated for by the error correction built into the recording, so no data is lost. 

Note that it is important that the drive incorporate buffer underrun technology, but the recording 

software must support it as well for everything to work properly. Fortunately, all the popular CD 

recording programs on the market now support this technology. 

If your drive incorporates buffer underrun protection, you can multitask—do other things while burning 

CDs—without fear of producing a bad recording. 

Producing Error-Free Recordings 

If you have an older drive that doesn’t feature buffer underrun protection, follow these recommendations 

to help ensure error-free recordings and prevent buffer underruns: 

■ Whenever possible, move all data you want to put onto a CD-R to a fast local hard drive. If you can’t 

do this, avoid using the following sources for data: floppy drives, parallel port–connected storage 

drives, and slower CD-ROM drives (especially 8x or slower). These locations for data usually 

can’t feed data quickly enough to maintain data flow to the recording drive. 

■ Before you master the CD-R, check your hard disk or data source for errors (the scandisk program can 

often be used for this). Also try defragmenting the drive. This ensures that disk errors or file fragmentation, 

both of which slow down disk access, won’t be a factor in program or data search 

and retrieval. 

■ Avoid trying to burn from active files or zero-byte files (often used for temporary storage). If you must 

burn these files to make an archival copy of your current system configuration, use a program 

such as Norton Ghost or PowerQuest Drive Image. These programs create a single compressed 

file from your drive’s contents. Then, burn the disc using the resulting compressed file. 

■ Turn off power management for your hard disk and other peripherals. You can normally do this 

through the Power icon in Windows 9x. 

■ Make sure your temporary drive has at least twice the empty space of your finished CD. Your CD’s estimated 

space requirements are shown during the mastering process with programs such as Roxio 

Easy CD-Creator or NERO Burning ROM. Thus, if you’re creating a CD with 500MB of data, 

your temporary drive should have at least 1GB of empty space. 

■ With Windows 9x, you’ll improve disk caching by adjusting the typical role of the computer from workstation 

to server in the Performance tab of the System Properties dialog box. Note that this change 

works correctly with Windows 95B and 95C (OSR 2.x) and Windows 98/Me, but the Registry 

keys are incorrect in Windows 95 original retail and OSR1 (95A) versions. Check Microsoft’s 

Web site for the correct Registry key settings for Windows 95/95A, back up and edit the 

Registry, and restart the computer before making this change with those versions. 

■ If your original data is coming from a variety of sources, consider using the Create Disk Image option 

found in most CD mastering software. This feature creates an image file on your hard drive that 

contains all the files you want to put onto a CD. Then, use Create CD from Disk Image to actually 

master the CD from that information. 

■ If you’re uncertain of success, why waste a CD-R blank? Use a CD-RW instead, which usually is 

written at a slower speed, or use the “test-then-create” option found in most recording software


759 

that does a simulated burn of the CD before the actual creation. After the simulation, you’re 

warned of any problems before the actual process begins. This is not always foolproof, but it 

can help. 

■ Small files are harder to use in mastering a CD than large ones because of the excessive drive tracking 

necessary to find them and load them. You might want to use the packet writing mode instead if 

your drive and software support it. 

■ Keep your drives clean and free from dust. Use a cleaning CD if necessary. Dirty drives cause dataread 

errors or data-write errors if your recording drive is the dirty one. 

■ Don’t multitask. If you run another program during the mastering process, the computer is 

forced to perform time-slicing, which causes it to start a process, switch away from it to start the 

next process, switch back to the first process, and so forth. This switching process could cause 

the recording drive to run out of data because it isn’t receiving data in a steady stream. Forget 

about surfing the Internet, playing Solitaire, or creating a label for your new CD during the 

burning process if you want reliable mastering on a drive that doesn’t feature buffer underrun 

protection. 

If you’re still having buffer underrun problems despite taking all the precautions listed here, try dropping 

down a speed. Go to the next lower speed and see how you do. Using a lower speed than the 

drive is rated for can be frustrating, but it’s preferable to wasting time creating unusable discs. 

Recording Software 

Another difficulty with CD-R/RW devices is that they require special software to write them. Although 

most cartridge drives and other removable media mount as standard devices in the system and can be 

accessed exactly like a hard drive, the CD-R/RW drive uses special CD-ROM burning software to write 

to the disc. This software handles the differences between how data is stored on a CD and how it is 

stored on a hard drive. As you learned earlier, there are several CD-ROM standards for storing information. 

The CD-ROM–burning software arranges the data into one of these formats so a CD-ROM 

reader can read the CD later. 

At one time, CD recording technology required that you have what amounted to a replica of the CD 

on a local hard drive. In fact, some software packages even required a separate, dedicated disk partition 

for this purpose. You would copy all the files to the appropriate place on the hard drive, creating 

the directory structure for the CD, and then the software would create an exact replica of every sector 

for the proposed CD-ROM—including every file, all the directory information, and the volume 

information—and copy it to the CD-R drive. The result was that you had to have about 1.5GB of storage 

to burn a single CD (650MB/CD × 2 = 1.3GB + overhead = 1.5GB). This is no longer a requirement 

because most software supports virtual images. You select the files and directories you want to write to 

the CD from your hard drive and create a virtual directory structure for the CD-ROM in the software. 

This means you can select files from different directories on different hard drives, or even files from 

network or other CD-ROM drives, and combine them any way you want on the CD-R. This works 

well provided the drives have adequate speed and your drive has a large buffer or features buffer 

underrun protection. If you have problems, follow the advice given earlier to overcome slow data 

sources. 

The software assembles the directory information, burns it onto the CD, opens each file on the CD, 

and copies the data directly from the original source. This generally works well, but you must be 

aware of the access times for the media you select as data sources. If, for example, you select directories 

from a slow hard drive or from a busy network, the software might not be capable of reading the 

data quickly enough to maintain a consistent stream to the recorder. This causes the write to fail, 

resulting in a wasted disc.


Don’t Forget the Software! 

If you have persistent problems with making CDs, your recording software might be to blame. Check the vendor’s Web 

site for tips and software updates. Be sure that your software is up-to-date and compatible with your drive and your drive’s 

firmware revision. Some drives offer software-upgradable firmware similar to the motherboard’s flash BIOS; if so, be sure 

your drive has the latest firmware available. 

Each of the major CD-R/CD-RW drive vendors provides extensive technical notes to help you achieve reliable recordings. 

You can also find helpful information on SCSI adapter vendors’ Web sites and the Web sites of the media vendors. 

Creating Music CDs 

Newer CD-R, CD-RW, and CD-ROM drives are enabling people to create customized archives of their 

favorite prerecorded music. Roxio’s Easy CD-Creator, for example, features the SpinDoctor utility to 

build music CDs and even removes pops, hiss, and other problems from old analog cassette tapes and 

vinyl LPs. 

Digital audio extraction allows the digital tracks on commercial CDs to be transformed into WAV files 

by compatible mastering programs. Those WAV files, exactly like the ones created from older music 

sources via your sound card, can then create a CD-R, which can be played back in any popular CD 

stereo system. 

Many users can take advantage of this type of software to burn greatest hits collections and holiday 

CDs from their purchased cassette and music CD collections. 

This exciting technology is not intended to give you a way to create a free music library. Instead, use 

it to give the music recordings you’ve paid for an extra dimension of usefulness, and of course, to 

make legal backups of the discs you have purchased. 

Digital Audio Extraction 

All CD-ROM drives can play Red Book–formatted CD-DA discs, but not all CD-ROM drives can read 

CD-DA discs. The difference sounds subtle, but it is actually quite dramatic. If you enjoy music and 

want to use your PC to manage your music collection, the ability to read the audio data digitally is an 

important function for your CD (and DVD) drives because it enables you to much more easily and 

accurately store, manipulate, and eventually write back out audio tracks. 

CD-ROM drives installed in PCs can play audio discs. The playing function is simple: Using a CD 

player application (such as the one included with Windows 95 and later), you can insert a CD-DA disc 

into a CD-ROM drive and play it just as you could with a standard audio CD player. While playing, 

the analog sound waveform is sent over a thin stereo cable (usually refered to as the CD audio cable) 

connected between your CD-ROM drive and the sound card in your PC. The same analog waveform 

usually is also sent to the headphone jack on the front of the drive (or sound card). Your sound card 

then amplifies the analog signal so you can hear it through the speakers plugged into your sound card 

or via headphones plugged into the front of the drive (or the sound card). 

That is just fine if all you want to do is play discs, but if you ever want to record one of the songs on 

your hard disk, you will run into some problems. To transfer the song to your hard drive, you would 

have to play the song as you did normally and simultaneously use a sound recorder application, such 

as the Sound Recorder supplied with Windows 95 and later (similar recording software is also typically 

supplied with your sound card), to redigitize the audio waveform for storage as a .WAV file on the PC. 

This means the sound goes from digital as originally stored on the disc to analog in the CD-ROM 

drive and back to digital in your sound card, with the resulting digital file being only an approximation 

of the original digital data. Another drawback is that this procedure runs only at 1x speed— 

hardly an ideal situation!


761 

It would be much better if you could read the original digital data directly off the disc. That was not 

possible with older CD-ROM drives, but newer drives can do what is called digital audio extraction 

(DAE). This is a process in which they read the digital audio sectors directly and, rather than decode 

them into analog signals, pass each 2,352-byte sector of raw (error-corrected) digital audio data 

directly to the PC’s processor via the (ATA, SCSI, USB, or FireWire) drive interface cable. Therefore, no 

digital-to-analog conversion (and back) occurs, and you essentially get the audio data exactly as it was 

originally recorded on the CD (within the limits of the CD-DA error-correction standards). You would 

have essentially extracted the exact digital audio data from the disc onto your PC. 

Another term for digital audio extraction is ripping, so named because you can “rip” the raw audio 

data from the drive at full drive read speed, rather than the normal 1x speed at which you listen to 

audio discs. Actually, most drives can’t do DAE at their full rated speeds. Although some are faster (or 

slower) than others, most perform DAE at speeds from about one-quarter to about one-half of their 

rated read speed. So, you might be able to extract audio data at speeds only up to 20x on a 40x rated 

drive. However, that is still quite a bit better than at 1x as it would be on drives that can’t do DAE 

(not to mention skipping the conversion to analog and back to digital with the resultant loss of information). 

Virtually all newer CD/DVD drives can perform digital audio extraction on music discs. How fast or 

accurately they do this can vary from model to model. One might think any extraction (digital copy) 

of a given track (song) should be the same because it is a digital copy of the original; however, that is 

not always the case. The CD-DA format was designed to play music, not to transfer data with 100% 

accuracy. Errors beyond the capability of the CIRC in the CD-DA format cause the firmware in the 

drive to interpolate or approximate the data. In addition, time-based problems due to clock inaccuracies 

can occur in the drive, causing it to get slightly out of step when reading the frames in the sector 

(this is refered to as jitter). Differences in the internal software (firmware) in the drive and differences 

in the drivers used are other problems that can occur. 

Positioning can also be a problem because the CD-DA format was designed to stream (play continuously) 

and not to read individual sectors. CD-ROM sectors are 2,352 bytes long,and these bytes are 

further divided into 2,048 bytes of data plus 304 bytes of syncronization, header, and additional ECC 

information to control positioning and allow for error-free reads. No such syncronization, header, or 

extra ECC information exists for audio sectors; instead, all 2,352 bytes are used for pure audio data. To 

address an audio sector, the Q subcode information is used instead (see the section “Subcodes,” earlier 

in this chapter). Most audio players position to within only 75 sectors (1 second) using the Q subcode 

information. CD-ROM drives that can perform digital audio extraction are usually much more accurate 

than that, but because of how the subcode works (as well as the cross-interleaved way audio data 

is stored), designing a drive that can position every time to the precise audio sector that starts the 

track can be difficult. 

All of this conspires to cause inaccuracies or slight differences in multiple extractions of the same 

track (song). Perfect extractions are possible, but making perfect extractions is difficult to achieve for a 

lot of reasons. For example, even a slight amount of dirt or scratches on the disc has a great effect on 

the quality of your extractions, so be sure the discs are clean. As a test of your drive’s capability to perform 

DAE, try extracting the same track (song) multiple times from a new, clean, scratch-free disc, 

using a different filename for each extraction. Then, bring up a command prompt and use the FC (file 

compare) command to compare the different files to each other. If they compare exactly, you have a 

combination of hardware and software that can do perfect or near-perfect extractions. 

If you intend to do a lot of extracting, you should ask around to see what hardware and software others 

are using for this purpose. As a general rule, SCSI drives work better than ATA, but some ATA drives 

are just as good as the better SCSI drives. Plextor is well known for drives that are excellent when 

it comes to digital audio extraction, and I’ve always had good luck with Toshiba drives, too.


The bottom line is that DAE enables you to extract audio data tracks directly to your PC as .WAV files. 

Once on the PC, you can play the WAV files as is or convert them to other (usually more compressed) 

formats, such as MP3 (MPEG-1/2 Layer III) for use with the MP3 audio players on the market. 

Note 

Because the WAV files extracted match the high 44.1KHz sampling rate used on the CD, you have 176,400 bytes per 

second of sound information, which means 1 minute of music consumes nearly 10.6MB worth of space on your hard 

drive! MP3 compression can reduce that by a factor of 6 or more, with little to no perceptible loss in quality. 

You can also use a CD-R/RW drive that can perform DAE to make copies of audio CDs (for backup 

purposes only) or to compile several songs into your own greatest hits collections that you can use to 

burn your own custom audio CDs. 

Serial Copy Management System 

Because of the possiblity of the illegal duplication of commercial audio CDs, the recording industry is 

not in favor of DAE, and some drive manufacturers don’t like to tout how well (or not so well) their 

drives perform this function. 

The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and others involved in the creation and distribution 

of prerecorded music were concerned about digital recording because no loss occurs in digital 

copies—a digital copy is just as good as the original. This also means that copies of copies are just as 

good, too. They feared that unless digital copying were somehow limited, it would easily allow the 

pirating of master-quality recordings. 

The first digital recording technology accessible to consumers (before CD-R and CD-RW) was digital 

audio tape (DAT), which debuted to consumers in 1987. Because the DAT drive manufacturers could 

not reach an agreement with the RIAA on how to control copying, most record labels did not release 

any prerecorded software on DAT tapes. What followed instead was several years of controversy over 

digital copying, which finally culminated in an agreement in July 1989 mandating the inclusion of 

Serial Copy Management System (SCMS) in digital recorders. 

SCMS originally was developed by Philips and is designed to allow digital copies only from original 

source material. SCMS recognizes a “copyright” bit encoded on a prerecorded digital original (such as 

a CD, where it is contained in the Q subcode channel) indicating that this is an original and writes a 

modified bit indicating that this is now a copy into the subcode of digital copies (such as when copying 

to a CD-R/RW (or DAT tape). The presence of the copy flag prevents any SCMS-compliant recorder 

from digitally copying the copy. SCMS lets you digitally copy originals as many times as you want, 

but you can’t digitally copy any of the copies. 

For many reasons, including the delay in agreeing on SCMS, a lack of prerecorded material in DAT 

form, and no support from the auto manufacturers (who continued to install either cassette tape or 

CD players in automobiles), DAT for audio use has remained a niche format used by a selective few. 

On the other hand, for computer use as a tape backup device, DAT has been used for many years and 

is still one of the more popular tape formats. 

In the early 1990s, several other digital recording formats became available, most of which included 

SCMS. Philips introduced a tape format called DCC (digital compact cassette), whereas Sony introduced 

its MiniDisc format, which uses magneto-optical recording and playback from a small 64mm 

disc. DCC has all but dissapeared, and MiniDisc has achieved a modicum of popularity. Consumerlevel 

MiniDisc players accept only analog signals (which they digitize and record digitally), so straight 

digital copies of information is possible only with professional (read expensive) units. The early 1990s 

also saw the introduction of CD-R and RW, which include SCMS only when sold in consumer (and

Recordable DVD Standards Chapter 13 

763 

not computer) versions. The drive manufacturers didn’t have to include SCMS in the drives for computers 

according to the Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA), even though the record companies didn’t 

agree with this. 

Audio Home Recording Act 

What started as an agreement between the recording industry and drive manufacturers in 1989 was 

translated into law in the U.S. with the passage of the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992. The AHRA 

was passed by Congress to protect artists and recording companies from losing royalties from unauthorized 

copying of compact discs, but it was also passed to guarantee the consumers’ right to engage 

in home audio recording, eliminating the fear of copyright suits when making copies for private, noncommercial, 

personal use. 

The AHRA calls for the mandatory inclusion of serial copying technology in devices and media but 

applies only to devices or media designed or marketed for the “primary purpose” of making digital 

audio recordings. Therefore, standalone home audio CD writers (and the media they use) must 

include SCMS, but general-purpose computer devices such as CD-R/RW drives and media don’t. 

Additionally, the AHRA has also been found to exclude MP3 players as well, much to the dismay of 

the RIAA. Sensing that the AHRA did not provide as much legal protection as the recording industry 

desired, a new group called the Secure Digital Music Initiative (SDMI) has been formed to develop voluntary, 

open standards for digital music. 

“For Music Use Only” CD-R/RW Discs 

According to the Audio Home Recording Act, consumer CD recordable drives and media sold specifically 

for recording music are required to have specific safeguards against copying discs, mainly SCMS. 

That means these recorders can make digital copies only from original prerecorded discs. You can 

copy a copy, but in that case, the data being recorded goes from digital to analog and back to digital 

on the second copy, resulting in a generational loss of quality. 

The media for these recorders must be special as well. They work only with special discs labeled “For 

Music Use” or “For Consumer” discs. These carry the standard Compact Disk Digital Audio Recordable 

logo that most are familiar with, but below that, as part of the logo, is an added line that says “For 

Consumer.” These discs feature a special track prerecorded onto the disc, which the consumer music 

recorders look for. Built into the price of the AHRA-compliant media is a royalty for the music industry 

that this track protects. The media costs about six times what regular CD-R/RW media costs. If you 

try to use standard non–AHRA-compliant CD-R/RW discs in these drives, the drive refuses to recognize 

the disc. These music devices also refuse to copy CD-ROM or data discs. 

Note that this does not apply to the CD-R/RW drive you have installed or attached to your PC. It does 

not have to be AHRA compliant, nor does it need to use AHRA-compliant “For Music Use” media, 

even if you are copying or recording music discs. Additionally, you can make digital copies of copies— 

the SCMS does not apply, either. The bottom line is that you do not have to purchase AHRA-compliant 

discs for the CD-R/RW drives in your PC. If you do purchase such discs, despite the “For Music 

Use Only” designation, AHRA-compliant discs can be used in your CD-R/RW drives just as regular 

CD-R/RW discs and can be used for storing data. The extra information indicating AHRA compliance 

is simply ignored. 

Recordable DVD Standards 

The history of recordable DVD drives dates back to April 1997, when the companies comprising the 

DVD Forum announced the finalization of specifications for rewritable DVD, DVD-RAM, and a writeonce 

DVD, DVD-R.


In a war that brings back unhappy memories of the VHS/Beta struggle of the 1980s, even with the 

DVD Forum attempting to create unified standards, the computer and movie industries are locked in 

a struggle to see which enhancements to the basic DVD standard will win out. Table 13.26 compares 

the competing recordable DVD standards, and Table 13.27 breaks down the compatibilities between 

the drives and media. 

Table 13.26 Recordable DVD Standards 

Format Type Capacity Compatibility 

DVD-R Recordable Up to 4.7GB/side Most existing DVD drives can read 

DVD-RAM Rewritable Up to 4.7GB/side Incompatible with existing DVD drives unless they 

support the MultiRead2 standard 

DVD-RW Rewritable 4.7GB/side Most existing DVD drives can read 

DVD+RW Rewritable 4.7GB/side The most compatible for video and data recording 

Table 13.27 DVD Drive and Media Compatibility 

Drives CD- CD- DVD- 

Media (Discs) 

DVD- DVD- DVD- 

ROM CD-R RW Video ROM DVD-R RAM RW DVD+RW 

DVD-Video 

Player 

R ? ? R — R ? R R 

DVD-ROM 

Drive 

R R R R R R ? R R 

DVD-R 

Drive 

R R/W R/W R R R/W — R 

DVD-RAM 

Drive 

R R R R R R R/W R R 

DVD-RW 

Drive 

R R/W R/W R R R/W — R/W R 

DVD+RW 

Drive 

R R/W R/W R R R R R R/W 

R = Read — = Will not read or write 

W = Write ? = MultiRead/MultiPlay drives will read 

DVD-R and DVD-RAM have been available the longest, but DVD-R is not rewritable, and DVD-RAM is 

not fully compatible with existing DVD-ROM drives. DVD+RW looks to be the standard that will win 

out in the industry among all of these because it is among the least expensive, easiest to use, and the 

most compatible with existing formats. 

DVD-RAM 

DVD-RAM is the rewritable DVD standard endorsed by Panasonic, Hitachi, and Toshiba. DVD-RAM 

uses a phase-change technology similar to that of CD-RW. Unfortunately, DVD-RAM discs can’t be 

read by most standard DVD-ROM drives because of differences in both reflectivity of the media and 

the data format. (DVD-R, by comparison, is backward compatible with DVD-ROM.) DVD-ROM drives 

that can read DVD-RAM discs began to come on the market in early 1999 and follow the MultiRead2

Recordable DVD Standards Chapter 13 765 

specification. DVD-ROM drives and DVD-Video players labeled as MultiRead2 compliant are capable 

of reading DVD-RAM discs. See the section “MultiRead Specifications,” earlier in this chapter, for 

more information. 

The first DVD-RAM drives were introduced in Spring 1998 and had a capacity of 2.6GB (single-sided) 

or 5.2GB (double-sided). DVD-RAM Version 2 discs with 4.7GB arrived in late 1999, and double-sided 

9.4GB discs arrived in 2000. DVD-RAM drives typically read DVD-Video, DVD-ROM, and CD media. 

The current installed base of DVD-ROM drives and DVD-Video players can’t read DVD-RAM media. 

DVD-RAM uses what is called the wobbled land and groove recording method, which records signals 

on both the lands (the areas between grooves) and inside the grooves that are preformed on the disc. 

The tracks wobble, which provides clock data for the drive. Special sector header pits are prepressed 

into the disc during the manufacturing process as well. See Figure 13.14, which shows the wobbled 

tracks (lands and grooves) with data recorded both on the lands and in the grooves. This is unlike 

CD-R or CD-RW, in which data is recorded on the groove only. 

Groove spacing 

1.48 microns (0.74x2) 

User 

data field 

Address 

information 

(Header) 

Land 

Recording 

mark 

Groove 

Figure 13.14 DVD-RAM wobbled land and groove recording. 

Track 

wobbling 

The disc is recorded using phase-change recording, in which data is written by selectively heating 

spots in the grooves or on the lands with a high-powered laser. The DVD-RAM drive write laser transforms 

the film from a crystalline to an amorphous state by heating a spot, which is then rendered less 

reflective than the remaining crystalline portions. The signal is read as the difference of the laser 

reflection rate between the crystalline and amorphous states. The modulation and error correction 

codes are the same as for DVD-Video and DVD-ROM, ensuring compatibility with other DVD formats. 

For rewriting, a lower-powered laser reheats the spot to a lower temperature, where it recrystallizes. 

Disc cartridges or caddies originally were required for both single- and double-sided discs but have 

now been made optional for single-sided discs. Double-sided discs must remain inside the caddy at all 

times for protection; however, single-sided discs can be taken out of the cartridge if necessary. 

Pit


DVD-RAM specifications are shown in Table 13.28. 

Table 13.28 DVD-RAM Specifications 

Storage capacity 2.6GB single-sided; 5.2GB double sided 

Disc diameter 80mm–120mm 

Disc thickness 1.2mm (0.6mm×2: bonded structure) 

Recording method Phase change 

Laser wavelength 650nm 

Data bit length 0.41–0.43 microns 

Recording track pitch 0.74 microns 

Track format Wobbled land and groove 

DVD-R 

DVD-R is a write-once medium very similar to CD-R. As such, it is ideal for recording archival data or 

distribution discs. DVD-R discs can be played on standard DVD-ROM drives. 

DVD-R has a single-sided storage capacity of 3.95GB—about six times that of a CD-R—and double 

that for a double-sided disc. These discs use an organic dye recording layer that allows for a low material 

cost, similar to CD-R. 

To enable positioning accuracy, DVD-R uses a wobbled groove recording, in which special grooved 

tracks are pre-engraved on the disc during the manufacturing process. Data is recorded within the 

grooves only. The grooved tracks wobble slightly right and left, and the frequency of the wobble contains 

clock data for the drive to read, as well as clock data for the drive. The grooves are spaced more 

closely together than with DVD-RAM, but data is recorded only in the grooves and not on the lands 

(see Figure 13.15). 

Figure 13.15 DVD-R wobbled groove recording. 

Table 13.29 has the basic specifications for DVD-R drives. 

Wobble encoded 

clock markings 

Recording 

mark 

Groove track 

spacing 0.8 

microns 

Wobble 

address 

marks

Table 13.29 DVD-R Specifications 

Storage capacity 3.95GB single-sided; 7.9GB double-sided 

Disc diameter 80mm–120mm 

Disc thickness 1.2mm (0.6mm×2: bonded structure) 

Recording method Organic dye layer recording method 

Laser wavelength 635nm (recording); 635/650nm (playback) 

Data bit length 0.293 microns 

Recording track pitch 0.80 microns 

Track format Wobbled groove 

Recordable DVD Standards Chapter 13 

767 

DVD-RW 

The DVD Forum introduced DVD-RW in March 1998. Created mainly by Pioneer, DVD-RW also uses a 

phase-change technology and is somewhat more compatible with standard DVD-ROM drives than 

DVD-RAM. Drives based on this technology began shipping in late 1999. Although newer DVD-type 

drives have become more compatible with the CD-R/CD-RW standards, a major problem still exists in 

harmonizing the many types of writable DVD formats. As with the old Beta-versus-VHS battle, even 

the introduction of a superior specification complicates the process of accepting a single specification 

as an industry standard. 

DVD+RW 

DVD+RW, also called DVD Phase Change Rewritable, is destined to be the premier DVD recordable 

standard because it is the least expensive, easiest to use, and most compatible with existing formats. 

It was developed and is supported by Philips, Sony, Hewlett-Packard, Mitsubishi Chemical, Ricoh, 

Yamaha, Verbatim, and Thompson, who are all part of an industry standard group called the 

DVD+RW Alliance (http://www.dvdrw.com). In addition, companies such as Ahead Software (Nero 

Burning ROM software) and Roxio (CD Creator and DirectCD software) have announced they are 

developing support software for DVD+RW. In fact, more than 19 independent software vendors and 

equipment manufacturers pledged their support for DVD+RW and announced software availability, 

making DVD+RW the most well supported of all the DVD rewritable formats. 

DVD+RW is the only rewritable format that provides full compatibility with existing DVD-Video players 

and DVD-ROM drives for both real-time video recording and random data recording across PC and 

entertainment applications. DVD+RW is designed to not only be useful for PC data storage, but to 

also directly record video in the DVD-Video format. This is the breakthrough the recordable DVD 

industry has been waiting for, and as such, DVD+RW is destined to replace the VCR in consumer-level 

home recorders. 

Some of the features of DVD+RW includes are as follows: 

■ Single-sided discs (4.7GB). 

■ Double-sided discs (9.4GB). 

■ Up to 4 hours video recording (single-sided discs). 

■ Up to 8 hours video recording (double-sided discs). 

■ Bare discs—no caddy required. 

■ 650nm laser (same as DVD-Video). 

■ Constant linear data density.


■ CLV and CAV recording. 

■ Write speeds 1x–2.4x and higher. 

■ DVD-Video data rates. 

■ UDF (Universal Disc Format) file system. 

■ Defect management integral to the drive. 

■ Quick formatting. 

■ Uses same 8 to 16 Modulation and error correcting codes as DVD-ROM. 

■ Sequential and random recording. 

■ Lossless linking (multiple recording sessions don’t waste space). 

■ Spiral groove with radial wobble. 

■ After recording, all physical parameters comply with the DVD-ROM specification. 

As consumer and PC applications for DVD continue to develop, DVD+RW provides the only recordable 

DVD format that seamlessly integrates into both the consumer DVD-Video market as well as PC 

DVD-ROM market, offering the best of both worlds. DVD+RW technology is very similar to CD-RW, 

and DVD+RW drives can read DVD-ROMs and all CD formats, including CD-R and CD-RW. 

With DVD+RW, the writing process can be suspended and continued without a loss of space linking 

the recording sessions together. This increases efficiency in random writing and video applications. 

This “lossless linking” also enables the selective replacing of any individual 32KB block of data (the 

minimum recording unit) with a new block, accurately positioning with a space of 1 micron. To 

enable this high accuracy for placement of data on the track, the pre-groove is wobbled at a higher 

frequency. The timing and addressing information read from the groove is very accurate. 

The quick formatting feature means you can pop a DVD+RW blank into the drive and almost 

instantly begin writing to it. The actual formatting is carried out in the background ahead of where 

any writing will occur. 

Out of the three DVD rewritable formats that have been released, it seems that DVD+RW is poised to 

become the format that brings recordable DVD to the masses in both standalone home consumer 

units as well as integrated into newer PCs. 

CD/DVD Software and Drivers 

After you’ve physically installed the drive, you’re ready for the last step—installing the drivers and 

other CD-ROM/DVD-ROM software. As usual, this process can be simple with a PnP operating system 

such as Windows 9x or later. The optical drive needs the following three software components for it 

to operate on a PC: 

■ A SCSI adapter driver (not needed for ATAPI CD-ROM drives). Most popular SCSI adapter drivers are 

built in to Windows 9x. 

■ A SCSI driver for the specific CD-ROM drive you’ve installed. An ASPI driver is built into Windows 

9x, as is an ATAPI CD-ROM driver. 

■ MSCDEX. Microsoft CD Extensions for DOS, which is built into Windows 9x as the CDFS VxD. 

If you are using DOS, you can have the first two drivers—the SCSI adapter driver and CD-ROM 

driver—load into your system at startup by placing command lines in your CONFIG.SYS file. The 

MSCDEX, or DOS extension, is an executable file added into your system through your AUTOEXEC.BAT 

file. This is not required in Windows 9x or later; the operating system autodetects the drive on startup

CD/DVD Software and Drivers Chapter 13 

769 

and prompts you to install the correct drivers if it can’t find them in its standard arsenal of device 

drivers. 

Using Windows 9x along with a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive that conforms to the ATAPI specification 

does not require you to do anything. All the driver support for these drives is built into Windows 

9x, including the ATAPI driver and the CDFS VxD driver. 

If you are running a SCSI CD-ROM drive under Windows 9x, you still need the ASPI driver that goes 

with your drive. The ASPI driver for your drive usually comes from the drive manufacturer and is 

included with the drive in most cases. However, by arrangement with hardware manufacturers, 

Windows 9x usually includes the ASPI driver for most SCSI host adapters and also automatically runs 

the CDFS VxD virtual device driver. In some rare cases, you might have to install an updated driver 

that you have obtained from the manufacturer. 

When you install a PnP SCSI host adapter in a Windows 9x system, simply booting the computer 

should cause the operating system to detect, identify, and install drivers for the new device. When the 

driver for the host adapter is active, the system should detect the SCSI devices connected to the 

adapter and again load the appropriate drivers automatically. 

The only problem you might encounter is if you are installing a new device, such as a DVD-ROM 

drive, on an older version of Windows. Windows 98 includes drivers for most of the DVD-ROM drives 

on the market, but Windows 95 was released before these devices existed. In this case, you will probably 

have to supply a device driver on floppy disk, in response to a request from the OS, during the 

installation process. 

DOS SCSI Adapter Driver 

For DOS users, of course, the installation process is not so easy. Each SCSI adapter model has a specific 

driver that enables communication between the PC and the SCSI interface. Normally, these drivers 

conform to the the SCSI interface. Normally, these drivers conform to the ASPI. The ASPI driver for 

the drive connects with the ASPI driver for the SCSI host adapter; this is how the adapter and the 

drive communicate. An ASPI driver should be provided both with your SCSI drive and with the host 

adapter. Documentation should also have been included that walks you through the installation of 

the software. 

Most SCSI adapters come with an installation program that automates the process of installing the 

appropriate ASPI drivers, both for the adapter and for the devices connected to the SCSI bus. However, 

you can manually add the SCSI device driver to your CONFIG.SYS file. In the CONFIG.SYS file, add the 

name and path of the appropriate driver with the DEVICE= command (replace C:\DRIVERS with the 

actual location of your files and MYSCSI.SYS with the actual name of your SCSI driver): 

DEVICE=C:\DRIVERS\MYSCSI.SYS 

C:\DRIVERS is the subdirectory into which you copied the SCSI ASPI device drivers. Some drivers have 

option switches or added commands that, for example, enable you to view the progress of the driver 

being loaded. 

DOS ATAPI CD-ROM Device Driver 

This driver should be a part of your basic installation kit as well. If not, contact the drive’s manufacturer 

for the proper device driver for your SCSI card. 

The device driver should come with an installation program that prompts you for the memory I/O 

address for the SCSI adapter to which you’ve connected the CD-ROM drive. This device driver enables 

the adapter to communicate with the drive through the SCSI bus. Installation programs add a line 

similar to the following to your CONFIG.SYS file (replace MYCDROM.SYS with the actual name of 

your CD-ROM driver file and C:\DRIVERS with the actual location of your files):


DEVICE=C:\DRIVERS\MYCDROM.SYS /D:mscd001 

C:\DRIVERS is the subdirectory that contains the driver MYCDROM.SYS, the driver for your specific 

CD-ROM drive. 

Note the /D:mscd001 option after the preceding statement. This designation, called the device signature, 

identifies this CD-ROM driver as controlling the first (001), and only, CD-ROM drive on the system. 

This portion of the device driver statement is for the Microsoft DOS Extensions driver, which 

designates CD-ROM drives in this fashion. In fact, you could use any designation here, as long as the 

MSCDEX command line uses the same one. 

MSCDEX: Adding CDs to DOS/Win3.x 

The Microsoft CD Extensions for DOS enable the DOS operating system (and by extension, Windows 

3.x) to identify and use data from CD-ROMs attached to the system. The original DOS operating system 

had no provisions for this technology, so “hooks” or handling of this unique media are not part 

of the basic operating environment. Using these extensions is convenient for all involved, however. 

As CD-ROM technology changes, the MSCDEX can be changed, independently of DOS. For example, 

most PhotoCD, multiple-session CD-ROM drives require MSCDEX.EXE version 2.21 or higher, which 

has been modified from earlier versions to accommodate the newer CD-ROM format. 

MSCDEX.EXE should be in your software kit with your drive. If not, you can obtain the latest copy 

directly from Microsoft. If you are a registered user of DOS or Windows 3.1, MSCDEX.EXE is free. 

Read the licensing agreement that appears on the disc or in your manual concerning the proper 

licensing of the MSCDEX files. 

Your installation software should add a line similar to the following to your AUTOEXEC.BAT file: 

C:\WINDOWS\COMMAND\MSCDEX.EXE /d:mscd001 

C:\WINDOWS\COMMAND is the directory in which the MSCDEX.EXE file is located by default with Windows 

9x and later; with MS-DOS and Windows 3.1, it could be located in the \DOS directory or in the directory 

containing the CD-ROM drivers. The /d:mscd001 portion of the command line supplies the 

MSCDEX extension with the device signature defined in the CD-ROM device driver of your 

CONFIG.SYS file. 

Note 

The MSCDEX and CD-ROM device signatures must match. The defaults that most installations provide are used in this 

example. As long as the two names are the same, the drivers can find one another. 

As long as you have these three drivers—the SCSI adapter driver, the CD-ROM driver, and the DOS 

CD extensions—loaded properly in your system, the CD-ROM drive will operate as transparently as 

any other drive in your system. 

Table 13.30 lists the options you can add to the MSCDEX.EXE command line. 

Table 13.30 MSCDEX Command-Line Options 

Switch Function 

/V Called Verbose; when this option is added to the command line, it displays information 

about memory allocation, buffers, drive letter assignments, and device driver names on your 

screen at boot time.


Switch Function 

CD/DVD Software and Drivers Chapter 13 771 

/L: Designates which DOS drive letter you want to assign to the drive. For example, /L:G 

assigns the drive letter G: to your CD-ROM drive. Two conditions apply: First, you must not 

have another drive assigned to that letter; second, your lastdrive= statement in your 

CONFIG.SYS file must be equal to or greater than the drive letter you’re assigning. 

LASTDRIVE=G would be fine; LASTDRIVE=F would cause an error if you attempt to assign 

the CD-ROM drive to the G: drive with the /L: switch. 

/M: Enables you to buffer the data from the CD-ROM drive. This is useful if you want faster initial 

access to the drive’s directory. Buffers of 10 to 15 are more than enough for most uses. 

Any more is overkill. Each buffer, however, is equal to 2KB of memory. So a /M:10 buffer 

argument, for example, would take 20KB of memory. Note that this does not significantly 

increase the overall performance of the drive, just DOS’s initial access to the drive and the 

access of large data blocks when the drive is reading live-motion video files, for example. 

You can’t turn a 400ms drive into a speed demon by adding a 200KB buffer. With no /M: 

argument added, MSCDEX adds six buffers as a default. That may be fine for most PCs and 

CD-ROM drives. 

/E Loads the aforementioned buffers into DOS high memory, freeing up space in the 

conventional 640KB. Early versions of MSCDEX—anything below version 2.1—do not load 

into extended memory. You must have DOS 5.0 for this option to load. 

/K Provides Kanji (Japanese) language support. 

/S Enables you to share your CD-ROM drive on a peer-to-peer network, such as Windows for 

Workgroups. 

Note that Windows 9x uses a built-in CDFS driver that takes the place of MSCDEX. It is configured 

through the Windows 9x Registry and requires no AUTOEXEC.BAT command. USB-based CD-ROM/ 

CD-R/CD-RW drives are also configured through the Windows 9x Registry and use no CONFIG.SYS or 

AUTOEXEC.BAT commands. 

CD-ROM Support in Windows 9x and Windows NT 4.0 

As stated earlier, Windows 9x/Me and Windows NT/2000 include virtually all the drivers you will 

need to run your optical drive, making the software installation automatic. Windows automatically 

recognizes most ATAPIIDE earlier, Windows 9x/Me and Windows NT/2000 include virtually all the 

drivers you will need to run your optical drive, making the software installation automatic. Windows 

automatically recognizes most ATAPI drives, and with the addition of the appropriate drive-specific 

ASPI driver, most SCSI drives as well. 

There are several new capabilities with CDs and DVDs in Windows 9x/NT. The most dramatic is the 

Autoplay feature, which is available on Windows 95/98 and some versions of Windows NT 4.0. 

Autoplay is a feature integrated into Windows 9x that enables you to simply insert a disc into the 

drive, and Windows will automatically run it without any user intervention. It also detects whether 

that particular disc has already been installed on your system, and if not, automatically starts the 

install program. If the disc has already been installed, it starts the application program on the disc. 

The Autoplay feature is simple. When you insert a disc, Windows 9x automatically spins it and looks 

for a file called AUTORUN.INF. If this file exists, Windows 9x opens it and follows the instructions contained 

within. As you can see, this Autoplay feature works only on discs that have this file. Most software 

companies are now shipping CD-ROM and DVD-ROM titles that incorporate the Autoplay 

feature.


Tip 

You can disable the Autoplay feature for all CD-ROMs by opening the Windows 9x System control panel to the Device 

Manager page, highlighting your CD-ROM drive, and clicking the Properties button. The Properties dialog box for the 

drive has a Settings page that contains an Auto Insert Notification check box. Clearing this box prevents the operating 

system from processing the AUTORUN.INF file. 

If you want to use Autoplay for some CDs, but not others, hold down the Shift key when inserting a CD you don’t want to 

Autoplay. 

Windows 9x/NT includes a new version of the Media Player found in Windows 3.x called the CD 

Player. This application enables you to play audio CDs in your drive while you work at the computer. 

The CD Player features graphical controls that look like a standard audio CD-ROM drive and even has 

advanced features found in audio drives, such as random play, programmable playback order, and the 

capability to save play list programs. 

MS-DOS Drivers and Windows 9x 

Many users have discovered that their CD-ROM drives didn’t come with MS-DOS drivers at a very 

unfortunate time: when their Windows 9x system wouldn’t start up. All too often, the “cure” for a 

“dead” Windows 9x system is a complete reinstallation from the Windows 9x CD, to replace defective 

files and settings with new copies. Of course, if Windows isn’t working, its 32-bit CD-ROM device drivers 

aren’t working either. And, if you don’t have your CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files and the 

files listed earlier either, you can’t reload Windows! You should have a bootable disk ready that has 

the appropriate drivers included to enable you to rebuild your Windows 9x installation in case of 

emergencies. 

If you have Windows 98 or later, the Emergency Startup disk you create during installation or later 

already has the appropriate drivers, AUTOEXEC.BAT, and CONFIG.SYS included to run most popular SCSI 

and ATAPI-based CD-ROMs. However, a Windows 95 bootable disk doesn’t include the AUTOEXEC.BAT, 

CONFIG.SYS, or drivers; you must add these yourself (see the next section). 

Note 

If you can’t find any references to the MS-DOS drivers needed for your CD-ROM drive on your Windows 9x computer, 

check for an installation disk that might have been shipped with the drive. To install the CD-ROM device driver files you 

need, use that disk to perform an MS-DOS/Windows 3.1 installation, which adds the appropriate lines to your 

CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files and copies the drivers to your system. 

Creating a Bootable Floppy with CD-ROM 

Support 

If your system BIOS is a version from 1998 or later, most likely it has “El Torito” support, which 

means it supports booting from a bootable CD. The El Torito name comes from the Phoenix 

Software/IBM standard that apparently was discussed at an El Torito restaraunt near the Phoenix 

Software offices. What El Torito means is that you can boot from CDs, which opens up several new 

possibilities, including creating bootable CD rescue discs, booting from newer OS discs when 

installing to new systems, creating bootable diagnostics and test CDs, and more. 

To create a bootable CD, you need a bootable floppy that contains the drivers to support your CD 

drive in DOS mode (sometimes called real-mode drivers).

Tip 

Making a Bootable CD for Emergencies Chapter 13 

773 

Optionally, you can use a Windows 98/Me startup floppy because these have the DOS-level CD-ROM support already 

configured and installed. You can even use a Windows 98/Me startup disk to boot a Windows 95 system, so getting a 

disk from a 98/Me system is definitely the easiest way to proceed. If that is not an option, you can add the CD-ROM 

support to the Windows 95 or any DOS startup disk. 

Test your boot floppy (with CD-ROM drivers) by first booting to the floppy. Then, with a CD containing 

files in the CD-ROM drive, see whether you can change to the CD-ROM drive and read a directory 

of the files (try the DIR command). The CD usually is the next drive letter after your last hard drive 

letter. For example, if your last hard drive letter is C:, the CD-ROM will be D:. 

If you can display a directory listing of the CD after booting from the floppy, your CD-ROM drivers 

are properly loaded. 

Creating a Rescue CD 

A number of programs on the market today allow you to make a compressed image file of the contents 

of any drive. These programs, such as the Ghost program sold by Symantec or PowerQuest’s 

Drive Image, enable you to lock in the condition of any drive as of a particular time. 

This enables you to create an image file of your system when it’s working and use the image-restore 

feature to reset your system when it fails. 

The perfect place to store a compressed image file is on a CD-R. At a minimum, your rescue disc 

should contain the compressed image file (a 737MB, 80-minute CD-R/RW could contain the equivalent 

of a nearly 1.5GB drive’s normal contents if maximum compression option is used). It’s also 

desirable to place a copy of the image-restore program on the CD. Mastering this type of rescue CD is 

done exactly the same as a conventional CD mastering process. To use the rescue CD, you must boot 

your system with drivers that allow the CD-ROM drive to work, run the restore program to read the 

data from the CD, and overwrite the drive’s existing contents. 

If you’re looking for a single-CD solution to rescuing your system, one that won’t require you to lug 

around a bootable floppy disk, you can burn a rescue CD that is bootable all by itself. 

Making a Bootable CD for Emergencies 

A little-known capability to PC users is that they can create their own versions of what is standard 

with more and more new computers: a bootable CD that can be used to start up a system and restore 

it to a previously saved state. 

Files Needed for a Bootable CD 

The minimum requirements for a bootable CD include 

■ A system in which the CD/DVD can be designated as a boot drive 

Note 

Check your BIOS under Advanced Setup or similar options. Recent and current BIOS code supplied by AMI, Award 

Software, and Phoenix Technologies typically support the CD as a bootable device. 

■ A CD-R or CD-RW drive and either CD-R or CD-RW media 

■ Recording software that allows creation of a bootable CD


Note 

Most modern CD recording software, such as NERO Burning ROM or Roxio CD Creator, support creating bootable CDs. 

If your current CD-recording software lacks this option, you must upgrade to something that does. 

■ A floppy disk containing your operating system boot files 

ATAPI Drives Are Bootable 

Most ATAPI drives connected to a motherboard ATA interface can be used as a bootable device if the BIOS permits it. If 

your CD-ROM is connected to a sound card, this procedure won’t work. If your CD-ROM is connected to a SCSI interface, 

you’ll need a SCSI interface with a BIOS chip that permits booting as well as a bootable CD. 

Check your BIOS Setup for a page on which boot devices are listed to see whether yours supports a CD-ROM drive as a 

bootable device. 

The basic procedure for creating a bootable CD is as follows: 

1. Create a bootable floppy for the operating system you want to install on the CD. 

2. Get a blank CD-R, and place it into your CD-R/CD-RW drive. 

3. Start your mastering software. 

4. Under disc layout, ensure that ISO 9660 is selected. This CD format doesn’t permit long filenames, 

so be sure that any additional files you add to the CD have no more than eight characters 

plus up to three characters for the filename extension. 

5. Make sure the bootable option is enabled in the disc layout. 

6. When prompted, insert the floppy disk containing boot files into A: drive. 

7. These files are copied to your CD layout. Note that the names of these files are not the same as 

the normal operating system boot files. The files are called BOOTCAT.BIN and BOOTIMG.BIN. 

8. Add any additional files (image files, operating system install files, and so on) you want to the 

layout. 

9. Start the CD creation process. 

10. When the process is completed, view the contents of the finished CD-R. 

11. Close your mastering program, saving the layout if you desire. 

12. Insert the bootable CD you just created into your CD-ROM drive. 

13. Restart the computer and see whether your system boots from the CD. 

If you follow these directions, you will discover that the CD-ROM disc appears as both drive A: and 

another letter. A: is the floppy image you copied during the creation process, whereas all the other 

files show up on the main CD drive letter. 

Caring for Optical Media 

Some peoplepeople believe that optical discs and drives are indestructible when compared to their 

magnetic counterparts. Actually, modern optical drives are far less reliable than modern hard disk 

drives. Reliability is the bane of any removable media, and CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs are no 

exception. 

By far the most common causes of problems with optical discs and drives are scratches, dirt, and 

other contamination. Small scratches or fingerprints on the bottom of the disc should not affect

Caring for Optical Media Chapter 13 

775 

performance because the laser focuses on a point inside the actual disc, but dirt or deep scratches can 

interfere with reading a disc. 

To remedy this type of problem, you can clean the bottom surface of the CD with a soft cloth, but be 

careful not to scratch the surface in the process. The best technique is to wipe the disc in a radial 

fashion, using strokes that start from the center of the disc and emanate toward the outer edge. This 

way, any scratches will be perpendicular to the tracks rather than parallel to them, minimizing the 

interference they might cause. You can use any type of solution on the cloth to clean the disc, so long 

as it will not damage plastic. Most window cleaners are excellent at removing fingerprints and other 

dirt from the disc and don’t damage the plastic surface. 

If your disc has deep scratches, they can often be buffed or polished out. A commercial plastic cleaner 

such as that sold in auto parts stores for cleaning plastic instrument cluster and tail-lamp lenses is 

very good for removing these types of scratches. This type of plastic polish or cleaner has a very mild 

abrasive that polishes scratches out of a plastic surface. Products labeled as cleaners usually are 

designed for more serious scratches, whereas those labeled as polishes are usually milder and work 

well as a final buff after using the cleaner. Polishes can be used alone if the surface is not scratched 

very deeply. 

Most people are careful about the bottom of the disc because that is where the laser reads, but the top 

is actually more fragile! This is because the lacquer coating on top of the disc is very thin, normally 

only 6–7 microns (0.24–0.28 thousandths of an inch). If you write on a disc with a ball point pen, for 

example, you will press through the lacquer layer and damage the reflective layer underneath, ruining 

the disc. Also, certain types of markers have solvents that can eat through the lacquer and damage the 

disc as well. You should write on discs only with felt tip pens that have compatible inks, such as the 

Sharpie or Staedtler Lumocolor brand, or other markers specifically sold for writing on CDs. In any 

case, remember that scratches or dents on the top of the disc are more fatal than those on the bottom. 

Read errors can also occur when dust accumulates on the read lens of your CD-ROM drive. You can 

try to clean out the drive and lens with a blast of “canned air” or by using a drive cleaner (which can 

be purchased at most music stores that sell audio CDs). 

If your discs and your drive are clean, but you still can’t read a particular disc, your trouble might be 

due to disc capacity. Many older CD-ROM drives are unreliable when they try to read the outermost 

tracks of newer discs where the last bits of data are stored. You’re more likely to run into this problem 

with a CD that has lots of data—including some multimedia titles. If you have this problem, you 

might be able to solve it with a firmware or driver upgrade for your CD-ROM drive, but the only solution 

might be to replace the drive. 

Sometimes too little data on the disc can be problematic as well. Some older CD-ROM drives use an 

arbitrary point on the disc’s surface to calibrate their read mechanism, and if there happens to be no 

data at that point on the disc, the drive will have problems calibrating successfully. Fortunately, this 

problem usually can be corrected by a firmware or driver upgrade for your drive. 

Many older drives have had problems working under Windows 9x. If you are having problems, contact 

your drive manufacturer to see whether a firmware or software-driver upgrade is available that 

might take care of your problem. With new high-speed drives available for well under $100, it might 

not make sense to spend any time messing with an older drive that is having problems. It might be 

more cost-effective to upgrade to a new drive instead. 

If you are having problems with only one particular disc and not the drive in general, you might find 

that your difficulties are in fact caused by a defective disc. See whether you can exchange the disc for 

another to determine whether that is indeed the cause.


Troubleshooting Optical Drives 

Failure Reading a CD 

If your CD fails to read a CD, try the following solutions: 

■ Check for scratches on the CD data surface. 

■ Check the drive for dust and dirt; use a cleaning CD. 

■ Make sure the drive shows up as a working device in System Properties. 

■ Try a CD that you know to work. 

■ Restart the computer (the magic cure-all). 

■ Remove the drive from Device Manager in Windows 9x, allow the system to redetect the drive, 

and then reinstall the drivers (if PnP-based system). 

Failure to Read CD-R, CD-RW Discs in CD-ROM or DVD Drive 

If your CD-ROM or DVD drive fails to read CD-R and CD-RW discs, try the following solutions: 

■ Check compatibility; some very old 1x CD-ROM drives can’t read CD-R media. Replace the 

drive with a newer, faster, cheaper model. 

■ Many early-model DVD drives can’t read CD-R, CD-RW media; check compatibility. 

■ The CD-ROM drive must be MultiRead compatible to read CD-RW because of the lower reflectivity 

of the media; replace the drive. 

■ If some CD-Rs but not others can be read, check the media color combination to see whether 

some color combinations work better than others; change the brand of media. 

■ Packet-written CD-Rs (from Adaptec DirectCD and backup programs) can’t be read on MS- 

DOS/Windows 3.1 CD-ROM drives because of the limitations of the operating system. 

ATAPI CD-ROM Drive Runs Slowly 

If your IDE/ATAPI CD-If your ATAPI CD-ROM drive performs poorly, check the following items: 

■ Check the cache size in the Performance tab of the System Properties control panel. Select the 

quad-speed setting (largest cache size). 

■ Check to see whether the CD-ROM drive is set as the slave to your hard disk; move the CD- 

ROM to the secondary controller if possible. 

■ Your PIO (Programmed I/O) or UDMA mode might not be set correctly for your drive in the 

BIOS; check the drive specs and use autodetect in BIOS for the best results (see Chapter 5, 

“BIOS”). 

■ Check that you are using busmastering drivers on compatible systems; install the appropriate 

drivers for the motherboard’s chipset and the operating system in use. See the section “DMA 

(Direct Memory Access),” earlier in this chapter.

Troubleshooting Optical Drives Chapter 13 

777 

■ Check to see whether you are using the CD-ROM interface on your sound card instead of ATA 

connection on motherboard. Move the drive connection to the ATA interface on the motherboard 

and disable the sound card ATA if possible to free up IRQ and I/O port address ranges. 

■ Open the System Properties control panel and select the Performance tab to see whether the 

system is using MS-DOS Compatibility Mode for CD-ROM drive. If all ATA drives are running in 

this mode, see www.microsoft.com and query on “MS-DOS Compatibility Mode” for a troubleshooter. 

If only the CD-ROM drive is in this mode, see whether you’re using CD-ROM drivers 

in CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT. Remove the lines containing references to the CD-ROM drivers 

(don’t actually delete the lines—REM them), reboot the system, and verify that your CD- 

ROM drive still works and that it’s running in 32-bit mode. Some older drives require at least 

the CONFIG.SYS driver to operate. 

Poor Results When Writing to CD-R Media 

If you are having problems successfully writing data to a CD, see “How to Reliably Record CDs,” 

earlier in this chapter. 

Trouble Reading CD-RW Discs on CD-ROM 

If you can’t read CD-RW discs in your CD-ROM, check the vendor specifications to see whether your 

drive is MultiRead compliant. Some drives are not compliant. 

If your drive is MultiRead compliant, try the CD-RW disc on a known-compliant CD-ROM drive (a 

drive with the MultiRead feature). 

Trouble Reading CD-R Discs on DVD Drive 

If your DVD drive can’t read a CD-R disc, check to see that the drive is MultiRead2 compliant— 

non-compliant DVDs can’t read CD-R media. Newer DVD drives generally support reading CD-R 

media. 

Trouble Making Bootable CDs 

If you are having problems creating a bootable CD, try these possible solutions: 

■ Check the contents of bootable floppy disk from which you copied the boot image. To access 

the entire contents of a CD, a bootable disk must contain CD-ROM drivers, AUTOEXEC.BAT, and 

CONFIG.SYS. 

■ Use the ISO 9660 format. Don’t use the Joliet format because it is for long-filename CDs and 

can’t boot. 

■ Check your system’s BIOS for boot compliance and boot order; the CD-ROM should be listed 

first. 

■ SCSI CD-ROMs need a SCSI card with BIOS and bootable capability as well as special motherboard 

BIOS settings.

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