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INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY 

5th POST GRADUATE SEMINAR 

1/5-15/6/1997 

9th INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR FOR 

SPORT JOURNALISTS 

20-25/5/1997 

3rd JOINT INTERNATIONAL SESSION 

FOR EDUCATIONISTS 

AND STAFF OF HIGHER INSTITUTES 

OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

5-12/6/1997 

ANCIENT OLYMPIA

Published and edited by the International Olympic Academy 

Scientific supervisor: Konstantinos Georgiadis/IOA Dean 

Athens 1998

EPHORIA OF THE INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY 

President 

1st Vice-Président 

2nd Vice-Président 

Dean 

Member ex-officio 

Members 

Cultural Consultant 

Honorary President 

Honorary Vice-Président 

Nikos FILARETOS (I.O.C. Member) 

Sotiris YAGAS 

Georgios MOISSIDIS Konstantinos 

GEORGIADIS Lambis 

NIKOLAOU (I.O.C. Member) 

Dimitris DIATHESSOPOULOS 

Georgios GEROLIMBOS 

loannis THEODORAKOPOULOS 

Epaminondas KIRIAZIS 

Panagiotis GRÁVALOS 

Juan Antonio SAMARANCH 

Nikolaos YALOURIS 

3

I.O.C. COMMISSION 

FOR THE INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY AND 

OLYMPIC EDUCATION 

President Vice- 

Président 

Members 

Representativs 

Individual Members 

Nikos FILARETOS 

IOC Member in Greece 

Carol Ann LETHEREN 

IOC Member in Canada 

Freddy SERPIERIS 

Fernando Ferreira Lima BELLO 

IOC Member in Portugal 

Ivan DIBOS 

IOC Member in Peru 

Francis NYANGWESO 

IOC Member in Uganda 

Mohamed ZERGUINI 

IOC Member in Algeria 

Abdul Muttaleb AHMAD 

Representative of NOCs 

Rene ROCH 

Representative of IFs 

Dieter LANDSBERG-VELEN 

Representative of IFs 

Philippe RIBOUD 

Representative of Athletes 

Helen BROWNLEE 

(Australia) 

Conrado DURANTEZ 

(Spain) 

JipKIM 

(Korea) 

Lia MANOLIU 

(Romania) 

Prof. Norbert MUELLER 

(Germany) 

Vasco LYNCE 

(Portugal) 

4

PROLOGUE 

The publication of this IOA Report is part of the efforts made by 

the Ephoria of the Academy to ensure that the proceedings of the 

Academy's sessions and seminars will reach all those concerned, as 

well as sports organizations belonging to the Olympic Movement. 

This Report contains the proceedings of the three events which were 

organized in the lOA's facilities in the summer of 1997, i.e. the 5th 

Postgraduate Seminar (1/5-15/6-1997), the 9th International Seminar 

for Sports Journalists (20-25/5/1997) and the 3d Joint Session for 

Educationists and Directors of Higher Physical Education Institutions 

(5-12/6/1997). 

The 5th Postgraduate Seminar was attended by 32 students from 

24 countries. In addition to its academic aspect, the seminar skillfully 

combined educational visits to archaeological sites and events in 

order to allow participants to become acquainted with major archaeological 

places, the site of ancient panhellenic contests, which would 

be the subject of their scientific work during the seminar and also 

to introduce them to the modern Olympic Movement. The seminar 

consisted of four series of lectures. 

The first, on the subject of the Olympic Games, sports in Ancient 

Greece and physical exercise in other ancient cultures, was presented 

by Professors I.Weiler (AUT) and A.Kalpaxis (GRE). 

The second series, which was developed by Professors R. Barney 

(CAN), K. Lennartz (GER) and J. Lucas (USA), was devoted to the 

history of the revival of the Olympic Games and the modern Olympic 

Movement. 

The third lecture series considered the Games phenomenon from 

a sociological viewpoint with lectures by Professors K. Weis (GER) 

and R. Beamish (CAN). 

The fourth and last series included lectures which focused on 

issues related to the philosophy and ethics of the Olympic Games, 

under the supervision of Professor J. Parry (GBR). In addition, students 

presented their papers on Olympic education, sponsoring at the Olympic 

Games and the environment and its relation to the Olympic Games. 

The seminar also included lectures by Invited lecturers, I. Mouratidis 

(GRE), A. Panagopoulos (GRE) and D. Young (USA), as well as presentations 

by the students and discussions in working groups. 

5

At the end of the seminar, depending on the scientific object of 

their work, participants presented the conclusions of that particular 

course unit which, together with the abstracts of participants' papers 

are also published in this Report. 

The scientific and academic level of all students was high. The 

physical education institutions and the professors who work with 

the Academy attach special importance to the selection of the students. 

With its postgraduate seminar, in addition to its other educational 

events, the Academy provides a comprehensive and intensive 45-day 

course on Olympic studies, to young students from all over the world. 

The unique experience which students enjoy at the Academy will 

stay with them for the rest of their lives. For the Academy this is an 

exceptional opportunity to initiate these young people to the real values 

of Olympism. The total of about 300 hours of intensive courses at 

Olympia corresponds to a full academic year. The postgraduate seminar's 

diploma is signed by the President of the IOC, J.A. Samaranch. 

The 3d Joint session for Educationists and Higher Physical Education 

Institutions that was held in the lOA's facilities was also very 

successful, thanks to the outstanding contributions of participants. 

The theme of the Session, "Ethics in sports and the Olympic Games" 

was extremely interesting at a time when criticism against the Olympic 

Movement is becoming stronger. All participants were actively involved 

in the proceedings; the lectures were all outstanding and gave rise 

to lively and interesting discussions. 

Participants referred to the need for more democracy in sport. 

They also stressed the fact that more weight should be given to 

educational issues within the Olympic Movement. They also proposed 

that an "Ethics Commission" should be set up by the IOA which 

would elaborate a code of conduct for the Olympic Movement. 

The publication of this Report responds to the request that was 

made by participants to the Ephoria of the IOA to publish the presentations 

of the lecturers which are of high scientific value. 

During the Session a wonderful social evening was organized which 

was attended by most participants together with the postgraduate 

students. Both groups performed modern and traditional songs and 

dances from their respective countries and the whole event was quite 

a success. 

The Session lecturers were: Mr Thomas Giannakis (GRE), Mr Ioannis 

Zervas (GRE), Mr Jim Parry (GBR), Mr Hai Ren (CHN), Mr Ronnie 

Lidor (ISR), Mrs Doris Corbett (USA), Mr Mike McNamce (GBR), Mr 

6

Mark Maes (BEL), Mr Dimitris Panagiotopoulos (GRE). In all, there 

were 102 participants from 53 countries (63 men, 29 women, 1 guest 

and 9 lecturers). 

As part of its educational activities aimed at sports journalists, 

the IOA also organized this year the 9th International Seminar for 

Sports Journalists. This seminar is held every two years. The 9th 

Seminar for Sports Journalists was attended by 48 journalists from 

an equal number of countries. 

The Seminar was chaired by IOA President and IOC member Nikos 

Filaretos. This year's special theme was The Olympic Games of the 

XXVth Olympiad and the Mass Media". 

The six lecturers developed the following topics related to the 

Olympic Movement: 

The ideals of Olympism and the work of the IOA" (Kostas Georgiadis, 

GRE/ IOA), "Olympism in the 19th century and its precursors" (Petros 

Linardos, GRE/Sports Historian and Journalist) and "Media ethics and 

the role and duties of sports journalists" (Prof. Jae Won Lee, USA), 

The Atlanta experience and press functions at future Olympics" (A. 

Billouin, FRA), The electronic media at the Olympic Games (A. Metcalfe, 

GBR). The lecture cycle closed with a presentation on The development 

of journalism at the Olympic Games" (A. Luzenfichter, FRA). 

The journalists who attended the 9th Session also had the opportunity 

to expand their knowledge about the Olympic Movement and its history 

and obtain information on media technology and the organization of 

press offices to cover the Olympics. Ideas and proposals were presented 

concerning the Sydney Games. The discussion groups which were formed 

on the IOA's initiative arrived at valuable conclusions. 

It should be noted that all participants and invited lecturers without 

exception who attend the IOA's sessions are extremely appreciative 

of its work. For all it is a unique opportunity to meet with colleagues 

from all over the world, work together and exchange views on sport 

and the Olympic Movement in Olympia, the cradle of Olympism. 

Kostas GEORGIADIS 

Dean of the IOA 

7

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 

LECTURERS 

Konstantinos GEORGIADIS 

Dean, International Olympic 

Academy 

Prof. Dr. Robert K. BARNEY 

Director, Centre for Olympic 

Studies, Thames Hall 

Prof. Dr. Rob BEAMISH 

Associate Dean (studies) 

Prof. Dr. Athanasios KALPAXIS 

Prof. Dr. Karl LENNARTZ 

Director, Carl and Liselott 

Diem-Archivs 

Prof. Dr. John LUCAS 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Department of Exercise and 

Sport Science 

College of Health and 

Human Development 

Prof. Dr. Andreas PANAGOPOULOS 

Professor of the University of Athens 

Prof. Dr. Jim PARRY 

Head of the Department of Philosophy 

Prof. Dr. Ingomar WEILER 

Institut fur Alte Geschichte und 

Altertumskunde an der 

Karl-Franzens-Universitaet 

4 Kapsali Street 

106 74 Athens, HELLAS 

The University of Western 

Ontario, London, CANADA 

N6A 3K7 

Queen's University 

Kingston, Ontario 

CANADA K7L 3N6 

Markou Botsari 3A 

14561 Kato Kifisia 

Athens, HELLAS 

Olympische Forschungsstatte 

der Deutschen 

Sporthochschule Köln 

Carl-Diem-Weg 6 

50933 Köln GERMANY 

or Sperlingsweg 16 

53757 Sankt Augustin 

GERMANY 

109 White Building 

University Park 

PA 16802-3903 

U.S.A. 

72 Iroon Polytechniou 

157 72 Athens, (Zografou) 

HELLAS 

University of Leeds 

Leeds LS2 9JT, UK 

8010 Graz, Universitatsplatz 3 

AUSTRIA 

8

Prof. Dr. Kurt WEIS 

Institute of Social Sciences 

Prof. Dr. David YOUNG University 

of Florida College of Liberal Arts 

and Sciences Department of 

Classics 

Lothstrasse 17 

D-80335 Muenchen 

GERMANY, or private 

Georg-Bader-Strasse 18B 

D-82319 Starnberg 

GERMANY 

3C Dauer Hall 

P.O. Box 117435 

Gainsville, FL 32611-7435 

U.S.A. 

Mr. Alberto REPPOLD 

Faculty of Education 

Research Student 

Physical Education and 

Sport Centre, University of 

Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK 

ASSISTANT COORDINATOR 

Ms. Cora McCLOY 

146 Geoffrey Street Toronto 

Ontario M6R 2P5 CANADA 

e-mail: cora, 

mccloy @utoronto.ca 

PARTICIPANTS 

Ms. Melissa AGGERTT-WHITTEMORE 

Mr. Hans BULLING 

Mr. Ian BRITTAIN 

Ms. Michelle BROWNRIGG 

3401 N.W. 103 Dr. 

Gainesville, FL 32606 

U.S.A. 

Gashagavagen 21, 181 65 

Lidingo, SWEDEN 

40 St Lawrence Way 

Gnosall 

Staffordshire ST20 OHZ 

GREAT BRITAIN 

or Staffordshire University 

Union of Students Athletic 

Union. The Hut Leek Road 

Stroke on Trent 

Staffordshire ST4 2DE 

GREAT BRITAIN 

254 Howland Ave. 

Lower Apt. Toronto 

Ontario, CANADA 

M5R-3B6 

9

Mr. Khalid Hassan EL BEELY 

Mr. Peter ESTOR 

Mr. Christopher KENNETT 

Mr. Kemo KEIMBOU 

Mr. Denis KROUJKOV 

Mr. Kwan-In LIM 

Mr Alexios LIVERIS 

Ms. Berta Cerezuela MARTINEZ 

Ms. Deborah Pearl McDONALD 

Mr. Roberto Maluf de MESQUITA 

ELMUGTRBEEN 

P.O. Box 15069 

Khartoum, SUDAN 

Endenicher Allee 146 

D-53121 BONN, GERMANY 

72 Church Road, Ramsgate 

Kent CT11 8RF GREAT 

BRITAIN 

27, Rue de Dahlenheim 

Strasbourg, FRANCE 

40, Sovetskaya Street 

apt. 65 

3500 63, KRASNODAR 

RUSSIA 

735-8 Naeduk-Dong 

Chongju City 

Chungbuk Province, KOREA 

Koumoundourou 17 

Aghia Paraskevi 

153 41 Athens, HELLAS 

Alcazar de Toledo, 18 

22520 Fraga, Huesca 

SPAIN 

or 

PI. Bonsucces, 7, 1-4 

Tel. +343 3026164 

08001 Barcelona 

SPAIN 

939 Western Road, #D22 

London, Ontario 

CANADA 

N6G 1G3 

Rua Sao Manoel 

229-Ap. 03 

Porto Alegre 

RS-BRAZIL 

90.620-110 

10

Ms. Diana MINARIKOVA 

Mr. Hossein MOJTAHEDI 

Ms. Elizabeth NOGGLER 

Ms. Ildiko PASKA 

Ms. Reele REMMELKOOR 

Ms. Barbara RIEGER 

Mr. Pedro Luis RIVERO 

Ms. Envina SIERANT 

Mr. Wondimu TADESSE 

Mr. Otavio TAVARES 

Charles University 

Faculty of Physical 

Education and Sport 

J. Martiho31 

16252 Prague 6 CZECH 

REPUBLIC or 

Maroldova 1156 

28201 Cesky brod 

CZECH REPUBLIC 

IR-Esfahan-Mir-AB-250 Ave. 

Mehrabani Val-No 26 

Tehran 

Islamic Republic of IRAN 

Ludwig-Penz Str. 10 

A-6130 Schwaz 

AUSTRIA 

Martonhegyi ut 29/A 

Budapest 1121 

HUNGARY 

Kaunase Str. 44-4 

EE2400 Tartu 

ESTONIA 

Argelandersbrasse 157 

53115 Bonn GERMANY 

Calle San Rafael El Cuji #17 

Cabudare 

VENEZOUELA 

ul. Tetmajera 34/3 

75-610 Koszalin 

POLAND 

Addis Ababa University 

ETHIOPIA 

R. Olegarinha, 47/408 BL. 2 

Rio de Janeiro/RJ 20.560- 

200 BRASIL 

11

Ms. Alexandra THUMM 

Mr. Ilkka VIROLAINEN 

Ms. Lorella VITTOZZI 

Ms. Despina Ralio VOGIATZIS 

Ms. Xue Ning VAN 

Chinese Society for History 

of Sport and Physical Education 

Ms. Maco YOSHIOKA 

Mr. Nils-Olof ZETHRIN 

Leibniz Str.2a 

D-55118 Mainz 

GERMANY 

or 

Werner-Siemenssh. 76 

75173 Pforzheim 

GERMANY 

Yliopistonkatu 24 A17 

40100 Jyvaskyla 

FINLAND 

Via della Divisione 

Torino, 117 00143 Rome 

ITALY 

Allmandring 26A, 50.02 

70569 Stuttgart, GERMANY 

or 84 Marasli str. 

542 49 Charilaou 

Thessaloniki, HELLAS 

9 Tiyuguan Road 

Beijing, 100763 

CHINA 

3-6-10 Miyamae 

Suginami 168 

Tokyo JAPAN 

or 845-62 Araku 

Irumashi 358 

Saitama JAPAN 

Tegelviksgatan 58 

116 41 Stockholm, SWEDEN 

Angella ANASTASSAKI George 

VERROIOS 

STAFF 

13 Pouliou str. 

115 23 Ampelokipi 


128 Dimitrakopoulou str. 

176 76 Kallithea 


12

SUMMARIES OF THE PAPERS 

PRESENTED AT THE 

5th POST GRADUATE SEMINAR 

1/5-15/6/1997

QUESTIONS AND THEORIES TO THE ORIGIN 

OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES 

by Mag. Lisa NOGGLBR (AUT) 

This summary attemps to show details and difficulties of the 

origin of the Olympic games. The following questions are to be 

included: 

• Sources for Olympia as location for the games, for cult, for social 

centre 

• The thematic of origin 

• Origin of sports - a trip to Ethnology 

• Olympia-combination of Antiquity and Ethnology 

In trying to find an answer according to the question of the 

origin of the Olympic games there are quite a lot of reasons given 

even in the past as well as in the present research. To anticipate 

my point of view, I want to show, that no monocausal explanation 

(mythologie, cultic, agonalic) is satisfying regarding the question 

about the origin of the games. The relation between sports, cult 

and politics remains unsettled. Within the festival program authors 

and speakers perfomed, political delegations met, Olympia was 

considered a location of trade. It has been researched, that mythological 

messages (like the "two types of Heracles", Pelops, Zeus, 

Kronos) as well as not proofable messages about "historical founders" 

of the games are rather connected to political changes in 

trying to legalize political power by using "mythical history". 

In scientistic research today there exist most of all two kinds 

of explanation: the cultic model and the thesis of the "unique 

Agonistic" of the ancient Greeks. For instance not only the myth 

of the "funeral games" for Oinomaos but also antique appearing 

rites and rules of the games respectively have been relied upon 

as a proof for the cultic origin (oath, Ekecheiria). The difficulties 

of this argumentation can be seen in many details: for instance 

15

the initiation of games cannot be reduced to "funeral games". 

Antique sources like Ilias and Odyssee show that different reasons 

led to the celebration of games. Sport as entertainment, for biological 

instinctive necessity, as a preparation for war, hunt and 

work, or simply as spare-time occupation and because of boredom 

seem to be fluent for the epic poem writers. Also defenders of 

the Agonistic thesis, which describe the Greeks as very enthusiasic 

in competition and games, rather try to transport imaginations 

of the 19th century (as the zenith Coubertin) with arguments like 

amateurism, fairness etc. According to my opinion, literature shows 

that the cultic beginning on one hand, and on the other hand 

every function or purpose of the practised kinds of sports are to 

be considered the origin. These, however, are only explanations, 

showing the function of sports at certain periods of time in the 

already started "instrumentalizing" of sports, but having less plausibility 

in the question of origin. 

It is useful to make the comparison with other, strange cultures, 

in order to realize parallels to ancient High cultures, and to combine 

ethnological research with early Greek sports as a part of an 

anthropological constant. A quite long part in my paper is dealing 

with material in regards to sportive actions or competition of 

other ancient High cultures: Egypt, the region of the Middle East, 

the Asiatic (India and China) region as well as Cretic, Mycenic 

and Etruscic societies, but also precolumbion, nordamerican and 

mesoamerican cultures. The most objective search and reflection 

on sports as a cultural phenomenon shows the universality of 

this behaviour with its different versions and with secondary developments 

of every single culture. I tried to summarize the various 

forms of sports such as physical exercises, play, competition, 

body culture, dance, hunt, hippology, cult game, spare-time behaviour 

and many more (for example football games in ancient 

China, rubber ballgames of Mesoamerica,...). All these examples 

from former High Cultures have the same reasons and functions 

respectively. Sport - and game events took place for cultic, competitive, 

for war - or hunt preparantion as well as for pleasure 

reasons. Any thesis which wants to point out one of the mentioned 

reasons as the origin of sports will end up in a blind alley. 

16

Searching for the origin of sportive actions in the early Greek 

society, one finds in Ilias and Odyssee (oldest literaly historical 

works handed out) many parts therefore. In the Ilias, competitions 

mainly correspond to "death agons" for fallen héros. Almost the 

whole 23rd book of the epic poem reports about funeral games 

for Patroklos, done by his friend Achilleus. The social function - 

eight disciplines, the competitions, prices, the feast at the end 

are described in great detail - the competition seems to be a 

welcome occasion for the participants to strengthen and to increase 

their prestige within the society. In the Odyssee the motives for 

arranging competitions are the visit of the foreign guest Odysseus 

as well as a kind of "bride agon". Questioning the motives or 

occasions of the various competitions, games and sport events, 

analogies to ancient High Cultures can be discovered. Finding 

out the best in every way and in all kinds of exercises makes 

the connection to cult as well as to politics obvious. Equally 

obvious is also that sport has already been instrumentalized, 

turned to account in sense of a function. 

After discussing these explanations regarding the question of 

the origin of games, I tried to give a brief conclusion according 

to the origin of sport itself with information of ethnological research, 

comparison of cultures and sports activities in a huge variety of 

forms. Examination of groups of Westindians, African and Oceanic 

societies report about many kinds of runs, wrestling, fist fights, 

jumping and climbing, apparatus sports, shooting-, skidding-, 

pushing contests, fencing, ball games, water sports, horse back 

riding, as well as unknown, invented games and lead to the conclusion: 

Sport like play, is a communicative act. Comparing research 

of behaviour refers to similarities of the phylogenetic development 

of humans and animals in regards to sportive actions. 

Mainly behaviours like provocation rites, weakness postures, survival-exercises, 

classify the order of precedence are considered 

thereby. Analysing the structure of insticts one gets many factors 

in regards to sports. Sports would therefore be necessary to survive. 

Competition is a fact of existence: it is the nature of participation 

in the food chain. Treating sport as metaplay, a case is made for 

17

the institution as a factor in the evolution of human social organisation. 

With realization of ethnology and of "comparing research of 

behaviour" in regards to the origin of sports with examinations 

of sportive activities of ancient High Cultures as well as "primitive 

societies", other answers as before could be given to the question 

of the origin of the Olympic games. All ancient appearing details 

(Demeterpriest, Herolds...), which are now obviously later added 

functions of games, the dimension of the meetings as an extensive 

social event can be explained clearly because of the ethnological 

point of view. 

18

HOMER-ILIAD-FUNERAL COMPETITIONS 

by Despina Rallio VOGIATZI (GR) 

In a simple, narrative way the heroic epic poem of Homer "the 

Iliad" is presented. Special attention is given to the description 

of the funeral games, which are mentioned in Homer's work. 

The selection of that particular subject is made for two reasons; 

it is an opportunity: 

• To remember Homer, Iliad and the Ancient Greek Civilisation. 

• And to present the oldest written evidence about the first 

organised athletical competitions, at least in the European 

continent. The famous "Athla epi Patroclo". 

The Melitos-born Homer (because of Melitos river which existed 

in the area), lived in Ionia of Minnor Asia during the second half 

of the eighth century B.C. By Minor Asia the Greeks mean the 

today's Mediterranean sea shores of Asia. 

There are two heroic, epic poems which have been saved by 

Homer's name. Two beautiful poems which sing, hymn the exploits 

of the old heroes. Iliad and Odyssey. The first one (15.692 verses), 

describes an incident which happened during the tenth year of 

Trojans siege from the Achaeans. The famous Troie War. The 

second one Odyssey (about 12.000 verses), tells the story of Odysseus 

and his effort to return to his home island Ithaki, ten whole 

years after the end of the Troie War. Iliad's story unfolds within 

52 days. Her subject is simple. It is not so much the Troie War, 

but Achilles' anger. The Iliad starts: 

Sing, Goddess, the wrath of Achilles Peleides, 

The ruinous anger that woes on the Danaans brought 

Unnumber'd and strong souls many of heroes sent 

To Hades, and made their bodies a prey for the dogs, 

A feast for the birds, while the purpose of Zeus was fulfill'd 

Er'n from the hour when the two first parted in strífe, 

Atrides, the King of men, and noble Achilles. 

19

Within a short summary of 22 rhapsodies are described, so 

that we are led to Patroclus' funeral and the games that are held 

during it. An amount of boilers, tripods, horses, mules, strong 

oxen, women with beautiful belts and white iron was brought 

from the ships as prizes. 

In the Homeric Funeral Competitions participated actively only 

the Achaean leaders, who would take the prizes. The common 

warriors were present and they were sitted in a circle, like spectators. 

The persons who were in mourning did not take part, in 

this case Achilles, who played the role of the referee and sponsor. 

The first competition was the chariot race. Homer described it 

with a lot of details, because this was the favourite sport of the 

time aristocrats. Boxing, wrestling, running, armed fight, discus 

throwing and archery were the disciplines of these games. The 

javelin competition did not take place. The participation of King 

Agamemnon, who was above everyone, presupposed his victory. 

Every time, every story has an end, so I could not resist to 

the temptation to tell what happened in the last rhapsody ù Iliad 

ends with the words; 

"Like that they buried Hector the excited horse fighter". 

" Έτσι τον έθαψαν τον Έκτορα, τον γαύρο αλογοµάχο" 

The characteristics of the games 

An amount of athletical values concentrated in Homer's verses, 

as sport had been of the most beautiful parts of the Ancient 

Greek Culture. His grandeur is much more obvious, if we make 

a comparison with the present situation in sport. 

The spectators in the funeral competitions showed admiration 

and admirable spirit during the whole games and they cheered 

all the athletes without any exception. 

The sponsor and organizator Achilles was mild, friendly, polite 

and magnanimous with all the participants. For each one of them 

he had a good word to say. 

At the funeral competitions took part only the nobles, the representatives 

of all the King Houses and Greek races. The athletes 

in contrast with our time, or the classical time, did not represent 

20

their city land. They fought only for their glory and their "after 

death fame" of them and their family. They all enjoyed participating 

and were glad with their prizes. There were no winners or losers 

with the present meaning. Everyone was considered to be wonderful 

and above all, they felt that they participated in a funeral ceremony. 

The importance of the objective that these games carried out 

was double: First they managed to reconcile the two misunderstood 

leaders; Achilles and Agamemnon. The lost unity of the Greeks 

must be regained, so that united they could get the Trojan castle. 

Secondly not only the leaders, but also the warriors rewarded 

their relationships. Then by that way they did not only address 

honour to their best dead fighter and friend Patroclus, but also 

the willing of the Gods was made. 

It is important in this point to stress the great meaning of all 

the Ancient Greek Games for the invigoration of their national 

conciousness. The Olympic Games, the Pythia, the Isthmia e.t.c., 

were the pole of attraction for all the Greek races and a unique 

chance for them to rekindle the bones between them. 

One last characteristic which causes emotion but also thoughts, 

was the award of old-Nestor from Achilles after the end of the 

chariot race. A gift of honour was given to the old man, in order 

to have a souvenir from Patroclus' funeral, but had also signified 

his offer up to that time, to the Greek society. 

The display of respect to the old-Nestor brought up another 

grant element of the Homeric society. The elderlies were made a 

subject of adoration, love and care. Their placing high at the 

social pyramid was a sign of civilisation and social maturity. 

It is not by chance that in all the Homeric works the older 

persons are automatically described as wise. 

As for the idealised athletical elements of the sport competitions 

which are presented by Homer, it is obvious that when we are 

realists, every one of them is a glory-past. 

Efforts at least are given in order to reduce the distance between 

the better and the "άριστον", the best. We all know that it is 

impossible to reach the Ancient Greeks' best. 

Everything that works towards this direction is welcome and 

all of them will be elements of the new, better and full of sensitivity 

and mature athletic world. 

21

AMATEURS AND PROFESSIONALS 

AT THE ANCIENT OLYMPICS: PROBLEMS AND 

PROSPECTS OF PROFESSIONALISM TODAY 

by Wondimu TADESSE (ETH) 

In the ancient Olympics amateur sportsmen and sportswomen 

took part in sport because of the enjoyment and satisfaction they 

get from the activity. They were not paid for it. 

At present professional sportsmen and sportswomen who participate 

in the Olympics are paid to compete in sport. Winning 

is all-important. The more successful they are, the more money 

they earn. They usually train full-time and devote full time to 

the sport. Sport is their means of living. They sign contracts and 

take part in competitions. 

The modern Olympics have been for amateurs only. They are 

based in the ancient games and it is often assumed that they 

were for amateurs. The truth is quite different the athletes are 

in my terms, professionals. The true amateur spirit, of fairplay 

and friendship, was not always seen either. Today eligibility for 

the games has moved away from the spirit of amateurism. 

However the Games held at Olympia were special. Unlike other 

Games, no prizes were awarded for winning. The glory and fame 

to be gained was thought sufficient to attract all the very best 

athletes. This was true. Winning at Olympia was prized above all 

else. 

The people who controlled sport in the second half of the nineteenth 

century faced many problems. Sport was developing quickly. 

People from all classes were becoming involved. Payments and 

rewards needed controls. Business interests were sky rocketing 

in this field. 

It was obvious that rules and regulations were needed. There 

were worries that professionalism could not be prevented from 

22

inging major problems, such as unfair competition and unfair 

practices. 

A few years ago the future of professional football was being 

questioned in England because of falling attendances. If the public 

is not willing to watch football live in large numbers, then the 

money to pay players will decrease. This is likely to result in 

either fewer full time professionals or the players becoming semiprofessional. 

This means they would accept less money for playing 

and find a job outside football to complement their income. 

In conclusion I suggest that to promote sport to its highest 

level, unfair competition, and unfair practices should be avoided. 

23

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

BETWEEN SPARTA AND ANCIENT CHINESE 

WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY 

by Xue-Ning VAN (CHN) 

Greece and China are ancient civilised countries. They played 

very important roles in the history of world civilisation, for example, 

in philosophy, arts, and sport. 

The Western Zhou Dynasty in the China and Sparta in Greece 

were both slave-owning systems. The two societies both played 

very important parts in the formation of their culture. This paper 

compares the difference and similarities on physical education 

between the Western Zhou Dynasty and Sparta and analyses the 

characteristics of physical education in both East and West. 

It is well known that from the early archaic period Spartan 

education aimed at producing the perfect warrior. From this point 

of view, the Spartan system was a complete success. The ultimate 

aim of the Spartan education system was to produce the perfect 

warrior. The State was responsible for education. Young men from 

ages of seven to eighteen lived in state school and were confined 

to the life of an army camp. Their education included the Pentathlon: 

Five Events-Discus Throw, Long Jump, Javelin Throw, Stade Race 

and Upright Wrestling; Ball games; Horse riding; Swimming; Music 

and Dance. However, reading and writing were ignored. Their 

physical training made them into good warriors and athletes. 

Women in Sparta had equal opportunity to participate in physical 

activities; for the State needed healthy mothers to produce healthy 

soldiers. 

Like Sparta, the Western Zhou Dynasty was a slavery society 

(1100BC-770BC). The Zhou ruler gave large estates to the royal 

princes. These princes contributed troops to the ruler's army, 

and local products to his treasuries. Otherwise they were inde- 

24

pendent within their own estates. Their ministers and counsellors 

were drawn from the hereditary nobility, since these were the 

only people with access to education. The Western Zhou Dynasty 

was a hierarchical society. Every individual had to know his place 

in the social hierarchy. These hierarchical characteristics also 

reflected on the education system. There were two kinds of schools 

in the society: the state school was for the aristocrats and the 

local school was for the ordinary nobility. The state school was 

administered by the central government and the local school was 

administered by local government. The state school included "daxue" 

[lit.big study]-nine years and "Xiao-xue[lit.small study]-seven 

years. Different pupils went to school according to their social 

rank. During the Western Zhou Dynasty religious ritual and preparation 

for war were the two major preoccupations in the society. 

The education was to teach the religious ritual and military skill. 

There were six basic skills called the "Six Arts". Among them, 

ritual, mathematics and reading were moral education; archery, 

chariot driving, and music and dance were military training. Archery 

was an obligatory course. Students would learn five basic skills. 

There were two contests, one in spring and one in autumn. They 

were like a school competition. Chariot driving was an important 

military skill which was called "wu-yu". It means five driving skills. 

They were not only military skill but also ritual elements. Music 

and dance was an obligatory course in school. They were the 

combination of ritual, entertainment, performance, gymnastics and 

military drill. The aim was, on one hand, to train military skill, 

on the other, to teach moral rules and discipline. There was no 

education for girls. 

In short, in the same historical period the Western Zhou Dynasty 

and Spartan social systems and culture including physical education 

had similarities and dissimilarities. 

Similarities: School was governed by the states and only the 

sons of ruling class had access to go to school; The aim of physical 

education was to train warriors, it was a military oriented physical 

training; Contest was a tool to examine the result of physical 

education. 

25

Dissimilarities: In Sparta school, equality was a principle, the 

competition was fair-play; Physical education attested the all-embracing 

importance Spartans attached to physical training and 

gymnastics and military training, it aim to develop physical capacity 

and its emphasis was on the development of the body; Women 

had opportunity to participate in physical activities, it was a curious 

phenomenon at the period. It had profound significance for improving 

women's statue in the society. 

In the Western Zhou schools, hierarchy was the principle, education 

was used to teach student moral value and the submission 

of inferiors to superiors; Physical education embraced military 

training and ritual practice, its emphasis was on the moral development 

and military skill, it ignored the importance of the 

body; Women were denied any access to physical education. 

Despite similarities and dissimilarities, despite existing on opposite 

ends of the world, despite differences in the historical time 

of their existence, the ancient class and physical structures of 

11th century B.C. Zhou and 5th century B.C. Spartan societies 

had much more in common than one would expect. 

26

THE CAPITOLIAN GAMES IN ANCIENT ROME 

A COUNTERPART TO THE OLYMPIC GAMES 

by Barbara RIEGER (GER) 

The cue that may enable everybody to classify the Agon Capitolinus 

is that of the Olympic Games. The Capitolian Games were 

as important to the Romans as the Olympic Games were to the 

Greeks. The Agon Capitolinus was an athletic festival modelled 

on the Olympic Games, which was celebrated in a four-year cycle 

in the capital of the Roman Empire. As with the Olympic Games 

which were dedicated to the greatest god of Greece, Zeus Olympics, 

the Capitolian Games were consecrated to the greatest Roman 

god, i.e. Iuppiter Capitolinus. In 86 AD the festival was initiated 

by the last Emperor of the Flavian dynasty, T. Flavius Domitianus, 

and it was celebrated until the fourth century AD. 

The Emperor himself presided over the games and their organisation 

according to the Greek model. In its significance the 

Agon Capitolinus was equated with the four most renown panhellenic 

festivals that were those of Olympia, Delphi, Korinth and 

Nemea. The universal importance and fame of the Capitolia became 

additionally apparent in its integration in the so-called Penados 

which at that time comprised seven festivals: the Olympic, the 

Pythie, the Isthmian and the Nemean Games as well as the Actia 

at Nicopolis, the Sebasta at Naples and the Capitolia at Rome. 

Unlike the Olympic Games the Agon Capitolinus was instituted 

in a threefold structure in which the agonists competed in musical, 

hippie and gymnic disciplines. The Emperor himself endowed to 

the winners a crown of oak leaves, which was desirable particularly 

in the world of poets and musicians. 

Apart from a mere description of the agonistic programme and 

the sequence of the various sports events of the Roman Capitolia 

it is, in addition, worth pointing out the way in which sports-festivals 

27

can be considered as a vehicle for cultural alignment. The social 

process, in which elements of two different cultures come into 

contact and unify into a new and unique manifestation or appearance, 

becomes easily apparent with regard to the Capitolia: 

a Greek athletic festival in an otherwise Roman surrounding, 

which was to bring about some striking peculiarities. Thus for 

instance the choice of a Roman circus as an adequate venue for 

the hippie competitions of the Capitolian Games attached to the 

Agon Capitolinus a typical Roman trait within a Greek agonistic 

framework. 

To what extent Greek agonistic festivals in general and the 

Olympic Games in particular had their impact on agonistic events 

during the early centuries AD in Italy can be utterly investigated 

and exemplified by Domitian's Capitolian Games, first instituted 

in 86 AD in the capital of the Roman Empire. 

28

THE ZAPPAS OLYMPIA 

by Alexios LIVERIS (GR) 

Immediately after the 1821 revolution and while its wounds 

from centuries from centuries of enslavement had not been healed, 

Greece began to attend the development of Physical Education. 

In 1838 the Municipality of Letrina, at the city of Pyrgos in 

Elis, puts forth a proposition for the revival of the Olympic Games. 

Yet out of all the data gathered, the records, and accounts of 

witnesses it's infered that it has not been possible to organise 

these games. 

In 1858, Mayor Evangelos Zappas from Epirus, a wealthy landowner 

and prosperous wholesole merchant living in Romania, 

aspired to accomplish, at his own expenses, the revival of the 

Olympic Games which to the time had not been achieved. 

To the purpose of organizing and carrying out the games, which 

were to be named "Olympia" and whose goal would be national 

progress, he offered, for a start, four hundred shares of the Hellenic 

Steamship Company and in addition three thousands gold Austrian 

florins to be used for the organization of the first "Olympia" in 

1859. These games were to include events taking place at the 

Stadiums, specially arranged for the occasion, and to be held on 

Sunday, at 3 o'clock in the afternoon. The winners of the games 

were to receive 100 drachmas, the runners-up 50 drachmas and 

both were to be awarded an olive branch. Eventually the first 

local Olympic Games were held on the 15th of November 1859. 

Few years after, Evangelos Zappas passed away. His wish was 

for the continuation of the organization of the games even after 

his death, therefore by his will be bequeathed all of his state for 

that purpose. 

In 1870, the second "Olympia" games were held on Sunday, 

October the 18th at the Athens Marble Stadium. The games num- 

29

ered 9 events. Three of the ancient Olympic events, four ancient 

but not classical ones and two modern events pertaining to the 

contemporary sport. The games budget was estimated at 4.185 

drachmas. 31 athletes took part in the events. From noon on the 

spectators started arriving, their number was estimated to 25.000. 

Around 2:00 pm, the events started, first being the track races, 

and finishing around 4:30 pm with the wrestling competition. 

The winners of each event proceeded to the royal grandstand 

where they received from the King or Queen their prize. 

The success of these second games was astonishing. The Press 

wrote dithyrambic articles, featuring them as a "national holiday", 

thus acknowledging Zappas the great founder and donor. The 

aforementioned games had, besides, consequences that proved 

especially beneficial, for, apart from the fact that the Press stressed 

their great importance and usefulness, it also stood up for the 

need, common to all people, to practice gymnastics and physical 

exercise. 

The committee of the "Olympic" games was grately encouraged 

to organize the games anew by the extraordinary success of the 

1870 games. The date of the games was appointed on May 18th, 

1875. The technical organization was entrusted to the headmaster 

of the public gymnasium, mr. Ioannis Phokianos. He firmly believed 

that the concept of gymnastics would prevail and receive due recognition 

from society and the state, only if, right from the beginning, 

young people coming from the class of the educated, students 

and pupils, attended the gymnasia. The games started at 5:00 

pm but the athletes were very few; only 24. The spectators estimated 

to 15.000 and the games were worse than the previous because 

of the disorder. 

The 4th "Olympia" games took part in May 1889. The participants 

were about 30. The impression that the games left was excellent 

and the public as well as the press spoke highly and enthusiastically 

of them. They were considered as the starting point of the increased 

interest of the society in phycical education. These first 4 olympiads 

in Athens, shed the first light for the awakening of Europe. The 

following 5 years the Hellenic Olympic Committee was formed in 

30

Greece, the first National Olympic Committee ever formed in the 

world. Almost simultaneously the first International Olympic Committee 

was formed. Seven years after the 4th Olympia" games 

the first International Olympic Games took place in Athens. The 

revival of the Olympic Games was a reality. The fatherland had 

reborn them. 

31

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CLOSING CEREMONIES 

BY THE OLYMPIC GAMES 1896-1936 1 

by Peter ESTOR (GER) 

In its rule Nr. 69, the Olympic Charter lays down precisely 

the procedure of the Olympic Games closing ceremonies with all 

their special elements. It is true the protocol still leaves some 

room for a few additional presentations but it not only fixes the 

elements which imperatively must be included in the ceremonies 

but also their order. Only in this way can major variations in 

the ceremonies be avoided today. The first official protocol fixing 

the rules of the closing ceremonies was drawn up in 1921 and 

was written down in the so-called statutes of the IOC. In the 

early Olympic Movement, COUBERTIN as well as the members 

of the IOC had to deal above all with formal problems. Among 

other things it was important to elaborate a unique programme 

and to set up conditions for participation in the Olympic Games. 

Only when these issues were settled could COUBERTIN start to 

carefully approach the members of the IOC with his major concern 

which was the ceremonies' artistic presentation, i.e. his wish for 

the words, action and music to match. 2 It was due to the ceremonies 

that the Games should lose their character as pure sporting event. 

In this respect COUBERTIN remarked the following: "...Through 

physical exercises the competitor of the ancient world shaped his 

body like a sculptor his statue and thereby worshiped divinity. 

While doing the same, the modern times' competitor honours his 

mother country, his race and flag. Therefore, I think I was ríght 

when I trìed rìght from the beginning to renew Olympism by reviving 

1. The author has written his diploma-thesis with the same subject at the Deutsche 

Sporthochschule Koeln 1996. 

2. DIEM, Ein Leben für den Sport, S. 161. 

32

α religious spirit.. It was from this desire that oríginated all the 

different rituals making up together the ceremonies of the modern 

Olympic Games...". 3 Supported by a growing interest of the world 

public, technological progress as well as improved financial possibilities 

of the organizing committees the ceremonies of the Olympic 

Games in those days entered a process of development that has 

not yet been finished today. In the following this development is 

to be analysed more in detail for the period between 1896 and 

1936. 

In the first part of my presentation I would like to take a closer 

look at the victory ceremonies mentioned before since they represented 

at the same time also the closing ceremonies of the first 

Olympic Games of the modern times. In Athens in 1896 just as 

in London in 1908 and in Stockholm in 1912 the official closing 

ceremonies consisted of only the victory ceremonies even though 

the former underwent enormous change through the years. Only 

in Athens in 1906 not only a victory ceremony was held because 

there was a demonstration from about 10.000 greek pupils in 

gymnastic before the victory ceremony. Given the fact that the 

IOC prescribed no formal procedure for the victory ceremonies it 

was up to the respective organizers to give the ceremonies a 

special and solemn frame. This was the reason why the closing 

as well as the victory ceremonies of the Olympic Games were 

almost always organised in a different way. By the following description 

of the ceremonies at the last days of the Olympic games 

I want to show these development. In the second part I shall 

focus on the development of the closing ceremonies as well as 

on the elements that still belong to their rituals today. Especially 

in the discription of the closing ceremonies of the games from 

1920 till 1936 should the introduction of the Olympic symbols of 

the closing ceremonies be shown. 

The conclusion of the presentation is that the closing ceremonies 

developed in the shadow of the opening ceremonies. Since at first 

3. Pierre de COUBERTIN, Olympische Erinnerungen, 2. Auflage, Frankfurt 1959 

(=COUBERTIN, Erinnerungen) S. 218. 

33

the IOC provided no rules as far as the victory as well as the 

closing ceremonies were concerned, the early Olympic movement 

did not actually know any closing ceremonies corresponding to 

the conceptions we have of only the victory ceremonies. Only 

after the introduction of the Olympic symbols did the closing 

ceremonies become independent of the victory ceremonies. The 

closing ceremonies then took place on the last day of the Games 

and their ceremonial presentation approached the opening ceremonies 

dimensions. It was COUBERTIN who had clear ideas of 

the ceremonies arrangement and he always tried to carry his 

point with his colleagues in the IOC. The Olympic flag, the closing 

formula as well as the musical background of the closing ceremonies 

were all introduced at the initiative of COUBERTIN. 

The closing ceremonies development process can be divided 

into roughly three periods: the first period was decisively shaped 

by the Greeks and ended in 1912. Interrupted by the First World 

War, the second period was marked by closing ceremonies that 

reflected the people's desire for peace. The third phase started 

with the rearrangement of the victory ceremonies at the Olympic 

Games of 1932 in Los Angeles. Since then, the closing ceremonies 

have clearly detached themselves from the solemn victory ceremonies 

held on the last day of the Games. 

34

ALL THAT IS SOLID MELTS IN TO AIR. 

THE SWEDISH GYMNASTIC TRADITION AND THE 

OLYMPIC GAMES IN STOCKHOLM 1912 

By Hans BOLLING (SWE) 

My ambition is not to tell a "true" story about the Olympic 

Games in Stockholm 1912 and the influence on them by the 

Swedish gymnastic tradition but to describe one facet of the development 

of modern sports in Sweden, with Swedish gymnastic 

as a background. The story is my own and is by no means more 

true than any other story. 

The Swedish gymnastic system derives its origin from Per-Henrik 

Ling, "The father of Swedish gymnastics", who in 1813 established 

The Royal Gymnastic Central Institute (Kungliga gymnastiska centralinetitutet, 

GCI) in Stockholm. This is the public institution 

which since then has been the stronghold of Swedish gymnastics. 

It is important to note that a connection between the public power 

and gymnastics were common in Europe during the 19th century 

and onwards. This strong connection did not exist between the 

public power and modern sports. The Gymnastic movement usually 

had political aims as well as physical. In Sweden it is justified 

to speak about ideas concerning social engineering. Ling devided 

gymnastics into four different categories: pedagogical-, military-, 

medical- and aesthetical- gymnastic so Swedish gymnastic is not 

one kind of gymnastics but different kind of gymnastics. The son 

of Per-Henrik Ling, Hjalmar, developed what has later been called 

Lingianism, a form of pedagogical-gymnastic practice, which 

claimed general applicability, although it was designed primarily 

for the schools. It was a strict systématisation of movements and 

exercises which above all had an advanced physiological aim. 

This aim was revealed in principles about the fixed effect of movements, 

strictly applied ambidexterity and restraints with regard 

35

to the degree of difficulty. Striving for perfection was viewed with 

suspicion, specialisation was in the eyes of the gymnasts the 

greatest sin one could commit and was viewed as irresponsible 

against ones own body. This view of gymnastics later gained hegemony 

in the gymnastic discourse in Sweden. 

This was the environment in which modern sports were introduced 

in Sweden in the later part of the 19th century. Gymnastic 

was seen as a way to train the body all-round and symmetrically. 

Modern sports on the other hand were seen as destructive to allroundness 

as everything fell into details. The isolated movements 

would ultimately, it was said, lead to runners without upper 

bodies and throwers without legs. The gymnastic criticism of 

modern sports included: the individual competitions, the onesided 

movements, the specialisation on one branch of athletics, the 

record system, the elitism, the mania for publicity (which could 

confuse the public's concepts of the aims and means of physical 

training), the physiological harmful aspects of many branches of 

athletics, and the over emphasis of natural talent and perfection 

would lead to a de-emphasis of mass participation. 

The people supporting the introduction of modern sports on 

the other hand put forward positive arguments for athletics. These 

included: the physical and the psychological educational effect, 

the promotion of morally valuable qualities, the strengthening of 

national defence, its broad social recruiting base, a welcome instrument 

for national self-assertion towards the outside world, 

and domestically promotion of the blending of the classes and 

national unity. As seen their arguments never confronted the 

superiority of Swedish gymnastics as a means for bodily development. 

The modern sport had good qualities but it was not seen 

as a means of physical education. 

In spite of the difference in opinion between gymnasts and 

sports advocates, it is justifiable to speak of a combined gymnastic 

and athletic movement in Sweden until the beginning of the 20th 

century. The thought that bodily exercise should give moral control 

and aesthetic consciousness pervaded in people's minds. Track 

and field in Sweden was consequently born in a gulf between 

36

Swedish gymnastics and modern sports. When it was introduced 

it was Swedificated under influence from Swedish gymnastics. 

The way in which bodies in motion were seen and the judgement 

of what characterised good athletics was coloured by the gymnastic 

eye, especially in the technical events. Grace, control and balance, 

the ideals of the gymnast, were as important as the measured 

result. The centimetre- gram- second view of sport was not dominant. 

In the IOC session, Berlin 1909, Stockholm was chosen to 

arrange the Olympic Games of 1912. At that session the Swedish 

representatives put forward a proposal which contained a standard 

program for future Olympic Games. The program aimed at limiting 

the Olympic program to: track and field, wrestling, gymnastics 

and swimming-sports that were seen as accessible to all people. 

Needless to say the proposal was not accepted. When the track 

and field program for the 1912 Games was constructed an honorary 

place was given to events that promoted an all-round training of 

the athlete. The gymnastic all-round ideal was strong among the 

organisers of the Stockholm Games. That is seen in the all-round 

events which was not on the program in London four years earlier. 

Discus throw, javelin throw and shot-put with right and left hand, 

pentathlon, decathlon and cross-country running, were included 

in the program in Stockholm. Suggestions were even made to 

include events where not only the result counted, but the appearance 

was also judged. However, due to the difficulties in 

setting up rules for such a competition, the Organising Committee 

never tried to realise these suggestions. 

Regarding competitions in gymnastics there was a compact 

opposition against such competitions from gymnastics circles. The 

whole gymnastic community objected against competition in gymnastics 

on reason founded on principles-judging representatives 

from different countries and gymnastic traditions was considered 

improper. However the IOC forced through gymnastic competitions 

in the Stockholm Games individual as well as team competitions. 

In general one can say that although the ideals of the Swedish 

gymnastic tradition lived among many of the organisers of the 

37

Games of the Fifth Olympiad in Stockholm 1912, their actual 

influence on the Games was limited. The gymnastic disinclination 

for modern sport and its competition, specialisation, elitism and 

mania for publicity was neither a serious threat against the arrangement 

nor against the future development of modern sports 

in Sweden. The 1912 Games were carried through and are remembered 

as a modern athletic event. After the Games, modern 

sports were known and accepted in circles in Sweden that formerly 

had been deprecatory. After the Games the Olympic legend Citius 

- Altius - Fortius, in a body only meaning, had taken over as 

ideal for the Swedish sports movement. The old gymnastic ideals 

of appearance and restraint were vanishing and modern sports 

could continue its march toward the future without consideration 

of the old ideals. The old regime symbolised by Victor Balck was 

losing its grip and a new era under Sigfrid Edstrom had definitely 

taken over. Specialisation had become an inescapable aspect of 

modern sports. Perhaps we can see the results of the decision 

to march in that direction today. Most of the critics of modern 

sport today criticise it in the same way as the Lingians did more 

than a century ago. If another road could have been taken by 

the sports movement, we cannot be sure. 

38

THE OLYMPIC ART COMPETITIONS OF 1936 AND 

THE COUNTER-EXHIBITION OF AMSTERDAM 

by Alexandra THUMM (GER) 

For the founder or the modern Olympic Games, Baron Pierre 

de Coubertin, the combination of sport and art was an essential 

part of the Olympic spirit from the very beginning. The connection 

of sport and art, to be found in the model of the ancient Olympic 

Games, was supposed to be regained through the artistic organizing 

of the performance of the Games on one hand and through the 

introduction of Olympic competitions in the fields of architecture, 

sculpture, painting, literature and music on the other. 

The art competitions took place for the first time at the 1912 

Olympic Games of Stockholm, and formed part of the Olympic 

programme until the London Games in 1948. 

Due to the shared beliefs regarding the importance of art in 

Olympism of Carl Diem and Pierre de Coubertin, art played a 

much more important role in the organization of the 1936 Olympic 

Games in Berlin than ever before. The leaders of National Socialism 

also laid stress on the preparation and performence of the games 

to impress wide sections of the general public through pompous 

and lavish organization in order to conceal the real intentions of 

their race- and world power politics. 

As a consequence there were numerous protests in advance 

of and during the Games against their holding in National Socialist 

Germany. In Amsterdam artists and intellectuals organized an 

art exhibition, which was intended, at least according to its name 

De Olympide Onder Dictatuur (D.O.O.D./An Artistic Olympiad 

Against Dictatorship), to protest against the taking place of the 

Olympic Games in Berlin. 

The aim of my paper is two fold: First I investigated to what 

extent the Olympic art competitions were integrated into the selfportrayal 

of the Third Reich and abused for National Socialist 

ends; second, it seemed promising to investigate the reactions 

and comments of the Amsterdam counter-exhibition towards the 

proceedings in Berlin. The basis of my investigation is the ex- 

39

animation of the Olympic art competition in Berlin and, related 

to it, the Olympic art exhibition in Berlin and the Amsterdam 

counter-exhibition. Documentary evidence comes primarily from 

the Olympia-archives of Potsdam and the local archives of Amsterdam. 

The investigation is primarily concerned with the description 

and interpretation of single works of art in the field of painting 

and sculpture in order to be able to supplement the documentary 

evidence in the artistic sphere. 

Considering the documentary evidence as well as organizational 

and artistic points, the investigation of the Olympic art competition 

of 1936 clearly shows the intention of the National Socialist rules 

to present Germany as a leading cultural nation in order to acquire 

a good reputation world-wide and free Germany from the increasing 

isolation by the non-fascistic nations of Europe and the USA. 

As the Olympic Games of 1936 took place in a time, when art 

was submitted to the National Socialist conception of art and free 

practise of art wasn't possible any more, the participation of avantgarde 

artists in the Olympic art competition was actually made 

impossible in advance. The connection of sport and art wasn't 

used to express the Olympic idea, but to glorify the political function 

of sport in the Third Reich. 

This paradox made numerous artists from different countries 

of Europe and the USA come together in order to fight for the 

preservation of the original Olympic idea and of artistic freedom 

within the framework of the counter-exhibition D.O.O.D. The biggest 

part of the exhibiting artists regarded the D.O.O.D. basically 

as a possibility to be able to face the imminent danger of National 

Socialism, the exhibition not addressing a small group of revolutionaries, 

but all people fighting against fascism. 

The counter-exhibition of Amsterdam is of great importance 

among the international protest movement against the Olympic 

Games to be held in Berlin, because it was the only massive 

protest of artists and moreover took place at exactly the same 

time as the Olympic Games. 

Although the D.O.O.D. exhibition can, taken for itself, and in 

spite of the intervention on the part of Germany and the Netherlands, 

be regarded as a sucess, the attempt to prevent the 

Games taking place in Berlin was a failure. 

40

A CHARACTERISTIC HUNGARIAN SPORTSMAN AND 

PROPAGANDIST AT THE END OF THE LAST CENTURY 

by Ildiko PASKA (HUN) 

How was a sportsman viewed at the end of the last century? 

I posed this question to myself while I was looking for memories 

of the past. There are no videos, no CD-ROMs to tell us about 

former sporting life, but we have recordings, articles and above 

all, we have photographs, sportsphotographs which reflect the 

era truly. 

I will look at how sport in Hungary has developed using the 

example of a small town and a characteristic Hungarian sportman. 

My look involves 3 areas: 

1. Site: Szabadka, a small town 

2. Propagandist: Lajos Vermes 

3. Sport photography 

1. Szabadka, a small town now in Serbia/Croatia was formerly 

part of Hungary. At the edge of the town there is the Palics-lake, 

which greatly determined the formation of Szabadka's sportlife. 

That is, in 1868 physical education was declared obligatory in 

secondary schools. The first sport club of Szabadka, the skating 

club, was founded in 1876, documented with constitution, stamp 

and seal. 

Athletics was spreading here in the middle of the seventies. The 

first public athletic premiere was held in August 1878, on the free 

ground of the rich family Vermes. Sport in those days was a privilege 

of the intellectuals and rich men. But here, at this competition there 

appeared more achievable sports, like running, throwing, wrestling, 

beside the aristocratic ones, such as fencing, riding and tennis. The 

organizer of the premiere, the competition, was the 18 year old Lajos 

Vermes. 

2. Lajos Vermes was born in Szabadka, on the 27 of November 

1860. He lived 85 years and sacrified more than a half century 

41

to sport. His merits are in the popularisation and development 

of the physical education and sport. 

Lajos Vermes was the son of a very rich family, an intellectual 

who completed 2 unversities, but were more interested in sports 

than in science. 

Vermes was the first at that time to make efforts to make 

sport available to everyone. It is supported by the fact that he 

opened to the public a ground in his fruit-garden equipped with 

sport and athletic instruments. In the spring of 1880, Lajos Vermes 

with his brothers Bela Vermes and Nandor Vermes founded the 

Gymnastics Club of Szabadka. More than 100 years ago. In 

invain he wanted to make sports available to everyone, and he 

tried to do this by offering free equipment to participants. It was 

Lajos Vermes who brought into existence the Games of Palies, 

to make sport available to everyone. We can see his importance 

if we look at the fact that Pierre de Coubertin called together his 

congress only 13 years later to establish the Olympic Games. 

The Palies Games were held every year. Besides the athletic 

competition, swimming was held annually. Rowing figured first 

in 1884. But the bicycle races were the most popular. Every year 

it was organized on the road between Palies and Szabadka. In 

1886 he founded the Achilles Club. At the beginning of 1886 

the first ice-sailing competition was held. 

How large was the crowd at the games? Unfortunately we don't 

have exact and authentic data, but the extra trains and trams 

to the games refer to thousands of people. The interest grew more 

and more every year. In the summer of 1892 he built the 225m 

long asphalt course. The significance of Lajos Vermes organizational 

and educational work can be better appreciated if we read through 

the sports magazines edited and published by him-one of which 

shows the asphalt covered cycling track. 

In 1894 the Szabadka Sport Club is founded. Its aims was 

to spread and organize every kind of physical culture. 

3. Both sport and photography became popular at the turn of 

the century. The propagandist, Lajos Vermes was a sport photographer 

himself, too. 

42

At this time the pictures are characteristically static pictures, 

but reflect well the atmosphere of the era. In the earliest photos 

the sportsman can be seen in his Sportdress with his instrument, 

often in positions typical to his speciality. Photographing of the 

sportsmen in movement was a difficult task at the beginning. 

Summing up I was telling you about a sportsman who created 

lasting and useful facilities for sport. He organised the Games of 

Palies which was a part of the beginning of the Modern Olympic 

Movement. 

43

OLYMPIC QUEST IN CAMEROON 1960-1996. 

EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF AN 

OLYMPIC CULTURE IN BLACK AFRICA 

by David-Claude KEMO KEIMBOU (CMR) 

What can justify that after 34 years of adhesion to the international 

Olympic Committee (I.O.C.) we are still talking about 

«Olympic quest» in Cameroon when there is every indication that 

Olympism is a reality? It's really because, not withstanding the 

recongition of the Cameroonian Olympic Committee (C.O.C.) by 

the I.O.C., numerous participations in Olympic games (O.G.), the 

National Olympic Committee (N.O.C.) and Regional (A.N.O.C.A.) 1 

functioning structures, the doctrine like the Olympic practice, remains 

to be conquered: appropriation of value is to be carried 

out. 

This subject is very important for two essential reasons: 

1. Olympism is situated on a continuum of a global reflexion 

I have undertaken within the framework of my Doctorate thesis 

in sports sciences entitled: body image, politics and sporting practices 

in Cameroon from 1884 to 1996. The aim is to set about 

the stake and paradox of a corporal culture in Black Africa. Ul 

timately, the aim is to demonstrate the contradictions and conflicts 

entanged all around the individuals and reveal the real difficulty 

in conciliating the «sporting spirit» - impregnated by political, eco 

nomical and social constraints - a request from the players, at 

times, with distant motivation if not oppose of the sporting practices 

of our «system of production». 

2. This subject's examination is also an occasion to show that 

after indépendance of almost all of Black African countries and 

Cameroon in particular, one of the major preoccupation will be 

to join the I.O.C. The Olympic Movement appears to have influenced 

largely the national sporting policies. Likewise, its role will be 

1. A.N.O.C.A.: African National Olympic Committee Association. 

44

crucial to setting up institutional mechanisms agreed by the organic 

structures, the legislative and the statutory texts. 

Accordingly, this work will highlight... 

the conditions which lead to the emergence of the Olympic 

Movement in Cameroon; 

the impact of the movement on the setting, and indeed, on 

the construction of a general sporting culture; the influences and 

the constraints tied to respect for the Olympic Charter will also 

be considered; the positive as well as the negative aspects will 

be researched and evoked in order to bring to light the strategies 

to improve its weights; 

the attitudes, the perceptions and also the representations linked 

to Olympism will be brought forward; 

ultimately, the future of the Olympic movement in Black Africa 

will be the object of a reflection, a reinterpretation of the discussion 

undertaken as required with the aim of bringing it as close as 

possible to the national policies on sports. 

During the first years of independence, sport appeared to be 

an important diplomatic instrument. This role was exercised 

through a strong will by the young States to join the Olympic 

Movement. 

Through this institution, the recognition at a world level constituted 

the main stake. We can easily understand why African 

countries even before they gain their independence hurried themselves 

to organize an N.O.C. This was the case in Cameroon 

where, as early as in December, 1959, through its Secretary of 

State to the Presidency responsible for information, Physical Education, 

Youth and Sports, contacted the I.O.C. Chancellery to 

inquire about the terms and conditions for the establishment of 

an N.O.C. One sees that when Cameroon inquired about admission 

conditions to the Olympic Movement, it was not yet an independent 

State; it's autonomy was being proclaimed by France. 

The creation of the Ministry of Youth and Sports in Cameroon 

takes place 7 years after the recognition of the C.O.C. Our purpose 

here is to show that independently of other political, economical 

or sociological factors, Olympism has had a real impact on the 

45

constitution of the organic structures of the administration and 

on the policy of sports that followed with more or less success. 

If we refer to the Olympic Charter, notably in its articles 1 

and 3, we can see that, «the fundamental principles» are: 

Article 1 : the «Olympic movement has for objectives: 

• to promote the development of physical and moral qualities that 

are the fundamentals of sports. 

• to educate through sports the youth in a spirit of the best mutual 

understanding and friendship, thus contributing to build a better 

and a more pacific world; 

• to make universally known the Olympic principles, thus giving way 

to the good international will; invite the athletes of the world to the 

big festival of Olympic Games organised once every four years... 

Article 3: «Olympic games take place every four years. They 

bring together in a sincere and impartial competition the Olympic 

athletes of all countries. 

• The international Olympic Committee (I.O.C.) gives to the Olympic 

Games, its largest possible audience. 

• No discrimination is admitted towards a country or a person for 

racial, religious or political reasons». 

How did these principles influence the Cameroonian sporting 

movement? We must say that the political, economical and social 

situation of the 1960s characterized by the circumstances of nationalist 

demands that lead to independence, the period was more 

conducive to the reconstruction of national cohesiveness. In this 

manner that the Olympic Movement will serve as a pathway for 

national unity and international expansion. 

The first structures have considerable importance because they 

satisfy the demanding requirements and conditions for the recognition 

of the N.O.C. The aim is to promote physical education 

and sport from which will emerge civil sport. In this manner, 

schools constitute the base of the sport system which leads to 

the establishment of elite sports. The conditions for recognition 

of an N.O.C. certainly illuminates these questions. 

The impact of the Olympic Movement can also be held at the 

46

level of sporting policies. At the end of colonization, one of the 

objectives of the under developed countries was to give rise to a 

competitive elite sport group. The scholastic environment appeared 

as a principal supplier of this elite through physical education 

and the sport associations. What is the Cameroonian's attitude 

and behavior towards Olympism? 

If the Olympic Games are known because of their médiatisation, 

the Movement and its charter are completely ignored. We have 

been able to ascertain that Olympism is a reality and has served 

not only as the foundation for the organic structure of the Ministry 

of Youth and Sports but also for the policies on sports. 

The time has come to re-think the relation between the N.O.C. 

and the I.O.C., because it is difficult to explain the silence surrounding 

the Olympic Movement, particularly so in Africa. In 

Cameroon no studies have been done on the subject. Better yet, 

the topic is not even raised, neither by the national sport bodies 

nor the national sports federation which constitute, with the international 

sports federation, the technical body. The topic is absent 

from the training program administered by the institution responsible 

for the training of the managerial staff and is equally absent 

in a school environment where it had as an objective to serve as 

a fundamental element of pedagogical reform. Evidently, it is difficult 

to assess the view and the behaviour of these social actors 

towards the Olympic Movement. 

We are intimately convinced that this walk will be long and 

difficult in order to separate the Olympic Movement from the 

national sports movement because of the close relation to one 

another. The economic and political situation of under developed 

countries is so disastrous that it will be difficult for them to 

transform the sporting practices into national priorities. It becomes 

utopie to pretend to win over the virtues of sports without at the 

same time showing some form of social morality. Sport does not 

accommodate itself very well in the world of poverty and misery. 

At a time where democracy blows over Africa, the essential preoccupations 

will focus on the side of human rights, liberty and 

justice. Unless these preoccupations find themselves yet again, 

47

as we are approaching the 21st century in the Olympic Movement, 

the values which could help crystalize national consciousness will 

vanish. 

A greater diffusion of the practices and improvement in the 

practice conditions, a more regular listening ear concerning the 

social demands and in particular in regard to physical activity 

and sports, the whole integrated in a global project aiming at 

improving the conditions and the quality of life appears in our 

eyes as a preliminary step in the Olympic quest. This is exactly 

what de Coubertin's Olympic project preaches. All that is left today, 

is to familiarlize ourselves with the Olympic project, and to this 

end, the doctrine and the philosophy deserve to be better known. 

48

THE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SPORT IN THE 

MODERN WORLD FROM THE MARXIST AND 

FIGURATIONAL PERSPECTIVES OF SPORT AND 

THEIR ABILITY TO EXPLAIN THE CHANGING 

ECONOMIC FORTUNES OF THE IOC OVER THE 

LAST TWENTY FIVE YEARS 

by Ian Stuart BRITTAIN (GBR) 

Dunning in Elias and Dunning (1986) states that "in countries 

all over the world, sport is being transformed from a marginal, 

lowly valued institution into one that is central and much more 

highly valued". Margraves (1985) concurs with this theme when 

he states that "one cannot begin to understand the structure and 

the meaning of sport without also appreciating that it is intimately 

tied up with conceptions and evaluations of the social order". In 

order to try and give a clear picture of the significance of sport 

I shall divide the evidence into four areas of significance, namely 

economic, political, cultural and social psychological, although I 

do concede that there will be some cross over between them. 

Economics: The technological revolution in the work place, which 

has been gathering pace throughout this century, has brought 

more leisure time to the people of Britain. (Coe et al., 1992). The 

shorter working week, an increase in the value placed on leisure 

and the growth of the television industry have combined with 

other factors to help make sport a commodity to be produced, 

marketed and sold to the public. (McPherson et al., 1989). The 

era of global mass communications and especially the advent of 

television have had numerous effects on the significance and prosperity 

of sport and those associated with it. 

Political: Coakley (1994) claims that the idea that sport and 

politics can be kept apart is naive. He states that sports do not 

exist in a cultural vacuum, but are an integral part of the social 

49

world and as such they are influenced by social, political and 

economic forces. Examples of political uses of and interventions 

in major sporting events abound. Hitler's use of the 1936 Olympics 

in Berlin as a propaganda exercise to promote his own brand of 

nationalism and fascism to the world. The use of sporting metaphors 

in political rhetoric and the effects of the differing political ideologies 

on what happens in the sporting arena bear testament to this. 

Cultural: Leonard (1993) describes culture as "the way of life 

of a social group, the distinctive features - values, norms and 

institutions - that characterise if. As an established institution 

of modern society sport can neither isolate nor insulate itself 

from society and as such can both effect and be affected by 

changes in society. One of the most often made claims about 

sport is that it aids in the socialisation of individuals into society 

by building character, motivating, generating teamwork, teaching 

discipline and generally producing good all-round citizens. (Lapchick, 

1991). It has also been claimed that sport is responsible 

for breaking down class, race and ethnic barriers as well as sex 

role stereotypes. (Corbett, 1989). 

Social-Psychological: Millions of people around the world take 

part in sport every week at varying levels as both participants 

and spectators. Participants motivations will vary according to 

their level of performance. Spectators motivations can also be 

numerous ranging from ticket touts to people just wanting to be 

seen in the right places to people who are just there to support 

family members or loved ones. Sport also forms a primary source 

of group identification in the modern world. 

In the second section I attempt to outline the general characteristics 

of the Marxist and Figurational approaches to sport and 

their application to sport in the modern world. According to Leonard 

(1993) Marx viewed social conflict in terms of the relentless struggle 

between social classes over property and production. Hence one 

of the major themes of Marxism is the power relationship between 

the bosses or bourgeoisie and the working classes or proletariat. 

Sport has the function of justifying the established order due to 

it's "typically optimistic ideology of indefinite, forward progress" 

50

and acts as a stabilising factor for existing systems. Home and 

Jary in Home et al. (1993) state that figurational sociology uses 

a combination · of two main concepts: the concept of human 

(con)figuration and the concept of the "civilising process". Dunning 

in Elias and Dunning (1986) cite three reasons for the growing 

social significance of sport. These are that sport has developed 

as a principal source of pleasurable excitement; has come to be 

a principal medium for group identification and has become a 

key source of meaning in many peoples lives. I also include an 

overview of the relative strengths and weaknesses of each of these 

perspectives and bearing mind, among other things, the relative 

inability of the Marxist approach to deal with the reality of the 

communist ideological approach to sport and its inability to differentiate 

between mental and physical energy when talking about 

the training of a strong healthy workforce whilst draining them 

of the energy to rebel, I conclude that on balance the figurational 

approach is better suited to explain the significance of sport in 

the modern world. 

In the third and final section I give a brief precis of the changing 

economic fortunes of the IOC over the last twenty five years and 

relate both the Marxist and Figurational approaches to these 

changes in order to find out which one is better suited to explain 

the events that have occurred. 

51

THE INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC MOVEMENT 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 

by Denis KROUJKOV (RUS) 

The International Olympic Movement has passed four stages 

of economic development. Their definition depends on the availability 

of five groups of funding sources: private donations, governmental 

and sponsorship revenues; ticket revenues; souvenir 

programmes revenues; television revenues; licensing revenues. 

The 1st stage - the Olympic Movement Financing System 

Conception and Consolidation (1896-1936) - is characterized 

by the use of three funding sources: external support (government, 

donators and sponsors - about 70%), tickets (about 20%), and 

souvenir programmes (about 10%). 

The 2nd stage - the Search for New Sources of Financing 

the Games (1948-1972) - is characterized by Olympic commercial 

programmes enlargement featuring television and licensing, but 

the lack of precise calculation nullified all efforts for the IOC to 

reach financial stabilization. 

The 3rd stage - the Economic Crisis in the Olympic Movement 

(1976-1984) - is characterized by the lack of standard marketing 

programmes: one could mark the Montreal Games economic failure 

in 1976, the Moscow Games budget financing in 1980, and the 

Los Angeles Games commercialization plan in 1984. 

The 4th stage - the Olympic Movement Stabilization (1988- 

1996) -is characterized by the now prevalent standard system of 

financing the Games, which includes revenues from TV rights, 

TOP-sponsors, ticket selling, licensing and other projects (stamps, 

coins, gifts, souvenirs, lotteries, etc.). 

The main points of Olympic commercial projects could be used 

as a model for financing programmes of regional sport federations. 

Thus, a special marketing model was developed and offered to 

52

several Krasnodar sport federations. Our model brought about 

the positive result in one federation (foundation strengthening 

and improving its financial base). In two other federations the 

model proved to be less successful. 

Stages of the International Olympic Movement 

Economic Development 

Stage Year Donators Tickets 

of Olympics Sponsors 

The 

Olympic 

Movement 

Conception 

and 

Consolidation 

1896 

1900 

1904 

1908 

1912 

1920 

1924 

1928 

1932 

1936 

D # 

D # 

D # 

D # 

D/S # 

D # 

S # 

S # 

S # 

S # 

Gift, Coins 

Stamps, etc. 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

Countrie, 

Receiving 

TV-signal 

1 

Licensing 

The Searching 

for 1952 

1948 

New 1956 

Sources of 1960 

Financing 1964 

the Games 1968 

The Economic 

1976 

1972 

Crisis 1980 

1984 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

Budget 

S 

# 

# 

# 

# 

# 

# 

# 

# 

# 

# 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

@ 

l 

2 

l 

21 

40 

n/a 

98 

102 

111 

156 

* * * * 

The 1988 

Stabili- 1992 

zationl994/1996 

TOP-1 

TOP-2 

TOP-3 

# 

# 

# 

@ 

@ 

@ 

160 

193 

220 

* * * 

CONDITIONAL MARKS 

D, S Revenue from Donators and Sponsors 

1, 57, 160 A number of countries, receiving TV signal 

TOP The Olympic Programme realization 

#, @, * The funding sources availability 

53

HOW CAN SOCIAL EXCLUSION BE OVERCOME IN 

THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT? 

by Christopher Robert KENETT (GBR) 

1. Poverty and its Measurement 

There is an increasing number of poor people in the world 

and an increasing gap between the richest and the poorest members 

of all kinds of societies across the globe. 

There is no agreed definition of poverty and measurement is 

divided between absolute and relative perspectives. 

Absolute measures attempt to draw lines below which poverty 

occurs whereas relative measures take into account the unmeasurable 

and often intangible everyday realities such as lack of 

food, clothing, shelter etc. 

Due to a lack of income and therefore choice the most vulnerable 

members of society become excluded from the protection 

of an inclusive group. 

2. Poverty and the Olympic Movement 

Sports people area part of everyday society; elite sport has 

traditionally been the reserve of the rich and so low income elite 

athletes often have to fight against poverty and social exclusion 

in order to succeed. 

DeCoubertin believed that sport brought the classes together, 

but many writers believe that he was part of an elitist Victorian 

movement which sought to remove sport from the working class 

and place it in the hands of the leisured upper classes. 

The Olympic Movement today faces the seemingly impossible 

task of balancing two incompatible objectives: 

1. To ensure the Olympic Games obtain the best athletes in 

the world i.e. it's elite objective (which in itself is exclusive). 

2. To give the opportunity to all nations to compete which 

have little chance of producing the best athletes and which find 

54

it difficult to send a team to the Games at all i.e. it's universality 

objective (which attempts to achieve complete inclusion). 

The increasing size of the Games in terms of numbers of participants 

is well documented, but if the emphasis is only upon 

elite performance, the less tangible benefits of international 

friendship, understanding and the opportunity for poorer countries 

to build national identity on an international stage will be 

jeopardised. 

3. Olympic Solidarity 

It's purpose as stated in the Charter is to "organise aid to 

NOCs... in particular those which have the greatest need of it". 

OS is funded by the residue of the IOC's $5bn budget (only 

around $36m is redistributed to NOCs). 

Support from OS takes the following forms: Technical courses; 

Itinerant School; Scholarships for athletes (Atlanta scholarships); 

Scholarships for coaches; Sports equipment; Marketing Development 

Programme; Sports Medicine Courses; Financial assistance 

to NOCs to participate in the Games. 

Criticisms of OS: 

i. Some developing nations are disappointed with their share 

of the funds and allege that richer countries are benefiting more 

than their poorer counterparts and the gap between them is widening 

e.g. USA's receipt of considerable funds. 

ii. Due to costs many nations are concentrating on national/regional 

championships. 

iii. Funding is often not provided at a local level and is not 

appropriate to athletes' needs or the adaptation of sports leaders 

to the changing Olympic World. 

iv. There is a lack of co-ordination, review and follow up of 

courses/scholarships run and funds provided. 

v. There is a lack of communication and accountability for 

funds between NOC's and the IOC. 

vi. This highlights the need for more rigorous monitoring of 

funding at a local level, increasing accountability and adaptation 

to specific needs. 

55

4. National Olympic Committees' support of low income 

athletes 

(Information obtained primarily from a survey of NOCs conducted 

in March 1997) 

What emerged was a realistic support structure (highlighted 

by case study examples) for low income (and all elite athletes) 

which all NOCs should aspire to develop in co-operation with the 

ISFs, NSFs, and the IOC (through OS). It should contain the following 

elements: 

i. Financial aid for individual athletes; 

ii. Advice/information; 

iii. Specialist facilities; 

iv. Coaching; 

v. Sports science and medicine; 

vi. Post-career support; 

vii. Scholarships. 

The support structures vary considerably according to country 

and resources available; they are beyond the budget of many 

developing world countries but could form the blue print for future 

development. Before this occurs, developed nations themselves 

must formally recognise that elite performers are a heterogeneous 

group in terms of income and social status, and therefore 

those on a low income must be given special consideration 

in terms of support. 

5. Conclusion 

What became obvious was the problems which arise from the 

all-encompassing nature of the Olympic Movement. Attempting 

to reconcile the seemingly incompatible objectives of elite performance 

and universal representation amidst a myriad of organisations 

and countries which span the globe is seemingly impossible. 

Enabling the developing nations to compete on an equal 

footing with the more developed is unenviable but not impossible 

as huge potential lies in the former (see Atlanta medals table 

adjusted for poverty in the main paper). 

In order to maximise the potential of these developing nations 

56

oth the international support from OS and the support of elite 

athletes by NOCs needs to focus on the development of human 

resources and organisational structures as well as the provision 

of physical resources. This will hinge upon the promotion and 

development of a broad participation base through Sport For All 

programmes and physical education in schools and the progression 

of sports people to performance and then excellence in the 

Sports Development Pyramid. This development must be sustainable 

in the long-term, led initially by external expertise but ultimately 

developed by local people. Specific needs should be accounted 

for, adapting programmes accordingly. This will only be 

achieved if NOCs in developing nations are aided in their organisational 

capacity and the IOC monitors their activities more 

closely. The fact that there is no standard organisational structure 

for the formation and operation of a NOC does not help 

matters. More congruence should come through increased co-operation, 

communication and co-ordination of efforts between OS, 

NOCs and the International Sports - Federations. 

Finally, it must be realised that although the dual aims of 

elitism and universality seem contradictory, they are complementary 

if developed appropriately and the emphasis of the IOC 

shifts from the Olympic Games to the four year Olympiad and 

the universal aspects of the Olympic Movement. However, the 

fact that we can compare the USA and Ethiopia in the same 

context reflects not only the universality of sport but sums up 

the essence of the Olympic Movement Games with which anyone 

in the world, despite poverty, famine or civil war, can to some 

extent identify with. 

57

MAKING THE OLYMPIC PRINCIPLES WORK IN 

PRACTICE: CHANGE OF BASKETBALL RULES 

FOR WOMEN'S ADEQUATE PARTICIPATION 

by Robert Maluf de MESQUITA (BRA) 

My research has the following objectives: 

I. To encourage young girls and women to play basketball by 

making the game more suitable to their size and strength, which 

will also assist in their skill development (ball handling, shooting 

etc.). 

Observation: In the PanAmerican Games/Argentina 1995, the 

Womens Basketball Tournament was cancelled because there were 

not enough teams to participate. 

II. The anatomical and physiological indicators* which might 

suggest why men and women might play the same game with 

different rules, specifically: 

1. To lower the height of the hoop by 25 centimeters (10 inces). 

2. To use the official United States womens NCAA ball (used 

in U.S. since 1984 - smaller, lighter ball than that used by the 

men). 

• The following measurements were taken in order to derive 

scientific proof for the aforementioned changes: 

HEIGHT 

STANDING REACH 

WEIGHT-PERCENTAGE FAT, PERCENTAGE MUSCLE 

LONGITUDINAL SPAN OF HANDS 

TRANSVERSAL SPAN OF HANDS 

ARM SPAN 

HAND GRIP 

VERTICAL JUMP 

SPEED (30m) 

58

III. To encourage those involved with sport and women's issues in 

sport to respect and listen to the women sport participants. 

Research components 

I. To measure two high level basketball Brazilian teams (men 

and women) and compare the data (March 1997). 

II. To organize a National Women's Basketball Tournament 

with the four best Brazilian teams using the proposal (prior to 

year end 1997). 

III. To organize an International Women's Basketball Tourna 

ment with four National Teams using the proposal (March 1998). 

Observation: In both Tournaments a Slam Dunk contest will 

be included. 

59

INFLUENCE OF BODY IMAGE TO ESTABLISH 

A LIFE-STYLE 

by Diana MINARIKOVA (CZE) 

1. Introduction 

2. Results of research 

3. Pilot study of new project 

Ad1) Introduction 

- Physical and moral education formed a superior type of men 

who for many centuries inspired the young Greeks and Romans. 

- Arete-harmony between care of the soul and care of the body. 

Impairment of this harmony causes illness, deficiency of the body 

and mind. 

- Beauty was understood as both physical and spiritual. They 

saw the perfect man in the harmonious synthesis of beauty of 

the race, maturation of art and depth of speculative thinking. 

This is still valid today, and today's pedagogical aims are once 

more in this direction, but today's needs and conditions are different 

from the ancient times - and each person is influenced by biological, 

psychological and social determinants. 

- Through which motivating factors can we make girls and 

later women - after they leave schools and Universities - to continue 

participating in some kind of movement activities? 

- We can do exercises for many reasons which are in harmony 

with our age and gender. 

Ad2) Some details of research 

We investigated the importance of correct exercising as well 

as the influence of nutritional regime on healthy life-style in this 

study. Ability to be active in life-style has a connection with appreciation 

of appearance and positive self appreciation. Because 

60

of physical and psychical difficulties in working and spare-time, 

it is important to keep a high fitness-level in accordance with 

age. The body image is a term which refers to the body as a 

psychological experience, and focuses on the individual's feelings 

and attitudes toward his own body. 

The main purpose of this survey is to find a relation between 

evaluation of women's physical proportion and their life-style. Beside 

this we want to discover the importance of movement and 

diet strategy for all philosophy of life-style. 

The subjects were 95 women, aged between 20 and 60. In 

connection with this work we have chosen three groups, different 

in activity of life-style. 

First group-participants in course whose main objective was 

reduction of body weight (but also to reach phychical balance). 

This group contains 30 women, average age 38 years and 5 months. 

Second group-participants of regular organized sport activities 

(SOKOL and ASPV, Czech Republic). This group contains 35 women, 

average age 33 years and 2 months. 

Third group-non-participants of any sports program. This group 

contains 30 women, average age 40 years and 3 months. 

We used partly standardized questionnaire, published by 

Mrazek-Fialová (1995). The standardized questions were recorded 

on 5-points rating scale from 1 "disagree" to 5 "agree" (Nutrition 

part - 0 "yes" or 1 "no") in connection with polarization of question. 

Rest of the questionnaire contains open items. The results are 

expessed by figures and show average value of separate group. 

Parts of the questionnaire are built as follows 

Part A - Body and Me 

Part B - Nutrition 

Part C - Sports activities/Fitness 

Part D - Health (data are not used in this article) 

Part E - Social situation (data are not used in this article) 

Part F - Personal data 

Summary of Part A - Body and Me 

Subjective appreciation of one's own body and personal satisfaction 

is more positive in groups with more active life-style (First 

and Second group). 

61

Summary of Part B - Nutrition 

We can see that the Second as well as the First group are 

aware of rational principle of eating habits (intake of fresh fruit 

and fresh vegetables more often, limiting of intake of meat and 

smoked meet) against the Third group. 

Summary of Part C - Sports activities/Fitness 

Level of activity of life-style (realization of movement activities) 

is in connection with subjective self-perception of one's own fitness. 

Evaluation of level of fitness is the worst with non active ladies. 

It is impossible to totally exclude the values of the researches 

in the research process. This experiment was unique and probably 

the only one in the Czech Republic. The method of inquiry, used 

in this project, is disadvantageous for the objectivity of the results. 

The answers given above show what the respondents think instead 

of what they actually do. Regarding this, differences which we 

found are still significant. The differences in life-activity are influenced 

by the relatively high average of age. This study contributes 

in field relation to own body (Body Image), nutrition, sports activities 

and health (not written in this article). On basis of our behavior 

in field of relation to own body, nutrition, sports activities and 

self consciousness of the importance of health all of us form and 

realize individual life-style. Finally we found out that evaluation 

and conviction about appearance, figure and fitness could be an 

important motivating factor to form womens active life-style in 

different ages. 

Ad3) Pilot study of new project: "Psychosomatic motivation 

girls and ladies to do exercises" 

Motivating factors: biological, psychological, social (motivation, 

attitudes, behaviour, level of knowledge): 

...woman personality and change of her attitudes toward movement 

activities in different ages and in different life situations 

...the main factors which play the most important role for motivation 

to do exercises and which of them are more and or less 

stable and important 

...on the basis of literature and existing sets of questionnaires 

62

- set up the questionnaire about positive and negative motivation 

and behaviour in connection with movement activities 

...choose three groups of population: young people (13-14 years 

old), University students (18-22 years old), adults (31-40 and 

41-50) 

...in connection with questionnaire find out differences between 

past (what girls and women did, how did they evaluate themselves), 

present (what do they do, how do they evaluate themselves) and 

potential future (what would they like to do and how would they 

want to evaluate themselves) 

...find out motivating and demotivating factors for regular movement 

activities in daily life 

...find out importance of body and mind image in whole motivating 

structure 

...comparison of results by quantitative and qualitative methods 

about motivation, attitudes and behaviour of individual person 

...positive and negative role of mass media for motivation to 

do exercises 

Methods 

- quantitative-questionnaire 

- qualitative-the method of a open interview about attitudes, 

motivation, behaviour 

By combining these two methods we could confirm our results. 

It is important to acknowledge that females and males do not 

necessarily experience physical activity and sport similarly. Society 

presents a specific image of the ideal female body shape that 

greatly impacts the body image of many female exercisers and 

athletes. Females, internalizing these societal messages, tend to 

be dissatisfied with their bodies more than males. This body image, 

in turn may influence females' exercise behaviors and may lead 

to the occurrence of eating disorders. The societal context of sport 

and exercise behavior, and its relationship to female and male 

sport and exercise experiences, should not continue to be ignored. 

63

VALUES AND CONCEPTIONS OF THE BRAZILIAN 

OLYMPIC ATHLETES 

by Otávio Guimaräes Tavares da SILVA (BRA) 

The historical analysis of the past decade shows us that the 

international advance of the democratic idea may be considered 

as, using a word that is dear to John Naisbitt, a major "megatrend" 

of the 80's, and one of the seminal elements for the global economic 

boom of the 90's. The issue of power relations and of the way 

decisions are made has become a nodal point for the development 

of the Olympic Movement, often originating strong criticism. It is 

inevitable that we recognize, once it has been examined on its 

own terms, that the way power is articulated in the IOC, an 

organization which has not been elected and which structures 

itself based on a system of power self-reproduction, points to a 

closed, elitist and conservative system. 

The XIIth Olympic Congress held in Paris/1994 however has 

pointed to an articulation between inheritance and change, focusing 

on a certain democratization of the Movement. In fact, the conclusions 

and recommendations drawn from the Congress indicate 

in a more specific manner the empowerment of the role performed 

by the athletes within the Olympic Movement, outlining a trend 

of assigning to them a more substantive role in certain leadership 

levels, as we may notice in recommendation 27: 

Sports organizations must give an expanded role to athletes 

within their governing bodies. Furthermore, those IF's and NOC's 

which have not yet done so should create athletes commissions, 

and it is strongly recommended that the atheltes who are members 

of these commissions be elected. 

So, the rising trend, one of potentializing the status of the 

athletes' participation in the core of the Olympic Movement, discusses 

the identification of the values that the athlete assigns to 

64

the Games and to Olympism, in order to infer the possible impacts 

of his/her participation in the leadership of the Movement. We 

have passed over to the analysis of a significant portion of the 

current international production focusing on Olympism, i.e., the 

Records from the International Sessions of the International Olympic 

Academy from 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 and 1995, and the 

Records from the International Seminar Sport... The Third Millennium, 

held in Quebec, 1990, issued as a book edited by F. Landry 

in 1992. It seems that the number of works dedicated to the 

athlete, his/her values, conceptions and beliefs regarding Olympism 

in its multiple aspects, are very small indeed. 

We have tried to provide a reference for our bibliographical 

analysis through a consulation of the "Sport Discus". From the 

crossover of key words, such as "athletes" "Olympic", "olympism", 

"meanings", "values" and "conceptions", without restrictions, we 

confirmed the existence of only two research articles which had 

produced interpretations from empirical data gathered through 

the use of some sort of data collection device with respect to 

Olympic athletes. They are the following 

• Cagigal, J.M. The pedagogical Evaluation of the Olympic Games: 

A Survey. FIEP-BULLETIN; 45(4), 1975, 48-56. 

• Czula, R. Sport and Olympic Idealism. International Review of 

Sport Sociology. 2(13), 1978, 67-69. 

In this sense, our investigation, extending from the results and 

conclusions produced by the studies noted above, intends to surpass 

them by producing new knowledge about this set of themes, 

and new theoretical approaches that allow us to generate new 

understandings about the values and meanings that the Olympic 

athletes assign to Olympism, using attitudes scale (Likert method) 

plus a questionnaire with open questions. Therefore, from the 

gathered data this study has the purpose of developing itself 

based on two intepretative axes, as follows 

1) An historical interpretative axis, comparing the answers provided 

by old and young Brazilian Olympic athletes, trying to identify 

possible misplacements in the meanings assigned to Olympic practice 

and to Olympism. These interpretations will be put in context 

65

y the results obtained in Cagigal's and Czula's researches and 

in a secondary historical research, based on newspapers and books 

of the target period of time, in order to gather facts and data 

regarding the object of the research. 

2) An interpretative axis of the "representations", based on the 

concept of "quasigroups" by Adrian Mayer to study "entities without 

any identifiable structure, but whose members have certain common 

interests or attitudes which somehow may bring them together 

into definite groups". Also based in the Jeremy Boissevain's theorizations, 

to whom it is important to understand the social actor 

not as a member of groups and institutional bodies, passively 

obedient to rules and pressures, but rather as "...an entrepreneur 

who tries to manipulate social rules and relations for his/her 

own social and psychological benefit". This focus implies the notion 

of individuals competing for scarce resources, having to choose 

from conflicting rules and manipulating these rules for their own 

benefit. 

Based upon these concepts we will try to extract interpretations 

from the comparison among the data gathered in the definition 

of five basic elements of Olympism, regarding the individual, as 

outlined by Ommo Grupe. Also regarding two general values of 

Olympism ideology defined by the literature as being constant. 

1. The principle of mind and body unity and the ideal of har 

monious education. Olympism is grounded on the spirit of "har 

mony" of man, so athletic muscular training therefore needs to 

be fitted into a broader ethical context. 

2. The human self-development by means of the athletic achieve 

ment. According to Coubertin, it is essential in sport, not only 

to develop the body, but to fulfill the" task of moral perfection". 

Striving for athletic achievement is a means of shaping and de 

veloping oneself. 

3. The idea of amateurism as a form of self-discipline and 

self-commitment. For the athlete, the pursuit of a "process of 

purification", a moral self-exercise, a form of secularized asceticism, 

which could be expressed by the motto "citius-altius-fortius". 

4. The principle of "Fair Play". The voluntary adherence to 

66

sport rules, principles and codes of conduct, keeping rules, observing 

the principles of fairness, renouncing unjustified advantages. 

It provides the opportunity to learn not only that success 

is achieved through will and perseverance, but also that is consecrated 

only through honesty and fairness. 

5. The principle of mutual respect. The peace ideal of sport: 

one of Coubertin's central concepts. For him, the peace ideal does 

not contradict the principle of athletic achievement and compe 

tition. On the contrary, international meetings and sport festivals, 

such as the Olympic Games, were explicitly envisaged as parts 

of the efforts for active peace and international understanding. 

6. Internationalism. 

7. Sport as a form of social pedagogy. 

67

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF 

DOPING PHENOMENON 

by Lorella VITTOZZI (ITA) 

In 1963 the Council of Europe gave a definition of doping: 

"Doping means to make use of physiological substances in 

immoderate quantity or abnormal method from healthy people 

whose only aim is to obtain an artificial increase of the performance 

during the competition". 

In ancient time sport was considered a form of religion, later 

during modern times it became a way to increase the spirit of 

union among nations. In the 1930's sport showed superiority of 

a nation or a political system: nowadays many athletes go in for 

sport just to obtain economical and social success. So, many of 

the athletes today resort to pharmacology to improve performance. 

As for the historian "La Cava" the term doping originates from 

a dialect of South Africa: "dop" stood for stimulating infusion 

people drank during religious festivities; the Dutch called "doopen" 

the substance used workers during the construction of the Channel 

of Amsterdam to increase physical capabilities. In 1889, in an 

English dictionary, doping stood for a narcotics blend which could 

improve performance of horses. From the racecourse, doping 

reached the stadium as athletes viewed drugs as a means to 

increase their performance. 

According to Czaky, in 1972, doping was born in Paradise where 

Eve ate an apple just to become as powerful as God. Philostratus 

tells that during Ancient Olympic Games athletes drank herb base 

tea and they ate mushrooms to improve their performance. 

In 1886 an English cyclist died after drinking a blend of cocaine, 

caffeine and "stricnina". It was the first case because of doping 

during a competition. During this period doping was very common 

in cycling. 

68

The IOC was born in 1894: Baron Pierre de Coubertin inaugurated 

the first Olympic Games of modern times in 1896. 

Till 1932 there have been 10 Olympiads but no Games in 1916 

because of the 1st World War. In the period between 1896 and 

1932 athletes coming from all over the World made use of cocaine, 

caffeine and "stricnina". French athletes drank "vin Mariani", a 

cocaine and wine based elixir which reduced fatigue. 

Even if people didn't regard doping as a remarkable problem, 

doctors realised that they should face the question, so in 1928 

they created FIMS, International Sport Medicine Federation. 

From 1936 to 1964 there were 8 Olympiads but in 1940 and 

1944, during the 2nd World War, the Games were cancelled. 

In 1936 Hitler made use of Olympic Games in Berlin to promote 

National Socialism, so the Olympic Games turned into a political 

system promotion. 

It was believed during the War that English soldiers made use 

of amphetamines. After the 2nd World War Olympic Games started 

again. A Danish cyclist, Kurt Enemar Jenses, died during the 

Rome Olympics. He swallowed 8 pills of phenylisopropylamine, 

15 pills of amphetamine and coffee. 

In 1954 Russians started making use of anabolic steroids to 

increase muscle volume. (Weight-lifters were the first and then 

it took place in field events). 

During Olympic Games in Tokyo the Medical Committee of the 

IOC was appointed and Sir Arthur Porrit assumed the presidency. 

After him Alexandre de Merode succeeded to the Presidency of 

the Medical Committee. 

Owing to the death of an athlete in Rome and the use of dope 

in Tokyo, IOC President, Avery Brundage, established in a letter 

dated 4th January 1966 a mandatory antidoping examination 

and as a penalty, if athletes violated their pledge, exclusion from 

the competition would occur. 

From 1968 till 1992 there have been 7 Olympiads. In this 

period the Medical Committee carried out 11,265 examinations: 

there were 17 affirmative samples for stimulants, 24 for anabolic 

steroids, 1 for diuretics and 4 for betablockers. The Medical Committee 

used athletes' urine samples as drug detectors. 

69

In 1998, during the Seoul Olympics the IOC Medical Committee 

had to resort to a several penalties: Ben Johnson was disqualified. 

In 1992, after the Barcelona Olympics the IOC Medical Committee 

changed regulations owing to new pharmacologie agents 

used by athletes. 

LIST OF FORBIDDEN SUBSTANCES AND PROCEDURES 

IOC -1967 

Psycomotor stimulants, "amine simpaticomimetiche'' stimulants of 

nervous system; analgesic narcotics 

ADDITION: 

IOC -1975 

Anabolic steroids 

IOC -1987 

Betablockers; diuretics / blood transfusion / corticosteroide; local 

anaesthetics; alcohol 

IOC -1989 

Peptidic hormones/pharmacological manipulation of urine / marijuana 

INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTEE 

LIST OF SUBSTANCES AND DOPING METHODS 

17TH MARCH 1993 

Doping substances: stimulants; narcotics; anabolic steroids; 

diuretics; peptidic hormones (eritropoietin - epo-, corionic Gonadotrophine 

-HCG-, corticotrophine -ACTH-, somatotrophine - 

HGG-) 

Doping methods: red blood cell reinfusion; pharmacologie manipulation 

Restrictions: alcohol; marijuana; local anaesthetics (no cocaine); 

corticosteroids; betablockers ("acebutolo, alprenolo, atenolo, 

labetalolo, metroprololo, nadololo, osprenololo, propranololo"). 

Bibliography 

1. Bientinesi L., Pigozzi F., Pintus G.F., Saggese G., Fannaci E. Sport. Roma, 

FOFI, 1991. 

70

2. Becket A.H. and Cowan D., Misuse of Drugs Sport. Brit. J. Sports Med., 

1979. 

3. Bergaman R., Leach E.R., The use of and abuse of anabolic steroids in Olympic 

Caliber Sports. Clin. Orthop. 198, 1984. 

4. Burstin S., Cinq ans de contrôle médical antidopage en milieu sportif. Medicine 

du Sport. 1972. 

5. Csaky T.Z. Doping Journal of sports medicine and physical Fitness. 1972. 

6. De Rose E.H., Doping nos esportes. Med. Esporte (Porto Alegre) 1974. 

7. De Rose E.H., Chernilo B.B., Méndez L., Pini M.C., Aspectos organizacionales 

y científicos del control medico efectuado durante los IX Juegos Panameri 

canos-Caracas 1983. Archivos de la sociedad de medicina del Deporte (Chile) 

1983. 

8. De Rose E.H. Controle andipagem nos jogos olímpicos de Los Angeles, Medicina 

do Esporte, 1985. 

9. De Rose E.H., Dopagem e desporto. In fundamentos biológicos da medicina 

do esporte. Ed.: Araujio, C.G.S. Rio de Janeiro, Livro Técnico, 1985. 

10.De Rose E.H., O uso de anabólicos esteroides e sua srepercussoes na saude. 

In a procura de novos paradigmas em educaçao fisica. Mec, Brasilia, 1989. 

ll.Dirix A., La lutte contre le dopage. Paris, UCI, 1991. 

12.La Cava G., Manuale pratico di medicina sportiva. Torino, Minerva, 1973. 

13. Silvy S., Gasbarrone E., Parisi A., Pigozzi F., Tranquilli D., I farmaci 

"Doping" 

nel repertorio farmaceutico Italiano. Roma, AMSR, 1990. 14. Wagner J.C., 

Abuse of drug used do enhance athletic performance. American 

Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, 1989. 

71

THE ATHLETE AND THE OLYMPIC IDEA: 

CREATING ATHLETE-CENTERED 

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS 

Introduction 

by Michelle BROWNRIGG (CAN) 

Athlete-centered sport is currently being presented as a relatively 

new and progressive concept (Clarke, 1994, Kidd, 1996). However, 

examination of the "Olympic Idea", which has been the very essence 

of the Modern Olympic Movement since its inception, reveals 

that Olympism has always held the harmonious development of 

humans in the sporting context as a central principle. The sociopolitical 

climate in which the Olympic Games and the International 

Olympic Committee have developed in the last century has 

led to a marginalization of the athlete. Concerns with commercialization, 

television broadcasting rights, political agendas, event marketing 

and a number of other administrative issues dominate the 

text in the pages of the Olympic Charter and the bulk of IOC 

activity. It is in this climate then, that the current concept of 

athlete- centered programming is seen as something "new", when 

it in fact is an attempt to reclaim the essence of Olympism. 

This very brief text cannot begin to address the many issues 

involved in Olympism and sport. Its purpose is not to attempt 

an in-depth scholarly discussion of the area, but to present the 

idea of athlete-centered sport from the perspective of a practitioner 

in Social Sport Psychology, and to provide one case example 

of an effort to bring athletes' needs to the center of a 

particular sport program. 

The Mind-Body Concept, The Athlete and the Olympic Idea 

Pierre de Coubertin's humanistic approach to the revival of 

the Olympic Games and to the Olympic Movement is expressed 

72

in the Olympic Idea, which he described as "sport for the harmony 

of the human machine, for the smooth equilibrium of mind and 

body, for the joy of feeling oneself more intensely alive," (1966). 

Rationalistic humanism views the mind and body as interdependent 

aspects of the unified self, and vitalistic humanism states that the self 

"is experientially known as an embodied consciousness without separation 

of the mind and body," (Bandy, 1986, pp. 26 & 28). 

While the Olympic Charter (1994) does use the term "Olympic 

Idea" (Lenk, 1979), its Fundamental Principles speak of Olympism 

as a "philosophy of life exalting and combining in a balanced 

whole the qualities of body, will and mind," and extols the importance 

of the "preservation of human dignity". Sport is the 

primary manifestation of the Olympic Movement. Hence, the athlete 

- the fundamental sport participant, is at the very center of Olympism. 

Therefore, his or her sport participation should embody 

the humanistic approach of balanced, harmonious development. 

The Mind-Body Concept and the Field of Sport Psychology 

There are many approaches to practice in the field of sport 

psychology. Regrettably, some sport psychology consultants have 

assisted athletes with the separation of mind and body (e.g. mental 

techniques to ignore dangerous physical pain, facilitation of a 

unidimensional sense of self). My personal approach to sport psychology 

consultation is to enhance the athlete's internal ability 

to harmonize the mind and body both within and outside the 

practice of sport. This form of sport psychology attempts to consider 

the various aspects of an athlete's psychosocial development. Hence, 

the athlete's needs, desires and social roles etc. are central to 

the consultation process. My hope is to enhance the performance 

of the athlete as a whole being within the sporting context, a 

context which provides tremendous opportunities for the discovery 

of self and others on a regular basis. 

Social Context and Psychosocial Development 

Sport psychology is often viewed as simply a facilitation of the 

athlete's cerebral and motor skill abilities. However, the approach 

described above takes into consideration the tremendous impact 

73

of the athlete's social context on his or her development (e.g. 

family situation, income, race, gender, sexual orientation). Equally 

important is the social context of sport within which both the consultant 

and athlete must work. The high value placed on winning 

in the sporting world can often conflict with the harmonious development 

of body and mind. Therefore the context of the sport society 

must be considered carefully by the consultant so that she or he 

effectively manages the needs of the athlete within this contradictory 

environment. 

The Concept of Athlete-Centered Sport 

Athlete-centered sport programming is an attempt to bring the 

humanistic approach of mind-body development to the realm of 

sport practice. In particular, it is a humanistic approach which 

strives to place the athlete at the helm of his or her athletic 

development. "Implicit in this approach is the right of athletes, 

individually and collectively, to participate in the formulation of 

what (is meant) by excellence", (Kidd, 1979, p. 26). Its aim is to 

assist, support and educate athletes of all ages in the harmonious 

development of mind and body within the social context of their 

sport participation. It also encourages the athlete to critically examine 

and take responsibility for the sport environment, and to 

develop a personal meaning of excellence which can be shared 

with others. 

A Canadian Case Example: The 'Έ.D.G.Ε. Program" at the 

University of Toronto 

The Department of Athletics and Recreation and the School of 

Physical and Health Education at the University of Toronto embarked 

on a joint project to develop an educational support service 

for student-athletes three years ago. The E.D.G.E. is an acronym 

for "Educational, Developmental, and Growth Experiences". The 

name was chosen to represent the goals of the program and also 

to derive an acronym which student-athletes could associate to 

university life and sport. The basic tenet of the program involved 

the recognition that student-athletes, who strive for excellence in 

74

sport, school and life, have unique needs as well as unique capabilities 

to offer to others. 

The initial focus of the program was simply to give athletes 

an opportunity to develop mental skills in relation to sport and 

to have a confidential "space" where they could discuss their 

concerns. The program involved typical psychological skill training 

in the areas of concentration, managing anxiety, etc. However, it 

also focused on aspects of coach-athlete relations, interpersonal 

communication, school-sport balance, and injury prevention and 

management. The program has continually expanded its scope, 

embarking on special projects such as initiation and hazing in 

the sport environment, harassment in sport, body-image issues 

in sport, drug-education and athlete satisfaction with the sport 

program. The types of outreach by the E.D.G.E. include individual 

consultation with athletes and coaches, team facilitation, and some 

community outreach education. The most recent expansion of 

the E.D.G.E. has been to expand programming to the fitness and 

health community at the University, so that a wider range of 

people may benefit from its services and principles. 

To discuss the program in detail would exceed the limits of 

this brief account. However, there are some important details 

which must be noted. This program is quite unique in that it 

links research and practice. Its administration and services have 

been essentially conducted by graduate students in sport psychology 

and sociology under the supervision of an academic and 

staff advisor. The program has been mutually beneficial for the 

athlete, coach and consultant practitioners as well as for the 

research development of students and professors. The program 

has gained credibility in its three short years as represented by 

a consistent increase in budget allotment, partnerships with other 

programs on campus and in the community, and use of the service 

by athletes and other members of the department. It is essential 

to state that the program is a form of educational consultation 

and not a clinical counselling center. Its purpose is to provide 

athletes with a consistent "first-stop" support service. Any and 

all issues beyond the capacity of the program are referred to 

more capable sources; communication with the athlete on her or 

his progress is maintained. 

75

The E.D.G.E. is in a process of growth, expansion and change. 

It has all the logistical, structural and ethical issues of a developing 

program. However, while the future state of the program remains 

to be seen, at present it has achieved the goal of developing 

athlete-centered awareness at the University of Toronto. 

Conclusion: Olympism - Reclaiming Athlete Focus 

Bringing the athlete back to center stage in the current economic 

and political milieu surrounding the administration of the Olympic 

Games and the Olympic Movement may seem very difficult, but 

I believe it is essential for the survival of Olympism. The IOC 

holds increasing responsibilities to nations, sponsors and television 

companies, but the fundamental principles of their movement - 

the commitment to the harmonious development of persons and 

to the preservation of human dignity make them accountable to 

the athletes who are the center of sport and the center of Olympism. 

Those who believe in a personal commitment to Olympic Education 

are accountable for the development of responsible, balanced persons 

in the form of athletes. Keeping the athlete at the center, 

in as many small and large ways as possible is in my belief the 

best way to preserve sport, preserve health and preserve the Olympic 

Movement. 

References 

1. Bandy, S.J. (1986). A humanistic interpretation of the mind-body problem in 

western thought. In S. Kleinman, Mind and Body: East Meets West. Illinois: 

Human Kinetics, pp. 25-30. 

2. Clarke, H. (1994). Athlete-Centered System. Ottawa, Canada: National Planning 

Framework for Sport, Federal Provincial/Territorial Sport Policy Steering Com 

mittee. 

3. Coubertin, P. (1966). The Olympic Idea: Discourses and Essays. Lausanne: 

Editions Internationales Olympic. 

4. Kidd, B. (1979), Athlete's rights, the coach and the sport psychologist. In P. 

Klavora & J.V. Daniel (Eds.), Coach, Athlete and the Sport Psychologist. Illinois: 

Human Kinetics, pp. 25-39. 

5. Kidd, B. (1996). Taking the rhetoric seriously: Proposals for Olympic education. 

Quest, Vol. 48, pp. 82-92. 

6. Lenk, H. (1979). Sodai Philosophy of Athletics, Illinois: Stipes Publishing Com 

pany. Olympic Charter (1994), International Olympic Committee. 

76

SPORTS AND NATIONALISM. 

THE IDEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 

OF SWEDISH SPORT 

by Nils-Olof ZETHRIN (SWE) 

In the presentation I tried to discuss how the Swedish sports 

movement at the turn of the century related to the concepts of 

morality, ethics and nationalism. I focused on their ambition of 

trying to construct an image of "the good Swedish sportsman", 

and in this respect the male sportsman. 

In Sweden the organised sports movement dates back till the 

decades around the beginning of the twentieth century. It emerged 

that ethics - and above all morality - was something that was 

very much emphasised by the representatives of the sports movement. 

Closely related to their moral mission were the ideas associated 

with nationalism which characterised this period of time. 

I put forward these possible definitions. The morals of an individual 

or a group show in what actions are taken or not taken. 

Ethics, on the other hand, are the reflections taken on the legitimacy 

of these actions. Ethics had to do with the theoretical reflections 

of human values and their origins. Morality concerns tradition 

and is best described as a matter of following the accepted manners 

and customs. Tradition stands for order and here you find the 

law and the legitimacy. 

The early organised sports movement wanted to make a connection 

between their enterprise and national tradition. By using 

sports as their instrument they wanted to build a moral nation. 

This image of a moral nation clashed with the forward striving 

spirit of the modern society. 

What personal properties were to characterise the good sportsman 

according to the representatives of the sports movement? 

The Swedish king Karl XII, whose reign was ended 1718, was 

77

sometimes used as a role model for the Swedish sportsmen. This 

royal personage has often been used to serve nationalistic causes, 

where he has been given a mythological status. He was ascribed 

a lot of positive personal qualities, which were taken from descriptions 

of the past in accordance with the historical writings 

from the turn of the century. But did these qualities make Karl 

XII a good sportsman before the concept was even invented? 

Character and morals had to do with the possession of a sound 

and healthy spirit. The spokesmen for the sports movement meant 

that a sound spirit was connected with a traditional and conservative 

moral conception. This was for the leading persons in the 

Swedish sports movement the same thing as patriotism. Sports 

fostered morality and morality promoted the nation. The good 

Swedish sportsman should be prepared to defend his nation against 

inner and outer threats. The ethical ideals were courage, sense 

of duty, self-sacrifice, and the despising of pleasure-seeking. 

The nation was viewed as the highest moral standard. Sports 

served as a means of reaching established goals. The sports movement 

was to assist in contributing with a source of soldiers. 

These soldiers should be willing to defend the nation against any 

outer threats to the borders of the nation. They would also defend 

their country against any inner threats that sought to cause a 

disruption in the traditions, customs and the sanctioned organisation 

of the nation. The sports movement was a spiritual fosterer 

with physical means. The physical means did not give room for 

intellectual reflection on these conditions. 

By the end of the 19th century the vision of a national state 

was newly invented. To give legitimacy to the concept of a nation, 

one wanted to link up with old traditions, great achievements of 

the past, and to ancient symbols. 

An interesting analogy during the same period of time is the 

foundation of the out-door museum by the name of Skansen. 

The tourist organisations were also part of this movement to manifest 

what was genuinely Swedish. Tourism was a central part 

because if you had no notion of what Sweden looked like, you 

could hardly get a concrete geographical conception of the country. 

78

In the aims of creating an image of Sweden as a cultural unit, 

it was obvious how one tried to invent traditions. What was typically 

Swedish could be found in the history of the country, and it 

could be actualised through sports by creating the good Swedish 

sportsman. 

The good Swedish sportsman was meant to find the source of 

his powers in the history of the nation and use it to realise the 

ideas of the native country. At the same time we know that the 

concept of a national state was a modern invention. The traditions 

one used as a reference were invented in the current historical 

situation around the turn of the century, and were therefore by 

no means ancient. The image of a unified Swedish culture was 

also a contemporary invention, and the spokesmen for the sports 

movement played an active part in its materialisation. 

So what did the efforts of trying to create a good Swedish 

sprotsman result in? A stable organisation to promote the development 

of Swedish sports was created. But the aim to create a 

good Swedish sportsman as a part of a national ideology was 

abandoned after the first world war, to give way for the image of 

a sporting nation. In the image of a sporting nation, the performance 

of sports was a goal in itself, instead of being a means of implementing 

the ideals of nationalism. Alongside this process the moral 

concept was left in favour of the ethical ideals which were promoted 

in the Age of Enlightenment. The unreflected acceptance of tradition 

based on morality was replaced by trying to promote a good life 

based on the present conditions. It was at this stage that Swedish 

sports changed from being an organised movement carrying the 

ideals of nationalism, into becoming a part of the welfare state. 

In the welfare state there was no room left for the advocates of 

morality using their own invented traditions as a base for moral 

judgement. It seems possible that the Swedish sportsmen now 

started to be seen as products of the collective body, and of the 

conditions provided for them by society. The nation provided a 

base for the sportsman, rather than the other way around. 

79

OLYMPIC AND THE 20th CENTURY BODYMIND 

by Maco YOSHIOKA (JPN) 

My intention in this paper was to make us realize how we 

tend to rely on the existing thinking style unknowingly and how 

much we are accustomed to a certain body image, and further 

more, how harmful it is to do so and to be so, by showing various 

body images and by pointing out that body image is not something 

which exists independently of its context but something which 

evolves in accordance with its context. 

I talked about the 20th century context (dualism, luck of involvement, 

manipulation of nature, detachment, subject/object, 

mind/body, self/others) in which "mechanistic body image" evolved 

and the ancient oriental context (wholism, involvement, commitment, 

harmony, no boundary) in which "wholistic body image" 

evolved. Using this comparison, I analyzed how human mind 

evolved from wholism to dualism, and what kind of role modern 

Olympic played in this evolution of human mind. 

I finished the discussion by showing the possibility of further 

evolution of our thinking style and behaviour (from simple dualism 

to more sophisticated thinking style, restoration of involvement 

and introduction of more reflection on ourselves interacting with 

the environment). 

Finally I asked ourselves what we can do now to change ourselves 

to the better. The presentation ended with exciting discussion. I 

thank you all for your cooperation. 

MAIN POINTS 

1. Various body images. 

2. The body image dominating the 20th century (mechanistic body 

image). 

80

3. The way of thinking on which mechanistic body image bases 

itself (dualism). 

4. The body, image in ancient oriental thought and medicine 

(wholism). 

5. How human mind evolved from wholism to dualism (modern 

ization of human mind). 

6. Body image in modern Olympic. 

7. Towards the 21st century. 

81

THE MAIN CHALLENGES FACING 

THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT 

by Khalid Hassan ELBEELY (SUD) 

There are many challenges which race the Olympic Movement 

nowadays, but I would like to concentrate mainly on three main 

topics, Commercialization, Gigantism, Television Content. 

1-Commercialization 

Commercialism in the context of the Olympic Movement, "is 

an association with business or commercial enterprises for the 

benefit of both parties". 

Olympic marketing is now new Looking at Olympic History, 

even in the Games of Antiquity wealthy Patrons were called upon 

to help support athletes in their training and to supply them 

with the necessary equipment. The 1896 Games were funded by 

stamps, tickets sales, commemorative medals, programme advertising, 

and above all, private donations. 

This challenge continued well into Olympic History, as no standard 

provisions were made in the development of the Olympic 

Charter for raising funds. From the 1950s, the interest and involvement 

of corporations started to grow. But, it was until Los 

Angeles Games in 1984 that the trend towards commercial sponsorship 

was checked. A well-executed corporate programme of 

sponsor, supplier and licence categories was developed, each with 

distinct right and exclusivity. 

So, in 1985, the IOC took the lead to develop and launch a 

world-wide sponsorship programme. The Olympic Programme 

(TOP), which combined sponsorship of all NOCs and the Olympic 

Games in one global commercial package. 

This new system (TOP) introduced distribution of sponsorship 

revenue throughout the Olympic Family (in 1996, all 197 NOCs 

benefited from the TOP Programme). 

82

Hence, we can say there are several benefits which accrue to 

the Olympic Movement from its commercial relationship 

i-There is incremental revenue to be derived. 

ii-The ability to generate independent sources of revenue provides 

sport authorities with a level of autonomy and independence. 

iii-It brings with it unparalled opportunity to generate a public 

awareness of the values of sport and the Olympic Movement. 

iv-The existence of business relationship forces sport organization 

to develop their own sense of financial responsibility and 

self discipline. 

One of the dangers occuring as a result of commercialization, 

is that the athlete has become less significant than the event. 

The result is that the athlete is being used as a billboard sporting 

the symbols and trademarks of MNCs. This reality risks growing 

worse in coming years, with a depreciation in athletic performance 

as a result. Therefore, the athletes who suffer stress resort to 

illicit means in order to achieve their goals (e.g. doping). 

Principles and experience, however, are the means by which 

the Olympic Movement can guard against the dangers, and enter 

into commercial relationships which can meet the objectives of 

the Movement and the interest of commercial partners. 

2-Television Content 

In order to remain unique, the Olympic Movement should make 

an effort to understand the internal logic of the Media, without 

renouncing its own logic, i.e. its principles of sport pedagogy and 

of universal participation. 

Hence, in order to achieve these objectives they should consider 

the following main aspects: 

i-To maintain the impressive nature of the competitions, but 

without threatening participation. 

ii-The Olympic Movement should try to make its financial needs 

compatible with its pedagogical objectives and should in no case 

subordinate the latter. 

iii-The Media should consider the broadcasting of the Games 

and especially of the ceremonies as cultural events. 

83

iv-The people in charge of the Olympic Programme must adapt 

themselves to the demands of the most popular sport (those with 

largest audience). However, they should also reserve a time quota 

for the least popular sport. 

3-Gigantism 

Gigantism in relation to the Olympic Games implies that the 

Games are going to be on a bigger scale, which means that there 

will be more participants and more events. 

Hence, in 1896, fewer than 300 athletes took part in the first 

Olympic Games in Athens, and in 1996 approximately 10,000 

athletes participated in Atlanta. The progression has been exponential 

over the last hundred years, one can therefore ask how 

many athletes will there be in 2012 or 2020? Without a doubt, 

20,000 or more. As a result, there are problems of organization, 

financing for the construction of the Olympic Village, of sponsorship 

and of the various elements of the Media trying to outbid each 

other, i.e. the IOC will care about the amount of money baid, 

and might not care about the Olympic Ideals. 

At the same time, the dream of one day organizing the Olympic 

Games in a Third World Country will be further out of reach 

(especially for us Africans). Nowadays, African participation in 

the Games is a problem owing to the various countries slim means. 

However, highly effective measures set up by the IOC enable our 

countries to take part. The appointment of his excellency Mr Juan 

Antonio Samaranch as head of the World Olympic Movement served 

as a trigger. Room was made for Third World Countries, and 

Africa particularly began to have sizable means at its disposal. 

However, inspite of these worrying prospects which the Olympic 

Movement will encounter in the twenty-first century, we can say 

in all certainty that the spirit of the people of the IOC will find 

the right answers. 

The framework that has been set up is the result of preventive 

diplomacy in the service of sport started by his excellency Mr 

Juan Antonio Samaranch. By visiting virtually all the world's NOCs, 

84

the IOC President has given new life to the Olympic Movement, 

and has done so from the roots upwards. 

Therefore the Olympic Movement with its new found youth can 

enter the third millenium confident in its instincts for self preservation. 

Olympic Solidarity assists the NOCs, the Olympic Museum 

records the history and memory of the IOC, and the IFs and 

decentralizing agencies take part in important decisions. Moreover, 

the medical and broadcasting commissions are setting the standards. 

These protective measures diminish our concern, and assure 

us of a glorious future for the Olympic Movement in the twenty-first 

century. 

Future generations will be grateful to us for having preserved 

for them this instrument of peace and international harmony. 

85

Introduction 

SOME ETHICAL ASPECTS OF THE 

OLYMPIC MOVEMENT 

by Reele REMMELKOOR (EST) 

Ethics, according to Aristotle, is a matter of inspiration, desire 

and arduous seeking or acting with grace or beauty. Aristotle further 

describes ethics as a phronesis i.e. "wisdom of action". The 

concern is not what makes an ethical theory correct or what rules 

are adhered to but what makes the person's singular concrete 

action good when evaluated in terms of the goals which have 

been established. In the Olympic Movement, the sportsmen's 

greatest complexity is how to arrive at a method for discerning 

what to do in any given situation. Ethics in this context may not 

meaningfully be seen as a question of propositions or codes or 

rules. Instead, ethics should be viewed in terms of Aristotle's 

phronesis - wisdom of action. 

Since the Olympic Movement has nowadays very large extent, 

there have appeared many problems connected with it. 

Fair Play - the dream or reality? 

The simplest and shortest expression of Olympism is: "Playing 

together fairly". Indeed, sport without Fair Play loses its potentials 

for self-fulfilment and for enriching individual and group 

relationships. However, Fair Play for some sportsmen appears 

like a mechanism to prevent success. Equal opportunities or Fair 

Play - how did the development of Olympic Movement reach to 

such dilemma? Looking for answer to this question, we should 

ask: 

what was at the beginning? 

To go to the beginning, let us be led by the Olympic flame, 

struggling toward divine height, which in my opinion is the symbol 

86

of purity Games, e.g. Games with ethical conduction, like we 

believe they were in antiquity. I believe that at the moment of 

the lighting of the Olympic flame on an antique Olympic stadium, 

surrounded by solemn quiet, nobody could think about wars, 

boycotts, doping and about the commercialization of the Games. 

Thus, at the beginning of the path of the Olympic flame ethical 

values were honourable. 

The pressure of money - first step 

But the problems arise with the future journey of the flame. 

As the Olympic Games in Atlanta showed us, the majority of 

things in this world, at least the majority of things in America, 

are connected with money. We may ask why the Greeks were 

not chosen to organize the Centennial Olympic Games, although 

they had given us the ancient Games and the first contemporary 

Games? What would be more natural than to celebrate the anniversary 

of the Olympic Games at their homeland? Is the choosing 

of the Olympic Games host cities ethical any more if it depends 

on money? Perhaps we should just measure the money of a potential 

host cities in order to choose the site of the Olympic Games - it 

would be more simple and quicker. 

The pressure of money - second step 

For today the commercial pressure of the sponsors has became 

the measurement of success. If such pressure is sustained, there 

may be need for parallel counting between sponsoring firms as 

well as between individual sportsmen. The other expression of 

the commercialization of the Olympic Games is the change of 

high level sport into entertainment. TV companies influence the 

outset of the competitions, the orders of advertising companies 

are decreasing or eliminating the prevalence of the "unattractive" 

sports. In addition there has risen a problem of unattractivity of 

sportsmen who do not belong to the elite class of the world. If 

the permanent process of increasing the norms of qualification 

will be continued, then in future there will be many countries 

which will not be able to send their sportsmen to the Olympic 

Games. The vice president of the I.O.C. Richard Pound, has sug- 

87

gested that the so-called "honour sportsmen" from these countries 

could participate only in the opening ceremony. In my opinion it 

is only an attempt to gloss the show surrounding the Olympic 

Games, at the same time when the Games are under such pressure 

of money that they treat the sportsmen as toys in the hands of 

money-makers. 

The pressure of money - third step 

Together with the big money appearing to the Olympic sports 

there appeared also the problems of doping. The list of the forbidden 

substances is growing; today's sportsmen must have good knowledge 

of medicine. There may be a danger that the high level 

sports will become a lawyers battlefield. Each sportsman must 

think by himself about the essence of the sports. The Olympic 

Motto a Citius...Altius...Fortius n must not be taken as absolute proclamation 

to display maximum excellence, to winning medals and 

breaking records. Striving towards the records in any case may 

lead to use doping. Throughout times many sportsmen have appeared 

to use doping. These deviant groups use several neutralization 

and mitigation techniques. These include belittling and 

trivialization through language, the control-deficiency-hypothesis, 

the idea of just compensation, refusal to accept responsibility etc. 

It is the attempt to achieve socially accepted goals with socially 

unacceptable means. 

What we should do? 

Step by step, the fact becomes clear that the roots of all these 

problems are the contradictions between todays high level sports 

and the Olympic Idea. They may be called as contradictions between 

the ethical values and the vices of the people. Living in a real 

world we can not ask how it will be possible to surpass these 

contradictions but we may ask how to approximate today's high 

level sport to the Olympic Idea. Adding cultural events to the 

Olympic Games again might not change the people's thoughts. 

So, maybe we should ask: is there any more possibilities to involve 

the Olympic Movement with ethics? Ór even - why we should do 

it? Why is sport different to us from the paintings or compositions 

88

where nobody controls the using of drugs? In my opinion, sport 

is different because it has greater influence. Sport has a big influence 

already for the children, as we saw in the short video of 

Prof. Beamish. This is what we should protect - the pure game 

in every sport, what brings people together from all over the world. 

Only this way can we follow the words of Pierre de Coubertin: 

"Keep watch on the sacred flamer 

89

POLITICS IN OLYMPIC GAMES: 

BOYCOTTS, CONFLICTS, PROTESTS 

by Ilkka VIROLAINEN (FIN) 

Politics has involved into the Olympic Games. Already in ancient 

Games there was politics involved and politics role has become 

much bigger in modern Games. That could have been seen as many 

boycotts, conflicts and protests. Behind these boycotts, conflicts 

and protests there is usually nation but specially conflicts and 

protests have also been caused by individuals. Boycotts, conflicts 

and protests are done for various reasons for example because of 

apartheid, war etc. But usually the basic reason for them is the 

same: politics. 

In 1968 Mexico's Games there were demonstrations made by 

students who demonstrated against internal government. In those 

games there was also famous protests made by American athletes 

who protested against racism. In 1972 Munich Games were the 

"bloodiest" Games in Olympic's history. Then terrorists attakted 

against Israels and 17 men got killed. 

Between years 1976-1984 there were big boycotts. In 1976 

Montreal there were 28 African nations and free nations outside 

Africa who boycotted the Games. In 1980 Moscows Games there 

was also big boycotts. The boycotting nations included also big sport 

nations like USA and West-Germany so the Games sport value 

decreased. There was a revange in 1984 Los Angeles when Soviet 

Union and also some other socialist nations boycotted the Games. 

In 1988 Seoul there was an attempt to organize the Games in two 

countries: in North Korea and in South Korea. North Korea's attempt 

to get part of the Games failed and so they boycotted the Games. In 

1992 there were several bomb attacks before the Games, although 

during the Games the situation calmed down. In Atlanta's Games 

1996 all the nations that were invited took also part in the Games. 

90

So then there wasn't any boycotts, although there was a bomb 

attack which killed two people and hurted over 100. 

The IOC and Juan Antonio Samaranch have done great job 

by cutting boycotts off. It will be seen if they also succeed cutting 

conflicts and terrorism off. It will be seen in Sydney. 

91

THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT IN THE 

INFORMATION SOCIETY ERA 

by Berta CEREZUELA (ESP) 

The technological, industrial and social transformations we are 

living in, are carrying a revolution that affects all aspects of society. 

The consequences of this revolution could be compared with those 

produced by the invention of the Printing or the First Industrial 

Revolution. A new society is emerging; the Information Society. 

This new emerging society is mainly characterised by: the strategic 

importance of information and knowledge in all human activities; 

the interConnectivity possible to establish between all the 

citizens; the enlargement of demand, the free flow expansion and 

easier way to access to the information and the interactivity that 

permits the most advanced technologies. All these changes will 

involve some consequences in work organisation, social relationships, 

education, political processes, environment, etc. 

Internet and resources location 

One of the main pillars of the Information Society are the 

telecommunication networks, and nowadays Internet, which symbolises 

the most authentic embryo in the information highways. 

Internet offers a huge range of possibilities in communication: 

simple message sending through electronic mail; the remote access 

databases consultation; the transference of files; the possibility 

to establish thematic discussion forums and the hypermedia information 

access by the, now famous, World Wide Web. 

Internet is being converted into an inexhaustible information 

source, the like of which has never existed. Faced with so many 

possibilities of accessible information and resources, one of the 

main problems for the user is finding the location of the information. 

When the user has access to Internet he feels like overwhelmed 

in front of the large amount of information accessible. On the 

92

other hand, he can feel disconcerted faced with the difficulties 

to have access to it. 

With the objective of making the location, access and consultation 

of the resources more easy, sophisticated tools or search 

engines have been developed. In spite of the facilities they offer 

when looking for information, these search engines use non-controlled 

indexing methods. As a consequence, the same search 

realised in different engines provides different results. Another 

problem is the ordination of the results; they dont follow hierarchical 

criteria. 

Actually, the Internet provides a large and varied amount of 

resources on Olympism: Olympic family websites such as National 

Olympic Committees, International Sport Federation and the International 

Olympic Committee; websites of centres devoted to 

the research and diffusion of Olympism such as Centres for Olympic 

Studies or Olympic Foundations; webs of cities that have been 

elected to be Olympic cities or have presented their candidature; 

catalogues of libraries with a documentary stock specialised on 

Olympism; individual pages and newsgroups where people can 

discuss any subject related to the Olympic Games. 

The Atlanta 96 Olympic Games have initiated a new age introducing 

Internet into the Olympic Games. They have been the 

first games to create an information system in Internet which 

provided information about the Olympic Games. 

How can Internet be useful for the Olympic Movement 

The International Olympic Committee, reminding with its mission 

of diffusion of the Olympic principles all over the world, 

since its creation in 1894 has been aware of the important role 

that mass media could play in the diffusion of the Olympic Ideal 

and in the development of the Olympic Movement. 

First of all there was the print media, then radio and finally 

and above all television, which has been the most important way 

to diffuse the Olympic Games. Nowadays, with the new information 

highways, a new way is open for communication. Besides provide 

information about the event, form opinions etc. The information 

93

highways allow spectators to interact with the Olympic Games 

actors, to approach more to them. 

The collaboration of Internet with Olympism is not limited to 

the celebration of the Olympic Games. Internet enables the interconnection 

of all the Olympic Movements members, making 

easier the dialogue between them, eliminating the geographical 

distances. In this way, Internet intervenes in the development of 

the Olympic Movement. 

As conceived by Pierre de Coubertin, Olympism is an education, 

an education of body, an education of spirit and an education 

of the soul. Nowadays, the Olympic Movement has different instruments 

for educating youth: the International Olympic Academy, 

the National Olympic Academies, some publications, etc. But these 

instruments are not enough for spreading the Olympic ideal all 

over the world. 

The information highways can help the Olympic Movement in 

its mission of educating youth. They can enable more rapid and 

broader communications for disseminating the Olympic ideal worldwide 

and providing an immediate and continuous access to the 

resources needed. 

94

A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF FAIR PLAY 

WITHIN OLYMPISM 

by Deborah P. McDONALD (CAN) 

Definition of Olympism 

INTRODUCTION 

[Olympism] is a. philosophy of life, exalting and combining in 

a balanced whole the qualities of body, will, and mind. Blending 

sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a 

way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational value 

of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical 

principles. 

The goal of Olympism is to place everywhere sport at the service 

of the harmonious development of man [sic], with a view to 

encouraging the establishment of a peaceful society concerned 

with the preservation of encouraging human dignity (Olympic 

Charter, 1995, p. 10). 

* This definition is intended by the IOC to represent the core structure 

or essence of Olympism. However, it is my opinion that vague 

definitions such as this serve only to identify general ideas 

underlying Olympism and thus do not make clear the core structure 

of essence of the philosophy. 

* In the search for clanty, many scholars have reduced definitions 

of Olympism into identifiable aspirations... 

Aspirations of Olympism (for example: Jeffrey Segrave, 1988) 

•Education •Peace and International Understanding •Cultural Expression 

•Excellence •The Independence of Sport 

•Equal Opportunity 

•Fair Play 

* It is expected that an understanding of the aspirations will clarífy 

the definitions of Olympism as well as illuminate its core structure. 

95

However, it is my opinion that the meanings of each of these 

aspirations are less than apparent. Aspiration identification will 

not be helpful in clarifying Olympism until such a time that the 

meanings of each are clarified. 

* My purpose is to clarify the essential meaning of fair play as one 

aspiration contributing to the essence of Olympism and to identify 

problems that may be associated with the inclusion of fair play as 

such. However, two preliminary steps may be taken prior to 

addressing this takes directly (first, a depiction of the nature of 

sport and second a depiction of the nature of rules in sports). 

THE NATURE OF SPORT 

Definition of Sport 

To play a sport "is to attempt to achieve a specific state of 

affairs (prelusory goal), using only the means permitted by the 

rules (lusory means), where the rules prohibit use of more efficient 

in favour of less efficient means (constitutive rules), ...where the 

rules are accepted just because they make possible such activity 

(lusory attitude)" (Bernard Suits, 1988, p. 41) and where the demonstration 

of physical skill and prowess is required (Klaus Meier, 

1988, p. 26). 

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Sport 

• It is a goal directed activity ... prelusory goal 

• The rules limit the permissible means of goal attainment... lusory 

means 

• The rules prohibit the more efficient in favour of less efficient 

means ... constitutive rules 

• The rules are accepted to make the activity possible ... lusory 

attitude 

• It requires the demonstration of physical skill and prowess (Klaus 

Meier, 1988, p. 26) 

Constitutive Rules 

THE NATURE OF RULES IN SPORT 

• Those rules that provide a "descriptive, defining framework which 

96

specifies the fundamental aspects of, and determine exactly what 

it entails to engage in a particular ... sport" (Klaus Meier, 1992, 

p. 6). 

• Those rules that specifically permit and proscribe certain means 

of attainment of the prelusory goal of any given sport. 

Regulative Rules 

• Those rules that "specify the type and severity of penalties to be 

applied when particular constitutive rules have been violated" 

(Klaus Meier, 1992, p. 7) 

• Rules that are added to the constitutive rules of a sport so that 

sport may be practiced 

Auxiliary Rules 

• Those rules that are intended to limit off-the-field conduct 

• These rules are defined as "contingent, supplementary, external 

restrictions or qualifications appended to a pre-existing activity 

already defined by its constitutive and regulative rules" (Klaus 

Meier, 1992, p. Tl) 

* Only those on-the-field actions directed toward the attainment of 

the prelusory goals of the sports in which they occur are considered 

within this paper. Thus, auxiliary rules are omitted from any further 

discussion. 

THE NATURE AND EVALUATION OF SPORT ACTIONS The 

Necessary and Sufficient Condition of Fair Flay 

• The action complies with the regulative rules of the sport in which 

it occurs 

Two Ways to "Comply With" the Regulative rules 

• Accidentally yet knowingly violate a constitutive rule and accept 

the penalty for that action 

• Intentionally violate a constitutive rule and accept the penalty for 

that action 

Three Subcategories of Fair Play 

• Actions characterized as fair play alone 

97

• Actions characterized as fair play and good sportspersonship 

• Actions characterized as fair play and bad sportspersonship 

The Necessary and Sufficient Condition of Good Sportspersonship 

• The action is committed in an attempt to grant an advantage to 

a fellow competitor in tha attainment of the prelusory goal of the 

sport in which it occurs 

Two Ways to Attempt to "Grant an Advantage" 

• Attempt to decrease one's own chances of attaining the prelusory 

goal 

• Attempt to improve a fellow competitor's chances of attaining the 

prelusory goal 

Two Subcategories of Good Sportspensonship 

• Actions characterized as good sportspersonship alone 

• Actions characterized as good sportspersonship and fair play 

The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Bad Sportspersonship 

• The action is not specifically permitted by the constitutive rules 

of the sport in which it occurs 

• The action is committed in an attempt to gain an advantage over 

a fellow competitor in the attainment of the prelusor goal of the 


Two Ways the Constitutive Rules may not "Specifically Permit" 

a Particular Action 

• The constitutive rules may specifically proscribe that particular 

action 

• The constitutive rules may be silent on that particular action 

Two Ways to Attempt to "Gain an Advantage" 

• Attempt to improve one's own chances of attaining the prelusory 

goal 

• Attempt to decrease a fellow competitor's chances of attaining the 

prelusory goal 

98

Three Subcategories of Bad Sportspersonship 

• Actions characterized as bad sportspersonship alone 

• Actions characterized as bad sportspersonship and fair play 

• Actions characterized as bad sportspersonship and cheating 

The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Cheating 

• The action is not specifically permitted by the constitutive rules 

of the sport in which it occurs 

• The action is committed in an attempt to gain an advantage over 

a fellow competitor in the attainment of the prelusory goal of the 


• The action violates a regulative rule of the sport in which it occurs 

* The first two necessary conditions are equivalent to those 

necessary and sufficient for bad sportspersonship. All actions of 

cheating are simultaneously bad sportspersonship. 

Two Ways to "Violate" a Regulative Rule 

• Accidentally yet knowingly violate a constitutive rule and not 

accept the penalty for that action 

• Intentionally violate a constitutive rule and not accept the penalty 

for that action 

The Interrelationship of Fair Play, Good Sportspersonship, 

Bad Sportspersonship and Cheating Within Sport 

Moral Judgements Associated with Classifications of Sport 

Actions 

Fair Play Good Sportspereonship Bad Sportspersonship Cheating 

• Fair • Worthy of praise • Wrong • Unfair 

• Required • Not required • Not prohibited • Prohibited 

QUESTIONING FAIR PLAY AS AN ASPIRATION OF 

OLYMPISM: IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS 

Fair play as an aspiration of Olympism Two Problems with 

the Inclusion of Fair Play as an Aspiration of Olympism 

• It may be implied that some morally wrong and undesirable 

99

actions (characterized as both fair play and bad sportspersonship) 

are acceptable as part of the essence of Olympism 

• Many morally good and extraordinarily generous actions beyond 

the demands of fair play (characterized as good sportspersonship 

alone) may be excluded from the essence of Olympism 

TOWARD AN ALTERNATIVE VISION OF OLYMPISM 

100

THE MORAL ASPECTS OF OLYMPIC MOVEMENT 

by Hossein MOJTAHEDI (IRI) 

The relationship between the physical and moral life has been 

of philosophical and educational interest for at least 2000 years. 

It is therefore not surprising that the issue and problems surrounding 

this relationship are still with us today. A look at the 

place of sport in contemporary life and a study of the appropriate 

literature suggests that there are three broad views about the 

relationship between participation in sport [including games] and 

moral development. 

We shall refer to these as the positive view, the neutral view, 

and negative view. The positive view is the belief that there is a 

clear, if unproven connection between the playing of team sports 

and the development of social and moral values. This kind of 

participation in sport, especially in the form of team games, was 

educationally useful in that it led to desirable social and moral 

outcomes. Such training could not only be provided on the playing 

fields but its effects were transferable into the world at large and 

could be called upon if necessary in battle or in the service of 

the Empire. Suffice it to say that in recent years this theory has 

been seriously questioned. 

The second or neutral view arises from the conceptual position 

that sport is a form of play and that, because of its self containment 

and separate nature, is discontinued with the "business of life" 

and is therefore when compared to lifes' concern, morally unimportant. 

The third or negative view is one that largely arises from 

the findings of empirical studies which are often based upon 

professional or high level competitive sport where winning is deemed 

of crucial importance. Such studies point to the fact that not 

only does cheating and foul play occur, but that to be successful 

one must possess such traits as dominance, assertiveness and 

101

non sociability. Furthermore, it would seen that the qualities often 

associated with sportsmanship, such as generosity, are more likely 

to be disregarded by high level participants than by low level 

ones. Such findings are made aboundantly apparent both on television 

and in the newspapers when coverage is given to big math 

events. Because of undesirable tendencies associated with some 

forms and levels of competitive sports, some educationist have 

argued that competitive sport is antithetical to moral education, 

that it detracts from rather than enhances moral development. 

Such facts about the relationship between sport and morality can 

be disregarded. 

Immoral behaviour not only takes place in the sport competition 

but in other places such as schools, universities and public places. 

Can sport and physical education activity control these immoral 

behavior or not? It is hard to answer this question. In broad 

terms, justice as fairness is related to sport, with regard to the 

principle of freedom by an individual to have the right to choose 

or reject a certain sport. In narrow terms it relates to his or her 

agreeing to the rules characterising that sport. Insofar as the 

individual sees his or her life and moral character bound up 

coexistent with his or her choice, activities and efforts, that person 

will see that sport is no less serious than other forms of human 

practice. 

The point here is that although a sport may be regarded as a 

kind of practice characterised by its rules, it is by no means 

separate form of life like law or medicine, that morally relevant. 

Similarly, the principle of equality relates to sport in that players 

of a particular sport come together in the full knowledge that its 

rules apply to themselves as well as others. They realise and 

agree that the rules are in the interest of all players and are 

expected to be applied impartially so that one player or team will 

not gain an unfair advantage over another. The point here is that 

both logically and morally there is one way to play the game 

fairly by the rules. 

102

References 

1. Arnold P.J. (1982). Competitive games and education, physical education review, 

5, 126-130. 

2. Arnold, P.J. (1985). Moral aspects of an education in movement, human kinetic 

publishers inc Review, p. 14-18. 

3. Jeffrey O. Segrave, Donald Chu. The Olympic Games in transition Human 

kinetic publishers, copyright 1988. 

4. MacAloon, J.J. 1981. This great symbol: Pierre D. Coubertin and the origins 

of the modem Olympic Games. Chicago University of Chicago Press. 

103

TAE KWON DO 

by Kwan In LIM (KOR) 

I. Introduction 

Tae Kwon Do, a districtly Korean martial art, has a five thousand 

years history. Having been practiced as a sport and as a 

martial at since its inception, Tae Kwon Do not only improves 

one's physical fitness and health but also develops one's inner 

peace and serenity. Tae Kwon Do, associated with the principles 

of Zen Buddhism, contributes both as a martial art and as a 

mental discipline to the development of these elements. 

In its earliest form, it was probably practiced as a means of 

protection from the attacks of wild animals. Specific stylized 

patterns were formed for instinctive self-defense and these patterns 

became a system of blocks, kicks and punches. It had been 

a major means of self-protection and discipline during the three 

kingdoms period, Koryo Dynasty and Yi Dynasty. Evidence of 

this includes the painted mural on the wall of a tomb in the 

kingdom of Koguryo that Tae Kwon Do was known of as early 

as 3 A.D. and 427 A.D. at the latest. During the Koryo Dynasty 

the study of unarmed combat in Kora reached its greatest popularity. 

However, during the Yi Dynasty this strong emphasis 

weakened military training, physical fitness and the ability to 

defend the nation. As the Yi Dynasty closed in 1909 with the 

Japanese occupation of Korea, the practice declined. The Japanese 

colonial government banned all cultural activities, including 

team sports and the practice of martial arts. Some Tae Kwon Do 

instructors continued to practice their skills in secrecy and 

through this Tae Kwon Do was kept alive. 

After the liberation of Korea in 1945, Tae Kwon Do began 

another developmental leap. There was a great deal of discussion 

among the master instructors about the united dojangs (martial 

104

art schools) and the recovering of traditional Tae Kyon. After 

many years of discussion, the leaders of six major schools were 

able to agree on a new, unified form and standardized methods 

of instruction. The name chosen for this form was Tae Kwon Do. 

In Korean language, Tae means to jump, kick or smash with the 

foot; Kwon means to punch or strike with the hand or the fist; 

Do means a philosophical way or ways of life. 

By the early 1960's Tae Kwon Do became a national sport as 

well as a martial art form. Tae Kwon Do was admitted as an 

official event for the first time at the forty-third Korean National 

Games. In January of 1971, Dr. Un-yong Kim was elected president 

of the Korean Tae Kwon Do Association. The Korea Tae 

Kwon Do Association has developed significantly and has advanced 

spiritually, physically and technically, both in Korea and 

internationally. In May of 1973, the First World Tae Kwon Do 

Champsionship was held at the Kukkiwon, which is the main 

educational and training centre of the Korea Tae Kwon Do Assocation. 

The World Tae Kwon Do Federation became an affiliate of the 

General Assembly of International Sports Federation in October 

of 1975. In 1976 the International Military Sports Council recognized 

Tae Kwon Do as an official sport and added it to their 

list of events. Tae Kwon Do was elevated to the international 

status of an Olympic sport by the Olympic committee in 1980. 

In 1984 the Asian Olympic Committee adopted Tae Kwon Do as 

an official sport of the Asian Games. It became a demonstration 

sport of the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games and continued as a demonstration 

sport of 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games and an official 

sport of the Hirosima Asian Games. The International Olympic 

Committee instated Tae Kwon Do as an official sport of the 2000 

Sydney Olympic Games and Korean will be the official language 

for that portion of the competition. 

Today, Tae Kwon Do as a competitive sport, promotes physical 

fitness in addition to being an effective martial art form. These 

two factors have contributed greatly to the prestige it now enjoys. 

105

I have designed a program for the instruction of Tae Kwon 

Do, which includes both the basic physical conditioning and the 

technical skills necessary in studying this martial art. Although 

this kind of training plan has not yet been developed to perfection, 

it has been reliable in improving the competitiveness of the 

Tae Kwon Do player. 

106

NIKOS NISSIOTIS AS 

A GREAT OLYMPIC PHILOSOPHER. 

HIS VIEWS AND INTELLECTUAL HERITAGE 

by Eroina SIERANT (POL) 

Nicos Nissiotis and his views fascinated and still do many people 

from all over the world who do care about the Olympism and are 

greatly concerned about its Movement. Olympic Idea is very important 

in the contemporary world, though people who try to 

shape this Idea in a rational way are very valuable and worth 

remembering. 

In this paper I would like to concentrate on this Olympic philosopher's 

views: 

1. THE OLYMPIC GAMES AS AN EVENT. It's a phenomenon in 

space and time. It bears the marks of the value system which 

can be detected by human reason. Human mind is challenged by 

this event to investigate this value system and grasp the root 

which is at the origin of event. The deepest Idea is related in the 

coscience of man once he is transcending by his reason; then he 

is reoriented towards new reality which gives sense to his life and 

to the whole world. 

2. THE VALUES "BEAUTIFUL, GREAT AND TRUTHFUL" regather 

all people against all the negative elements of evil which are dividing 

them. They point out always to something higher which is atracting 

to a further spiritual progress, to a continous change of ourselves 

towards achieving perfection of our being, which is never completely 

realised. 

3. THE GAMES HAVE TO BE REPEATED as a reminder of what 

will continually happen as a true essence of life. The four-year 

distance in between is pointing out to the rhytmic, ever existing 

process of renewal with the deepest values of life. The main purpose 

of Olympic victory is to transform power into relationship, to break 

egocentricity with communal spirit, to save the individual from 

his self-destructive isolation. 

107

4. THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT APPEALS APPARENTLY TO THE 

PHYSICAL, BODILY ACHIEVEMENT BUT SEEKS TO COMPLETE 

IT WITH THE SPIRITUAL, ETHICAL DIMENSION. The moment of 

victory is a moment of difficult fight against pride, self-efficiency, 

feelings of cheap superiority, of a poor chauvinism and of thirst 

for material benefits. 

5. PLAY IS A SYMBOLIC EXPRESSION OF THE FIRST NATURAL 

BIOLOGICAL AND SPIRITUAL TREND OF MAN to create something 

new and enjoy his creation as a result of his freedom. First we 

are invited to play by our biological structure and function. Playing 

in all its forms helps Man to be liberated from his complexes, 

solitude and neurosis. Play, after all, turns enemies into partners 

and collaborators. It transforms antagonism into peaceful rivalry. 

6. VIOLENCE IN SPORT-competitive sport is passing a difficult 

test today, as to its authenticity as sport and to its effectiveness 

in creating persons who possess healthy minds in healthy bodies. 

Violence is conceived as the dynamic element in society, and as 

the result of the perpetual struggle between individuals or social 

groups to possess the place of "elites" in societies based on material 

possessions and power, or talent and education. Sport life is moving 

on the demarcation line between aggressiveness and violence. Citius, 

altius, fortius is a dangerous enterprise on the threshold of power 

of aggression, violence and domination. Sport competition shall 

transform human aggression - a biological, essential monumentum 

which expresses the desire to dominate the other - into the means 

of sociable relations. 

7. OLYMPIC MOVEMENT AS A PACIFIST MOVEMENT both in 

origin and function. Olympism shows us equally well that peace, 

as the truce or absence of war, is the result of fundamental principles 

which each individual as a member of responsible society, each 

nation and finally the world community must respect. Participation 

in Olympic Games becomes more important than victory and its 

also the reason why boycotting the Olympic Games constitutes 

the most destructive negation of Olympism". 

8. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPORT AND RELIGION. Olympism 

can inspire a moral attitude in a given field (world fratenity) and 

108

through the given medium (sport) and appear as a substitute for 

religion for some because of an inner transcendental experience. 

In spite of the religious-like ceremonies which surround the Olympic 

Games, we must admit that Olympism is a kind of IDEOLOGY 

not religion. (Religion is not something that can be celebrated with 

a quadrential festival of the people during which human differences 

and passions can momentary be forgotten). Olympism, with the 

help of religion, must avoid everything that threatens the purity 

of the Olympic Idea in the practice of the modern Olympic Games. 

109

CONCLUSIONS FROM THE TOPIC OF SOCIOLOGY 

ON THE OLYMPIC GAMES 

INTRODUCTION 

Our group decided to divide the conclusions on the topic of 

sociology of sport into two parts: First, considering some organisational 

aspects which had influenced our activities here, and in 

a second part, we decided to highlight main points of the topics 

which were covered by lectures by Prof. Bob Beamish and Prof. 

Kurt Weis. Therefore we have made our comments in form of 

single statements and provocative questions to show that all this 

topics, to some extent, remains open to discussion. 

1. Organisation of the lectures 

- Professors should be given more information about how much 

time they have to give the lecture and what they should expect 

from the students. 

- The lectures about different topics should be better co-ordinated 

in order to avoid repetitions. The students should be asked 

about their preferences and main interests considering the lecture 

topics. 

- The topics in the programme although important were excessive 

to be covered by lectures. We think that a lesser number 

of topics will afford us to analyse and discuss better each subject. 

- The organisation of the presentation of the student's papers 

must be considered more carefully in the next Seminars in order 

to permit adequate evaluation of each paper. 

- Videos and films were really helpful as a base for discussion 

on the topic of the lecture. 

110

2. What we've learnt during lectures... 

2.1. Sport as a social institution 

- There is a strong interrelationship between sport and society 

- society does shape sport as well as sport influences and mirrors 

society. So... 

- We cannot separate sport from society. 

- On the other hand, however, sport is a social practice that 

precede the Olympic Games. In this sence, we cannot separate 

the Games from sport but we can analyse sport separately from 

the Olympic Games. 

2.2. Sport and religion 

- There are a lot of similarities between sport and religion - 

people getting together to worship and celebrate something, the 

inner experience, feelings, excitement and symbols. 

- Sport has features of religion (religion-like ceremonies) 

- Religion-like elements has been used to reinforce an ideology 

(Olympism) 

- Can religion be substituted by sport now and in the future? 

2.3. Sport and national politics 

- It is impossible to separate politics from Olympic Movement. 

- Olympic Games reflect western patterns of society - in general 

other cultures have hardly their place in Olympic Games. 

- Sport became a tool to build national pride and national 

identity. 

- So we can notice that hosting Olympic Games has a great 

importance for cities and countries. 

- But in a contradictory way sport makes borders between 

countries disappear and at the same time makes them stronger. 

- Olympic Games are nowadays a worldwide entertainment, a 

great opportunity to make money on, a kind of competition between 

big interests. 

- So considering the trend toward a globalized word what will 

111

e the role of sport in creating national and regional identification 

in the future? 

2.4. Sport and time 

- Time is an essential part of every sport. 

- The high level athlete is product of our time, and the nature 

of this work convey to alienation. 

- Professionalism, however, is good for an athlete be cause it 

makes him more powerful that he was before in this relations 

with different federations and sport organizations. 

2.5. Sport and gender identity 

- Sport world is still masculinity world. 

- Sport is a project of masculinity. 

- This image is constantly reinforced by the form media portrait 

men and women in sport arena. 

2.6. Olympic Sport and media 

- New sports introduced to Olympic Games programme are 

usually mediafriendly sports. But... 

- Media dont pay equal attention to all the sports. 

- So, media influence our knowledge about different kinds of 

sports, so for example we know more about sports played in the 

U.S.A. than sports in Sudan. 

- Another important point is that there are different kinds of 

sport: dominant, emergent and residual-media reinforce the domi 

nant kind of sport. 

OUR FINAL QUESTIONS ARE 

1. Living in the modern society do we still practice sport for 

the same reasons that people did it in the past? 

2. Are we closer to define OLYMPISM, OLYMPIC MOVEMENT 

and OLYMPIC GAMES AFTER THOSE SIX WEEKS? 

112

CONCLUSIONS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SECTION 

I. The Lecturer 

The supervisor of the philosophical section of the 5th Postgraduate 

Seminar on Olympic Studies (5.6-10.6) was Prof. Dr. Jim 

PARRY from Great Britain. He was the last Professor to join our Seminar 

after 35 days of intensive studies on various Olympic issues. This 

study was interesting not only with regard to group-dynamics but also 

with regard to the opportunities for the development of new view-points. 

Taking this into consideration it seemed to all students a pity and a 

great loss, that questions and discussions had to be restricted only to 

the lecture-room. Consequently, personal exchange of thoughts and 

ideas was difficult. 

Π. Methodical procedures 

Prof. Parry's teaching involved the creation of a learning environment 

in which the pupil could personally discover knowledge 

and skill. His role as an educator was not to dictate information, 

but to facilitate this personal discovery. The topics presented by 

Prof. Parry included the concept of punishment, the concept of 

sport, the concepts of game and play, ethical aspects of the Olympic 

Idea (Educator's Session), drugs in sport and finally the relationship 

between the concepts of sport, art and the aesthetic. The presented 

topics seemed to be intended to teach the students how to improve 

their abilities in outlining a concept logically by using a philosophical 

approach rather than to convey concrete concepts. Taking 

a philosophical anthropology stance we tried to apply to the various 

topics the methods of conceptual analysis and the theory of falsification. 

III. Feedback 

The method of conceptual analysis and the theory of falsification 

served as an almost perfect means to bring about the self-par- 

113

ticipation of the students, because they supported and enhanced 

the though processes of everybody. Yet, there were some problems 

embedded within the Sessions. These stemmed from the lack of 

discussion-time and the language-difficulties concerning the precise 

use of the required terminology. In addition, from our point 

of view the Educator's Session enriched our knowledge, views 

and ideas. However, one teacher for two parallel Sessions is far 

from being sufficient for effective learning. Furthermore, our group 

was expecting to have eight philosophy lectures, of which in the 

end only 4 could be realized. Time limitations presented 2 additional 

disappointments. First, our group felt as though we had received 

very little with regard to philosophical content. Secondly, the students 

who presented philosophical papers were provided with less 

time that the others to present and the class discussion was 

neglected. Moreover, due to the fact, that we spent in a 45-dayprogramme 

at least 29 with ancient and modern history, we were 

given the impression of disbalance with regard to the sociological 

and philosophical sections. Since the areas of modern history 

and sociology seem to be, in terms of their sources, very much 

alike, we would be in favour of an adequate restructuring and 

rebalancing of the topics as a whole. 

Philosophy, from our point of view, is in no way more important 

than the other subjects, but Olympism as a philosophy requires 

studies in a deeper and more profound way than we actually did. 

Beyond all doubts it was an encouraging and valuable section of 

the whole seminar for almost all of us. We came to Olympia with 

hopes, expectations and questions about Olympism as a philosophy 

and now we are going home with even more questions than before. 

114

CONCLUSIONS OF THE HISTORY OF THE 

MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES 

Comments 

Barney: Cyclic view of history from a biological prospective; he 

tried to concentrate on the word "Power" and he showed this 

through the use of individual and structural issues. 

Lennartz: He gave us only a factual historical account. He did 

this by commenting on short papers presented by individual members 

of the group. 

Lucas: He gave traditional lectures on very specific issues and 

events from a rather nationalistic American perspective. 

Group comments on this cycle: Although we learned many new 

and interesting facts the group felt that we were more lectured 

at than allowed to fully discuss the issues. 

Overall comments on the seminar 

• Olympia is a fantastic place to study in such beautiful 

surroundings. It is very important that the IOC and the Olympic 

Academy take the responsibility for the task of educating people 

all over the world in the area of Sport and Olympism from varying 

perspectives. We also appreciate the large amount of the money 

that the HOC give to make this possible and that they also make 

it possible to bring together people from all over the world. 

• We very much appreciate all of the hard work done by the 

Academy and the HOC in putting together this seminar. In order 

that future seminars may continue to develop in content and 

organisation we would like to make the following observations as 

we trust that they will be accepted in the positive and constructive 

manner in which they are intended: 

• There appeared to be a problem with the lack of a clearly stated 

aim for the seminar which made it very difficult for participants 

to fully understand the reasons why we were here and what was 

expected of us. 

115

• We are all of the opinion that it is more important in seminars 

such as this to learn differing thought processes and ways of 

approaching problems in order that these may then be applied to 

facts. For this reason we felt the order of the seminar was the 

wrong way around, we felt it should go 1 philosophy, 2 sociology, 

3 ancient games, 4 modern games, to allow for the application of 

the first two subjects to the last two and that by mixing historians 

with sociologists / philosophers in the last two cycles the level of 

discussion would have been even better. 

• We felt that the fact that all of the lecturers came from North 

America or Western Europe simply perpetuated the eurocentric 

nature of the Olympic movement. Whilst appreciating that lectu 

rers in Asia, the Far East, South America, Africa and Oceania may 

not be so many or so advanced, and there may be language 

problems, the use of lecturers of other cultures whould give a far 

more "Olympic" perspective to the seminar and may even advance 

the level of these disciplines in these cultures. The introduction 

of female professors would also have the similar effect. 

• It was felt that our attendance at the journalists and sportseducators 

seminars could have been far more productive. We felt 

that if we are going to attend these seminars we should be 

completely part of them i.e. discussion groups etc. And get a 

certificate of attendance or not be part of it at all. 

• If we had the papers of the lecturers and participants before they 

were presented we could have read them and produced better 

discussion. With regard to the presentations of the participants 

they handbook said "Analysis, of theme, scope, message and 

analysis of structure". This never happened once. A short page of 

comments / feed back by professors would be both useful and 

appreciated. 

• With regard to the IOC scholarships we suggest that people are 

made aware of these at the beginning and that people who are 

interested should make themselves and their reasons known. The 

group should then take a part in the selection process as we feel 

that it is the group that gets to know the qualities of each 

individual and their suitability for the scholarships the best. 

116

• With regard to the length of the seminar some in the group 

thought it was too long whilst others felt that the length was OK 

but that the content was not as well structured as it could be and 

the interest level of the content fluctuated. All were in agreement 

that more free days were necessary in order to allow participants 

to take part to the best of their abilities. 

• The need for better and clearer information both before and 

during the seminar is paramount. One way this chould be 

achieved is to have a central notice board with the program for 

the next few days and the information. Problems with information 

and organisation make it hard to work in a professional manner. 

• Final summing up: 

• The fact that we have taken the time to produce these contructive 

criticisms of the seminar shows the great depth of concern and 

feeling we have towards the very important work that the 

Academy is trying to do and that future participants will benefit 

and appreciate this seminar as much as we do. 

117

CONCLUSIONS OF THE ANCIENT GREEK 

OLYMPICS CYCLE 

Introduction 

In order to place the ancient period in the context of the 

seminar as a whole, we posed ourselves the following question: 

does the Modern Olympic Games represent a revival of the Ancient 

Games or a new movement? To answer this question we 

drew comparisons between the two periods by listing similarities 

and differences both in theory and practice. Our recommendations 

stem directly from this discussion. 

Similarities 

• The preservation of competition and fair play: for example, 

consider the statues erected by cheaters at Ancient Olympia and 

Nero as an unfair player. 

• The emphasis on excellence of performance: for example, 

consider record keeping and "kalos kagathos". 

• The evolvement of professionalism, and subsequent problems 

such as doping: this was and is demonstrated through the 

rewarding of athletes and the prestige and hero status in which 

they were and are held (although professionalism was not seen 

to be a problem in Ancient times while in Modern times it is). 

• The development of self-worth and contribution to a productive 

society through athletics: this conception of the athlete is 

criticized both in Ancient times and today (e.g. Euripidies). 

• Bringing men together: in Ancient times these men came from 

different city state cultures and in Modern times from different 

nations. 

• The objective of peace: this goal was not achieved in reality in 

Ancient times (as evidenced by wars that continued despite the 

Games), or in Modern times (as demonstrated by the 

118

postponement of the Games due to the First and Second World 

Wars). 

• The importance of the Games: time was measured by the four 

year Olympic period in Ancient times and we continue this 

practice today through the Olympiad. 

• The enlargement of the Games: the Games grew from a single 

event to several events in Ancient Times and this trend has 

continued in the Modern Games with the addition of more and 

more official Olympic sports. 

• Other organisational comparisons: both the Ancient and Modern 

Games had competition trials to select athletes to compete in the 

Games and both have the difficulty for athletes to travel to the 

Games. 

Differences 

• The segregation of genders, participants and spectators. 

• The religious aspect of the Ancient Games contrasts with today's 

high secularisation and is preserved only by certain symbols such 

as the oath and flame. The concept of unifying mind, body and 

spirit exists today as an objective but is not realised in practice, 

with more emphasis placed on the physical. 

• De Coubertin's objectives for the revival of the Modern Games 

clearly lie with the development of physical and moral education 

of youth. This was not the case in Ancient times. 

• The Modern Olympics are characterised by internationalism 

which requires universality, and the subsequent goals of 

international understanding and equality of opportunity (this 

objective was arguably not a part of the revival of the Games and 

is not achieved today). A natural result of international 

representation, of course, is nationalism. 

• Other symptoms of the Modern Games brought about by the 

global significance of the Games include commercialism, 

television and sponsorship. 

• There are also a number of technical differences, such as, the 

119

nature of sports, the Ancient sports being more violent in nature 

(e.g. the pancration which highlights another technical difference 

in the use of age rather than weight categories). In Ancient times 

was a prescribed training period. Athletes are now rewarded with 

medals and diplomas, as opposed to laurel wreaths and olive oil. 

Conclusion 

The Modern Games, in our opinion, by no means represent a 

reproduction of the Ancient Games. There is no doubt that similarities 

exist in theory between periods but these similarities disappear 

in practice. Because of the lack of similarities in practice 

and the abundant source of differences, we found it difficult to 

conclude that the Modern Olympic Games represent a revival of 

the Ancient Olympic Games. Consequently, and despite the apparant 

similarities in theory, we came to the conclusion that the 

Modern Olympic Games must represent a new movement. Perhaps 

this movement attempted to revive some vague aspects of the 

Ancient Games inclusive of the spirit and the symbolism. 

Recommendations 

We all agreed that the philosophical question posed to focus 

our groups discussion would have been a useful one to help the 

entire group to focus during the presentation of the very important 

factual information that was presented during the Ancient Olympic 

section of the seminar by Professors Weiler, Kalpaxis and Mouratidis. 

The Ancient Olympic section, although interesting, was difficult 

to understand (for the members of our group) except in the 

context of the Modern Olympics. We felt that the seminar might 

benefit in the future by providing the philosophical questions 

about Modern Olympism first and then allowing students the 

opportunity to learn how we ended up where we are today. Otherwise, 

the information presented during the Ancient Olympic 

section runs the risk of becoming mere facts to the students. 

120

WORKS OF THE 9th INTERNATIONAL 

SEMINAR FOR SPORT JOURNALISTS 

20-25/5/1997



Mr. Nikos FILARETOS 

President 

Mr. Kostas GEORGIADIS 

Dean 

International Olympic Academy 

4, Kapsali street 

106 74 Athens, GREECE 




Mr. Ioannis THEODORAKOPOULOS International Olympic Academy 

Member 



GUESTS 

Mr. Elias SPORIDIS 

Vice - President of the International 

Sports Press Association (A.I.P.S.) 

Mr. Alain BILLOUIN 

Leader des Sports Olympiques 

Journal "L'Equipe" 

Mr. Kostas GEORGIADIS 

Dean of the International Olympic 

Academy 

Prof. Jae-won LEE, Ph.D. 

Prof. of Journalism and Executive 

Director of Olympic Media Awards 

Cleveland State University 

Mr. Petros LINARDOS 

Journalist, Historian of Sports, 

Honorary President of the Greek 

Association of Sport Journalists 

Mr. Alain LUNZENFICHTER 

1st Vice President of the Intern. 

Sports Press Association 

LECTURERS 

55, Kyprion Agoniston 

Maroussi 

GREECE 

4, rue Rouget de Lisle 

92137 Issy les Moulineaux 

Cedex FRANCE 




Cleveland State University 

MU - 276 

Cleveland, Ohio 44115 

U.S.A. 

31, Ikoniou street 

171 23 NeaSmirni 

GREECE 

"L' Equipe" 

4, rue Rouget de Lisle 

92137 Issy les Moulineaux 

Cedex, FRANCE 

123

Mr. Adrian METCALFE 

Chairman 

API Television Ltd 

Durham House, Durham 

House Street, London 

WC2N 6HF GREAT BRITAIN 

PARTICIPANTS 

ALBANIA 

Mr. Zalla LIRIM 

Journalist 

Radio - Televisioni 

Rruga Ismail Wemali 

Tirane 

ARGENTINA 

Mr. Sergio Ricardo QUIROA 

Sport Journalist - Written Press 

AUSTRIA 

Mr. Peter - Paul MOIZI 

Journalist at Austrian Kronen 

- Zeitung 

BANGLADESH 

Mr. Rezaur Rahman SOHUG 

General Secretary of Bangladesh 

Sports Writers Association 

Senior Sports Reporter 

BARBADOS 

Mr. Erskine KING 

Journalist 

BELARUS 

Mr. Vladimir ISSAT 

Chief Producer of Sport Department 

National State TV Company of the 

Republic of Belarus 

Bolivia 967 - Zip code (5730) 

Villa Mercedes (San Luis) 

Kronen Zeitung Sport 

Muthgasse 2 

1190 Wien 

The Daily Inquilab 

2/1, R.K. Mission Road, Dhaka 

108 Cherry Drive, Oxnards, St. 

James 

per. Kolasa 15-26 

220013, Minsk 

BELGIUM 

Mr. Christian HUBERT Avenue Van Dromme 46 

Sportseditor of "La dernière Heure" 1160 Bruxelles 

Les Sports, Treasurer Belgian Sports 

Writers Association 

BOLIVIA 

Mr. Fernando GUTIERREZ 

Chief Sports Newspaper El Diario 

Loayza Street No. 118 

La Paz 

124

BOSNIA - HERZEGOVINA 

Mrs Medina SEHIC 

Sport Journalist TV BIH 

BULGARIA 

Mr. Kamen Tzvetanov ALIPIEV 

TV Commentator, Bulgarian 

National Television 

BURUNDI 

Mr. Venant NIMPAGARITSE 

Sport Journalist, TV Burundi 

President of the Press Commission 

of the Olympic Committee of Burundi 

Sports Journalists Association 

General Secretary 

TV BIH 

Boulevard Mese Selimovica 12 

71000 Sarajevo 

"San Stefano" 29 str. 

Sofia 

B.P. 6297, Bujumbura 

CAPE VERDE 

Mr. Franklin Palma Rocha SEMEDO c/o Comité Olimpico 

Journalist 

Caboverdeano 

Rua da UCCLA, Achada de Santo 

Antonio, P.O.Box 92A, Praia 

CHINA 

Mr. Shouyuan XUE 

Journalist 

Sports Dept., Xinhua News Agency 

57 Xuanwumen Xidajie 

Beijing - 100803 

CYPRUS 

Mr. Petros HADJICHRISTODOULOU 3, Ypatias street 

Journalist - Newspaper 

1071 Nicosia 

"Phileleftheros" 

CZECH REPUBLIC 

Mr. Lubomir JEZEK 

Sport Jounalist of Newspaper 

MF DNES 

DENMARK 

Mr. Steen ANKERDAL 

President of the Danish Association 

of Sports Journalists, Sport Editor 

at the Danish daily "Ekstra Bladet" 

Milada Fronta Dnes 

Senovazna 4, Praha 1, 11121 

Danske Sports Journalister 

c/o Steen ANKERDAL 

N. Dalhoffsvej 6 

DK 2000 Copenhagen F. 

125

ECUADOR 

Mr. Diego Rodolfo Arcos SAAVEDRA T.C. Television 

Journalist 

Av. de la Americas 

Guayaquil 

ETHIOPIA 

Mr. Gorfineh YIMER 

Journalist 

FINLAND 

Mr. Vesa Henrik LAITINEN 

Sportwriter 

FRANCE 

Mr. Bernard PERSIA 

Sportwriter 

GEORGIA 

Mr. Grigor GURASASHVILI 

Journalist "OLYMPIELI" 

GERMANY 

Mr. Gunnar MEINHARDT 

Germany Press Agency (DPA) 

at Berlin 

GREAT BRITAIN 

Mr. Matthew David DUNN 

Sports Reporter The Express" 

c/o Olympic Committee of Ethiopia 

B.P. 3241, Addis Ababa 

Patamaenkatu 7, PL 327, 33101 

Tampere 

9, Place du Château 

Appartement 33 

06250 Mougins Le haut 

c/o Georgian National Olympic 

Committee 

65, David Agmashenebeli 

Avenue, Tbilisi 380001 

c/o DPA, Marienstr. 19/20 

10117 Berlin 

42 Luckhurst Road 

Willesborough, Ashford, Kent 

TN 24 OUL 

GREECE 

Mr. Ioannis-Marios PAPADOPOULOS 2, Christophorou Nezer str. 

Journalist, "Athlitiki Echo" 166 74 Glyfada 

ISRAEL 

Mr. Beny PEISIK 

Journalist, Israeli Radio 

IVORY COAST 

Mr. Geoffroy Desire BAILLET 

Journalist, Chief of Sport Services 

126 

Saanan str. No 24 

Ramat - Gan 

Fraternité Matin 

01 BP 1807 Abidjan 01

JORDAN 

Mr. Ahamd Waqqas AL TAL 

Journalist 

KENYA 

Ms. Elynah SIFUNA 

Electronic Journalist 

LEBANON 

Mr. Rabih ABOU CHACRA 

Sport Redactor, Assafir Newspaper 

LITHUANIA 

Mr. Gintaras NENARTAVICIUS 

Journalist, 

Lithuanian News Agency (ELTA) 

MALAYSIA 

Mr. Wong Choon HIN 

Journalist 

MALTA 

Mr. Pierre CASSAR 

Journalist 

NEW ZEALAND 

Mr. Ron PALENSKI 

POLAND 

Mr. Michal POL 

Gazeta Wyborcza 

PORTUGAL 

Mr. Pedro ADREGA 

Journalist 

PUERTO RICO 

Ms Gabrielle PAESE 

Assistant Sports Editor 

c/o Jordan Olympic Committee 

P.O. Box 19258, Amman 

P.O. Box 30456 

Nairobi 

P.O. Box 113-5015 

Beirut 

Laisves 109-35 

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THE OLYMPIC IDEAL AND THE I.O.A. 

by Kostas GEORGIADIS (GRE) 

The sporting ideal bred by the spiritual force and imagination 

of Greek thought, had permeated all the aspects of Greek life, 

giving it a special character. Athletes, poets, artists, philosophers 

and orators competed with their works, striving for excellence. 

Man's natural propensity to test his abilities and surpass the others, 

was the driving force behind the Greeks' involvement with sport. 

The same motivation could be found in other people, but they 

were never able to conceive the idea of competition and athletic 

effort as an education medium, as the Greeks had done and as 

humanist Pierre de Coubertin had visualized it. 

This sporting idea culminated in the athletic contests that were 

held in Ancient Olympia. There are no contests as fine as the 

games in Olympia" Pindar wrote. These contests were the result 

of classical education which sought to create good and virtuous 

citizens (kalokagathia). 

Victorious Olympic athletes were judged on their moral standards, 

their physical strength and skills, on their integrity. Their 

feat symbolized their mental and physical faculties, as well as 

their contribution to society. 

The sporting idea as it was reflected in the contests of Ancient 

Greece, the Olympic Games in particular, rested on man's excellence, 

faith in his freedom, faith in his value as a being, awareness 

of his responsibility to the community and the acceptance of his 

equal and democratic participation in civic affairs. 

Furthemore, the Greeks dreamed of and tried to achieve unity 

and peace through the panhellenic competition centres and, above 

all, through the sanctuary of Olympia. 

Before and during the Olympic Games and for a time after 

they had ended, for an overall period of 3-4 months, the holy 

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truce was proclaimed. This ensured the sanctuary's unviolability. 

All armed conflicts or hostilities had to stop and troops or single 

individuals carrying weapons were not allowed to enter the region 

of Eleia. 

Pilgrims, on the other hand, could travel freely, even through 

areas at war, to reach the sanctuary of Olympia. 

The athletes who came to Olympia every four years during 

classical times and for many centuries were free Greeks. They 

believed in the supreme value of human life, freedom, which could 

only be conquered by men who had faith in themselves and in 

their intellectual and physical capacities. These free citizens were 

well aware that social progress was the result or their living together 

as part of society and abiding by the laws of their city. They 

knew how to observe the rules and respect the Olympic oath.These 

citizens were able to take part in fair contests and compete in a 

true spirit of sportmanship. 

Competitors in Olympia had to comply with the rules, but also 

to accept that beyond the rules there was the ultimate expression 

of the sporting spirit based on self - respect and of course respect 

for others. 

The behaviour of athletes, in the long history of the Olympic 

Games, was judged by the Hellanodikai and the mastroi. 

It was this spirit of measure and harmony leading to man's 

fullfilment, democratic equality, fraternization, fair play and peace 

which flourished in ancient times and was promoted by the democratic 

internationalism that P. de Coubertin and his contemporaries 

wanted to revive. 

The modern Olympic Games were established as a world festival 

of youth. The people of this planet, forgetting their often deadly 

differences, human weaknesses and prejudices for a short while, 

send their athletes to the Olympic Games, creating an ideal image 

of blissful coexistence and fair competition. Language, race, religion, 

colour or social class are no obstacle to communication. All people 

are equal and take part in the games under the same condition. 

The games enhance the fundamental values of life and foster 

peaceful coexistence among the peoples, equality of opportunities, 

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ejection of any form of discrimination. These values have always 

been promoted through the games even when major obstacles 

had to be overcome. 

Coubertin's Olympism was not a rigid dogmatic system, but a 

future-oriented dynamic idea. He knew that there were differences 

between countries with an old athletic tradition and countries 

where sport would be playing a decisive role in the education 

of young people. 

Diversified cultural development was the basis of Coubertin's 

educational programme. 

His writings show that his intention was not to make the revived 

Olympic Games an activity that would be foreign to man's nature. 

He wanted to find the proper balance between sport and education, 

fair competition and entertainment, work and recreation. 

Coubertin's Olympism strongly reflected the social values of 

sport arising from the joy of movement, optimum performance 

and a staunch will. 

The idea of elite athletes was introduced in the Olympic Movement, 

from the beginning, with the motto: Citius, Altius, Fortius. 

Today, however, as a result of the excessive importance attached 

to top performances, it has taken on a dimension which the reviver 

of the games could not foresee. 

The world Citius in the Olympic motto does not just mean 

faster in the race, but also faster in intellectual and mental pursuits. 

Altius does not just mean higher performances in sport, but also 

higher moral standards. 

Fortius, strenght, should be sought in sport competition, but 

also in the daily life struggle. 

The idea of elite athletes is limited to top performance, records 

and victory today. Competitors nowadays as they strive for victory, 

often have scholarships, money, material rewards in mind. 

The Olympic maxim that "participation is more important than 

victory" no longer applies to the Olympic today. It refers to a 

much wider area of action. It is important to take part in the 

general effort toward self-improvement by capitalizing on unexpected 

resources in order to move beyond one's limitations. 

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The other major aim of the modern Olympic Games is to open 

the borders to a democratic internationalism. This opening operates 

as an incentive for personal achievement and represents a challenge 

for young people to measure their abilities, putting away any 

chauvinist elements which result from any national education 

system. The games are an appeal for fraternity, mutual understanding 

and respect, getting to know one another through participation 

in the same events and shared enthusiasm for common 

objectives. 

Today we have reached a turning point, a time when the principles 

and values of the Olympic Movement need to be re-oriented. 

The changes that have taken place these last decades, have created 

a gap between its ideal values and their practical application at 

the Olympic Games. Fundamental principles like the concept of 

amateurism which, since the foundation of the Olympic Movement, 

were the core of its philosophy, have gradually disappeared from 

the Olympic Charter. Little by little, professional athletes were 

allowed to compete in the Olympics. 

The role of the Olympic competitor has changed dramatically 

today, 100 years after the revival of the games, as a result of 

social changes. Athletes have become emancipated and the model 

of the superathlete, socially and physically speaking, of the industrial 

society has prevailed. 

Contemporary society expects these young athletes to be perfect 

individuals in every respect, role models, diplomats, promoters 

of the national image, social reformers. At the same time though, 

it became clear that the framework within which top athletes 

could take on these roles simply did not exist. It is therefore a 

major challenge for the IOC and NOCs to provide the necessary 

resources and the appropriate social environment to prevent the 

alienation of top athletes from the family of sport and the community 

in general. 

Another source of preoccupation for the Olympic Family today 

is gigantism. 

The number of events is steadily growing. This means that 

more and more competitors and officials are present at the games. 

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In addition, ever larger facilities are needed to stage the games. 

The rising interest of the mass media in the Olympics and the 

sale of TV rights have further intensified the problem. 

One could add to the above the political and economic power 

games and the direct or indirect pressure on the Olympic Movement 

in the form of boycotts or economic pressures against host countries. 

It is a fact that the IOC has been able until now to face and 

overcome all arising difficulties and to ensure the successful progress 

of the Olympic Movement. However, the necessary safety 

devices should be provided in future to allow the Olympic Games, 

to remain a magnificent expression of integrity and honesty, a 

course of progress. We should try to investigate and redefine the 

meaning of their celebration. The festival should emphasize the 

athletic and cultural ideals associated with the Games by limiting 

the promotion of sponsors. The recent example of the Atlanta 

Olympics is indicative of this trend to turn the Games into a big 

commercial fair. Appropriate structures should be incorporated 

in the Olympic Movement which will protect it on its future course 

from the risks associated with the commercialization of the games. 

Coubertin believed that the Olympic Movement should not depart 

from its educational objectives. For the attainment of these objectives 

the educational value of sport as a corellary to the cultivation 

of the mind should be recognized by the education system. 

In 1927 Pierre de Coubertin visited Olympia, on the invitation 

of the Greek government, to attend the ceremony for the unveiling 

of a commemorative stele in his honour "for his contribution to 

the revival of the Olympic Games". During his stay in Greece, he 

discussed with his friend, Ioannis Chrysafis, Director of the Physical 

Education Department of the University of Athens, about the need 

for a Cultural Centre which would investigate, study and predict 

the trends of the Olympic Movement, issuing the relevant guidelines 

for the safeguarding of its achievements. Coubertin himself had 

written on the creation of a Cultural Centre that: "I have not 

been able to carry out to the end, what I wanted to perfect. I 

believe that a Centre of Olympic Studies would aid the preservation 

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and progress of my work more than anything else and would 

keep it from the false paths which I fear". 

His ideas were fully aligned on the aims of the Hellenic Gymnastic 

Paedagogical Society. The HGPS, led by ioannis Chrysafis, who 

was also a member of the Hellenic Olympic Committee, wanted 

to create an Academic Centre, on the model of the ancient gymnasium, 

that would provide the necessary scientific corroboration 

of the educational value of sport, by means of scientific papers 

and the staging of classical contests. The early death of Ioannis 

Chrysafis (1930) and Coubertin (1937) prevented the two men 

from watching the realization of their idea. 

One year after Coubertin's death, in answer to his wishes, his 

heart was brought to Olympia and placed in the commemorative 

stele erected in his honour during a special ceremony. Coubertin's 

wish revived the idea of a Centre of Olympic Studies in Ancient 

Olympia. 

The man who took up the idea was John Ketseas, a student 

of Chrysafis at the National Gymnastics Association and Secretary 

General of the Hellenic Olympic Committee, together with the 

German professor Carl Diem, a close collaborator of Coubertin, 

known for his dedication to the Olympic Movement and his competence 

as an educator. Diem and Ketseas, who had worked together 

for the organization of the first Olympic Torch Relay during 

the Berlin Games of 1936, decided to move ahead with the creation 

of a Centre of Olympic Studies when they met at the ceremony 

during which Coubertin's heart was laid to rest in Olympia. In 

1938 they had already elaborated a programme for the operation 

of the centre which would be called International Olympic Academy 

which they submitted to the Hellenic Olympic Committee. The 

HOC adopted the proposal and that same year the establishment 

and operation of an International Olympic Academy was included 

in its Statutes, as one of its primary goals. The members of the 

IOC were informed at their 38th Session in Cairo on the passing 

of a law concerning the establishment of an International Olympic 

Academy by the Hellenic Olympic Committee. One year later, at 

its London Session, the IOC decided to place under its auspices 

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the centre that would serve the Olympic ideals. At the end of 

World War 2, in June 1947, a memorandum on the operation of 

the Academy prepared by Ketseas together with Diem was presented 

to the Stockholm Session of the IOC. Two years later, on 28 April 

1949, the IOC's Session in Rome unanimously approved the establishment 

of the IOA whose operation and administration was 

entrusted to the Hellenic Olympic Committee under the IOC's 

patronage. Before the Academy could begin its work, a number 

of organizational matters had to be settled, including the purchase 

of land close to the archaeological site of Ancient Olympia where 

participants would be staying. 

Several years later, after long and strenuous efforts, the inauguration 

date was set for the summer of 1961 to coincide with 

the ceremony of the presentation of the ancient stadium of Olympia 

which had been excavated on Diem's initiative with the money 

provided by the German Archaeological School. 205 students , 

representing 23 National Olympic Committees were present at 

the celebrations. Among them were 89 Greek and 86 German 

students from the University of Athens and Cologne who performed 

gymnastic exercises and traditional dances. The proceedings of 

the first Session were organized by the Director of the Physical 

Education Department of Athens University, the late Cleanthis 

Palaeologos and The German Professor Lotz. From 1962 until 

1990 the man responsible for the Academy's work was the Dean 

of the IOA, the late Otto Szymiczek. His contribution to the structure, 

operation and growth of the Academy is tremendous. Together 

with Professor Cleanthis Palaeologos who was nominated as the 

IOA's honorary Vice-President, they guided the Academy on its 

brilliant course for thirty long years. They were awarded the IOA's 

gold medal in recognition of their contribution. 

During the first ten years, the IOA's activities were restricted 

to the organization and holding of an annual Session for young 

participants. Since 1970, however, there has been a steady increase 

in its activities which cover the whole range of Olympic issues. 

Today, from April to October, approximately 40 events are staged 

every year in the Academy's facilities in Ancient Olympia. 

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Until 1966, participants lived in tents. In 1969, the construction 

of the Academy's first buildings was completed. Its facilities were 

gradually extended with new buildings and sports grounds. 

The IOA has been awarded the Bonacosa Trophy in 1961 and 

the Olympic Award in 1981 for its contribution and humanitarian 

aims. 

The International Olympic Academy's aim is to create an international 

cultural centre in Ancient Olympia, devoted to the 

safeguard and dissemination of the Olympic Spirit, the study and 

implementation of the educational and social principles of the 

games and the scientific consolidation of the Olympic Idea. 

The Academy is an open forum for the exchange of ideas and 

knowledge focusing on the Olympic Movement and, like any other 

educational institution, it seeks to propagate and acquire knowledge 

on its aim and initiate young people to the generation of new 

ideas. 

The International Olympic Academy adresses a vast range of 

people with varying levels of education and knowledge. It provides 

further training to educationists, students, members and staff of 

National Olympic Committees and National Olympic Academies, 

International Federations, athletes, coaches. 

Training seminars are usually of short duration, the only exception 

being the Postgraduate Seminar and the Session for Young 

Participants. People attending the Academy's Sessions want 

• to become better acquainted with the Olympic Movement 

• to establish contacts with people sharing similar interests 

• to get to know represantatives of the Olympic Movement 

• to learn more about Ancient and Modern Greece 

Being an educational centre, the Academy gives special emphasis 

to training procedures and strategies. 

The objective is to create suitable conditions for a system of 

(moral) rewards and incentives encouraging participants to expand 

their knowledge and become actively involved in the Olympic Movement. 

The objective of the Sessions is not the quantity of learning 

offered, but the methodology used, the way of thinking which is 

136

promoted and the motivation provided to seek further knowledge 

about the Olympic Movement. 

Because of the short duration of the Seminars, the Academy 

has successfully introduced a seminar programme which is structured 

in the following way: 

Scientific domain 

Papers and research projects related to the history and philosophy 

of the games 

Sports and arts 

Through sports and artistic activities, participants can become 

familiar with another facet of Olympic Education and Olympism 

of which they may not have been aware. 

Ethical aspects 

The code of conduct followed by each participant to foster peaceful 

coexistence among people from different cultural zones, with 

different customs and educated under different sociopolitical systems. 

Cultural aspects 

Participants have a unique opportunity to get to know people 

from other cultural zones, their customs and traditions, their 

dances and local costumes. 

The IOA, also acts as the coordinating body of the activity of 

the National Olympic Academies which are its prolongation, operating 

as transmitters and mulitpliers of its ideas through national 

Olympic Education programmes. The Olympic programmes should 

create incentives encouraging young people to lern foreign languages, 

study environmental and peace issues, provide information 

on other people's cultural traditions and economic, education and 

health issues. In addition, they should promote the idea of active 

participation in sports activities and support the educational system 

of different countries. 

When drawing up the National Olympic Academy's Olympic 

programmes, we should be aware that education systems vary 

137

from country to country and that the way in which NOCs and 

NOAs are orgnized and operate is also different from one country 

to the other. The NOCs should harmonize their statutes according 

to the IOC's guidelines and set as their objective to spread the 

Olympic philosophy to as many people as possible. They should 

review their relations with state educational institutions and create 

National Olympic Academies (if they do not already exist) as the 

core institution for the dissemination and promotion of the Olympic 

philosophy. 

The National Olympic Academy, for the preparation of Olympic 

Education programmes, should work closely with the NOCs, National 

Federations, the educational authorities at primary, secondary 

and tertiary level, municipalities, bid committees for the 

Olympic Games and the OCOGs when the games are celebrated 

in their country. 

To ensure the propagation of the Olympic principles throughout 

the country, the National Olympic Academy should work closely 

with political and economic circles which could finance its programmes 

and convey the messages of the Olympic Movement to 

larger groups of people. 

One of the primary goals of the IOA and National Olympic 

Academies is to approach Olympic Education from a practical 

rather than a theoretical angle. 

Such programmes should be sufficiently flexible to respond to 

the demands of young people and to be used in written or electronic 

form, so as to reach the widest possible audience. 

Olympism teaches us that "the greatest achievement is to have 

the strength to reject power as an element of division or domination". 

Olympic men or women athletes respect their fellow competitors 

and themselves. 

They appreciate the hard effort which, through sport competition, 

can convert man's agressiveness - a primary biological urge - into 

an element of societal relations. This effort is a victory over one's 

self which is constantly repeated. This struggle comprises elements 

of individuality and sociability; the athlete strives for excellence 

as he competes with his fellow competitors abiding by the rules. 

138

Olympic victory does not mean the humiliation of the opponent. 

Such victory is obtained in fair competition against fellow athletes 

who have all qualified for the contest. 

This competition brings mental peace and happiness to the 

athlete, personal serenity and reconciles him with his own self. 

It brings the moral fortitude which is a prerequisite for personal 

peace and for understanding others. 

At the level of society, Olympism means respect and equal 

opportunities given to our fellowmen who suffer from disabilities, 

who belong to minority or under-privileged social groups and to 

women. Sport fosters the cooperation between many social groups 

at local and national level. It encourages the rejection of social 

prejudice, it makes no distinction between social classes, it overcomes 

the generation gap, it gives the opportunity to the citizens 

of one country to come in contact and to communicate with their 

fellow men and women. The ultimate goal is to achieve respect 

and understanding between social groups, do away with prejudice 

and consolidate social peace. 

At cultural and political level, the Olympic Movement provides 

an opportunity to millions of people from different cultural zones 

with different religions and political beliefs to come in contact 

and exchange views, to get to know the customs and traditions 

of other cultures. The Olympic Movement promotes the ideal of 

a planet without frontiers, that brings people and nations together. 

139

THE FORERUNNERS OF OLYMPISM 

IN THE 19th CENTURY (1839 - 1889) 

by Petros LINARDOS (GRE) 

In this wonderful place, of incomparable natural and historical 

beauty, during a former session of the International Olympic Academy, 

Professor David Young, a researcher and student of Olympism 

and the revival of the Olympic Games, had made a radical, not 

to say revolutionary proposal about the need to rewrite the history 

of the period which led to the "reconstitution" (as they called it 

at the time) of the Olympic Games and of course to the consecration 

of Olympism. History and its events have such a complex and 

multidimensional structure that as time flows new elements emerge 

as a result of the activities of researchers. It is true that sports 

journalists are no historians and therefore their interest focuses 

mostly or exclusively on contemporary events. However, if we 

accept the value of the ancient Greek saying that "happy is the 

man who has learned from history", then the subject of today's 

lecture can be justified: The forerunners of Olympism and the 

revival of the Olympic Games in the 19th century" and in particular, 

during a period of several decades before the International Athletic 

Congress which was convened on Baron Pierre de Coubertin's 

initiative at the Sorbonne in Paris, in June 1894, and during 

which the decision was made to revive the Olympic Games in 

Athens in 1896. For one century the prevailing view was that 

this whole enterprise bore the exclusive signature and stamp of 

Coubertin. In the last decade, however, the idolized image of this 

great man began to show some signs of wear due to new research 

findings and the revision of opinions which, for one reason or 

the other, had remained fossilized as a result of this monopolistic 

view of Coubertin's contribution, as well as some scientific rethinking. 

140

It is encouraging to see that in many countries, in Europe and 

America, the students of the history, birth and development of 

Olympism and the first phase of the Games, move into areas and 

events which had remained in half-darknes for so many years. 

As a result, the significant and valuable contribution of some 

great men of amateur sport, like the English physician W.P. 

Brookes, the first President of the International Olympic Committee, 

Demetrios Vikelas and Evangelis Zappas, the great visionary who 

created the "Olympia" contests or "Zappas Olympiads" as they 

were called, is finally recognized. 

The vision of the Games' revival started many decades before 

Pierre de Coubertin first in 1892, in Paris, in a more covert form 

and then in 1894 openly proclaimed a practical, we would say, 

philosophy on Olympism paving the way, thanks to Vikelas' bold 

intervention, for the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896. 

Only the people who have undertaken research on Olympism 

are aware of the certainly unusual events which were described, 

at the end of the last century, by the great Greti: physical educator, 

author and sports journalist Ioannis Chrysafis in the following 

terms "they were not a vision of just a few educated and enthusiastic 

Greeks, seized by nostalgia for their country's glorious past, but 

the result of a whole pedagogical ideology which the neohumanism 

of the 18th century had bequeathed to Europe..." (Chrysafis was 

the main contributor of the first Greek sports journal called "Cyclist 

and Sports Review of the East"). 

Sports journalists today should have some insight into such 

portentous events, linked with great spiritual and humanitarian 

visions, which have left their mark on the professional field in 

which they are working. This is, in any case, the object of this 

lecture. Sports journalists today should be aware of certain events 

of major importance such as: the attempt that was made in 

Paris, in 1790, by the famous French Directoire, on the initiative 

of the enlightened and radical pedagogues Condorset, Lacanal 

and Daunau, to revive the Olympic Games at the Champs de 

Mars; the discussion within the Jacobine circles of Corfou on the 

possibility of reviving the Olympic Games; the attempt made in 

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1838 by some distinguished citizens of the municipality of Letrina, 

as it was then called, which was near here, in Pyrgos , the capital 

of Eleia, to revive the sacred heritage in Ancient Olympia. There 

were also the four "Olympia" contests (better known as the Zappas 

Olympiads, which were held from 1859 to 1889, thanks to the 

vision of Evangelis Zappas and his generous contribution, the 

treatise of the pioneer Greek translator Minas Minoidis in Paris 

on "the establishment of Olympic Games in Greece", without forgetting 

the references made by the national benefactor Simon 

Sinas, the poems of Soutsos and Giannacopoulos in Athens in 

the middle of the 19th century. We should finally mention the 

mobilization of some enlightened teachers at the University of 

Athens. One of them, Philippos Ioannou, had even written an 

"Olympic Speech". It is worth noting that these academics who 

included, apart from Ioannou, Constantinos Voutsakis, Gregorios 

Papadopoulos and others, were actively involved in the organization 

and staging of the Zappas Olympiads, as judges, etc. In 1836, 

sixty years before the celebration of the first modern Olympics 

in Athens, a memorandum had been presented to the Interior 

Minister Ioannis Kolettis on the staging of "Olympic Games" in 

Athens, Tripoli , the heroic city of Misolonghi where, during the 

liberation struggle of the Greek people many philhellenes had lost 

their life, the city which will always be remembered thanks to 

the poetry and sacrifice of Lord Byron and Hydra, which would 

be linked to the 25th of March, the date of the start of the Greek 

War of Independence in 1821. 

Minas Minoidis, an outstanding translator of ancient Greek 

texts in French and a distinguished member of the Greek community 

of the French capital, after translating Philostratos' famous 

treatise on gymnastics (Philostrate, "Traité" sur la Gymnastique"), 

added to the French edition his own literary text on the revival 

of the Olympic Games. This way in 1858, five years before the 

birth of Pierre de Coubertin and 36 years before the international 

congress at the Sorbonne. Let me add that, four years before 

that congress which was the International Olympic Committee's 

first, the Frenchman Ph. Daryl, had spoken about Olympic games. 

142

These are some of the people with vision and a generous soul and 

these are some of the events of the 19th century - and they were 

not the only ones - which paved the way which baron Pierre de 

Coubertin would later follow in 1894 - 96 when the revival of the 

Olympic Games became reality and Olympism was established in a 

specific context. There is no question that he was the driving force. 

The fact remains, however, that the idea of Olympic games had 

been there, in one way or the other, many decades before the 

congress of Paris in 1894. Pierre de Coubertin never paid much 

attention to all that. One wonders why? Perhaps he had not 

realized their significance, although some severe critics and evaluators 

of his work do say that he did not like to admit that there 

had been signs and traces on a road of visions and ideas before 

his own. It is worth mentioning at this point the references we 

find in a text written by Coubertin which was included in Charles 

Beck's classic edition, which was published in Athens right after 

the Games of 1896 and contained works by prominent Greek 

sportsmen and Scientists, like the Secretary General of the Hellenic 

Olympic Committee - the first NOC to be established (it was formed 

on 2 November 1894, dissolved and restablished on 13 January 

1895 to continue its work until today), Timoleon Philemon, the 

distinguished university professor and folklorist Nicolaos Politis 

and the most thorough chronicler, at Greek level at least, of the 

first Olympiad and well - known theatre critic and journalist, 

Haralambos (Babis) Anninos. Pierre de Coubertin, talking about 

the events which preceded and contributed to the revival of the 

Olympic Games during the international congress at the Sorbonne, 

makes very few references to the above and does not mention 

any of the names of the people who were active before him in 

Greece, France and England. What's more, when he uses the 

expression Olympic games he writes, in an obvious attempt to 

minimize their contribution, "it is true to say that the name had 

not fallen into disuse; it had been used on many occasions, either 

to describe local contests... or in connection with a premature or 

clumsy attempt at revival like that of Athens during the reign of 

King Otto". 

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To put it bluntly, with this phrase Coubertin does not just 

downgrade the "Zappas Olympiads", he literally "buries" them in 

historic oblivion... Fortunately today, researchers and writers who 

deal with the history of Olympism, not only in Greece, but also 

in Germany and Romania - where Zappas is considered as one 

of their own since he lived there as a prosperous businessman 

after fighting for the liberation of Greece and being, before that, 

a member of the guard of the famous Ali Pasha of Jannina - and 

in the United States, have thrown ample light on the "Olympia" 

and brought them to the forefront of the Olympic Idea. (The Olympia 

contests were held in Athens in 1859, 1870, 1875, 1889. As the 

experience was missing the first two were a chaotic, tragically 

funny disaster. But the other two, especially those of 1889 were 

of high quality, the last being even considered as a successfull 

prologue to the revival of the Olympic Games, seven years later, 

thanks to the efforts and organization skills of the great physical 

educator Ionnis Fokianos. 

Writing on the significance of the Zappas Olympiads, Thomas 

Giannakis, professor of the History of Sport at Athens University, 

underlines that "it is a fact that from 1896 to this day - the text 

was written in 1993 - we had been nurtured to believe that the 

French nobleman and pedagogue Pierre de Coubertin, and only 

he, was the reviver of the Olympic Games. The name and contribution 

of Evangelis Zappas had been lost in historic oblivion 

and silence. But he had relied on something and it is precisely 

these historic foundations that we try to bring to light and make 

them known. Anyone who dared question Coubertin was considered 

as sacrilegious and irreverent. Today, however, his work is undergoing 

well - intended criticism and objective scrutiny. These 

doubts do not in any way diminish Coubertin's personality or 

contribution, quite the contrary; what we want is to shed light 

on other people who worked with inspiration and passion for the 

revival of the Olympic Games". 

There is also Professor David Young's harsher and maybe excessive 

view that "Coubertin tried to keep Zappas work in the 

dark". Anyway, the contribution of great figures of Olympism like 

144

Zappas, Vikelas, the Hungarian Kemeny, the Swede Black, the 

American Sloan, the Englishman Herbert, is gradually being restored 

to its true proportions and not just in their country. Special 

reference should be made to the British sports lover, philosopher 

and educator, Brookes. Following in the steps of the English aristocrat 

Dover, a lover of the ancient Greek spirit who, as a reaction 

against his countrymen's aversion to physical exercise (the time 

was the beginning of the 17th century) organized Olympic games 

in the Cotswolds and inspired by E. Curtius' archaeological findings 

in Olympia, Brookes quite early, we are talking about 1849..., 

organized an "olympic class" in a school in Wenlock, Shropshire 

and instituted "Olympic Games" which were held for several decades. 

Brookes offered a valuable cup for the best athlete of the 

1st Zappas Olympiad, runner Petros Velissariou and king George 

I of Greece sent him a big silver vase to be given to the winner 

of the pentathlon. The programme of these early Olympics included 

the following: races, jump, pentathlon, equestrian events, cricket, 

as well as poetry and painting contests. Coubertin paid a visit 

to Brookes, a little before the Sorbonne congress of 1894. During 

their meeting Brookes, who was now a very old man but still full 

of vision, spoke to Coubertin about the idea of reviving the Olympic 

Games in Ancient Olympia with the participation of athletes from 

different countries. This was an idea which no one had formulated 

before, i.e the internationalization of the Olympiads. Zappas was 

the only one who wanted to give a European character to his 

Olympic contests. Brookes had already written about his idea, 

but the reviver of the Olympic Games, Pierre de Coubertin never 

really acknowledged "Brookes' teaching". 

Moving towards the end of this lecture, I wish to thank the 

dear colleagues from all over the world who so ably represent 

here, in Ancient Olympia, the new, dynamic generation of sports 

journalists and give you two more significant findings. The one 

has to do with the staging of "olympic games"in the Greek community 

of Ortakioi in Bithynia, in the northwestern part of Asia 

Minor, long before 1896. In the third issue of the IOC's Bulletin, 

January 1896, an article was published under the title "Les Jeus 

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Olympiques en Bithynie" (The Olympic Games in Bithynia) which 

contained a number of interesting facts about these games based 

on information from Athens and, in particular the newspaper 

"Efimerida ton Syzitiseon". After mass, to the sound of churchbells, 

all the Greeks living in Ortakioi participated in the games in one 

capacity or the other, either as spectators or competitors. The 

programme started with equestrian events and closed with a foot 

race. There was also boxing, discus and javelin throws, etc. As 

a prize the winners only received a crown and the respect of 

their fellow citizens. The population of Ortakioi was 10,000 people, 

most of whom were Christians. 

The other finding comes from the European North. In one of the 

issues of the excellent periodical "Hellenika" published in Stockholm 

by the Association of the Friends of the Swedish Archaeological 

Institute in Athens (with 2400 members) under the editorial supervision 

of Yannis Ambatzis (a Greek who lived for many years in 

Stockholm and had translated many Greek authors in Swedish) 

and Eric Matson, Eva Marling and Anders Sundberg, which was 

devoted to the Olympic Games with 15 very important pieces, there 

was a research by Osa Raousing - Roos on the "Olympic Games" 

that were held in 1834 and 1836 (!) in the suburb Ramloessa of 

the city of Helsingborgs situated on the straits which separate Sweden 

from Denmark. (Ramloessa is very famous for its mineral spring 

and water). 

Osa Raousing - Roos wrote a well documented article on the 

"Olympic Games" which were organized in Ramloessa in 1834 

and 1836 by a local "Olympic Association", based on the research 

work of Johh Pape (1936) a lawyer and researcher of Helsingborgs 

folk customs and traditions and the study of the city's newspapers 

(the Helsingborgs Posten in particular) and other sources. Among 

numerous fascinating and for the most part unknown facts, we 

learn that the idea of the games should most probably be attributed 

to Gustav Johann Sartau, who succeeded the great pedagogue 

Per Henrik Ling at the fencing class of Lund University and who 

was spending his holidays in Ramloessa. The programme of the 

games included gumnastics, a 850 aln race (aln being an old 

146

Swedish length measure corresponding to 500 metres approximately) 

and tight rope climbing over a height of about 10 metres 

(this was also one of the events of the 1896 Olympics). 

Such, for the most part highly picturesque details, can be 

found in abundance; what is important, however, is the participation 

of the population. It was in fact an attempt to socialize 

sport which met with a strong resistance on the part of the officers 

of the army regiment stationed in the city in the case of the noble 

sport of horse riding and racing; they refused to take part because 

being "noblemen" they did not wish to consort with stableboys, 

irongmongers, musicians and peasants". 

The local newspapers speak of "prejudice and arrogance" while 

the man who initiated the games, Sartau, was most disappointed 

because the words of the great Per Henrik Ling that "the difference 

between socially superiors and inferiors disappears on the track" 

could not be proven true at the Ramloessa Olympics. Nevertheless, 

distinguished members of the provincial community and upper 

class people generally accepted to support the efforts of the "Olympic 

Association" aimed at arousing interest in contest and sports that 

can improve the nation's physical and moral strength. Among the 

many documents quoted by Osa Raousing - Roos in her original 

work, there is also a poem entitled "Hymn to the Olympic Association",as 

well as stret signs and names that still recall today 

the Olympic Games of Ramloessa! 

147

MEDIA ETHICS: THE ROLE AND THE DUTIES 

OF SPORTS JOURNALISTS 

by Prof. Jae - Won LEE (USA) 

Ethics in journalism, in the most meaningful sense, is a concern 

about "what" the journalist ought to do and "how" to deal with 

the subject that he or she is covering. In this respect, the Olympics 

pose a formidable task to the sports journalist with the Games' 

magnitude in size, multidimensionality, and numerous governing 

rules and regulations. To make the matter worse, there is the 

media industry's participation in sponsoring the very Games its 

employees are expected to report on as a disinterested third party. 

As expansive and complex the Games are, the media try to 

match the task with a corresponding amount of manpower. The 

Atlanta Games registered a total of 15,000 media representatives 

covering 10,700 athletes. Yet seasoned obsevers continue to complain 

that the media are less than satisfactory in presenting the 

Olympic Games to the world audiences. Why? 

1. Levels in Journalism Ethics 

In journalism at large, ethical issues are often discussed in 

terms of three different levels of concerns: normative, statutory, 

and professional. The first level deals with the normative routine 

behaviors related to the relationship between the journalist and 

the news source. It is the concern that such relationships ought 

to be free of conflicts of interest and that the journalist should 

be seen as an independent agent of credibility. Problems causing 

concerns at this level arise from instances of payola, freebies, 

and such other favors. 

This normative level of ethics is seen as one of easy and simple 

resolution, at least conceptually. But in the Olympic realm, we 

already begin to see the complexity of the issue at this level. In 

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covering the Olympics, the journalist cannot be totaly independent 

from the sources. Improper transactions of favors might not be 

there, but a myriad of conveniences had to be there for the media 

to be able to follow the subjects of their coverage. In the worst 

case, refusing such conveniences in the name of journalistic integrity 

could mean losing the legitimate subjects of news information. 

A second level of journalistic ethics comes in the form of legal 

and statutory constraints. Normally, what it means is the need 

to be attentive to the legal ramifications in reporting, such as 

libel liabilities and source confidentiality. In Olympics, such concerns 

are compounded by additional rules and regulations governing 

the Games and the conduct of sports. The very identity 

of the sports journalist has to be granted as such by the sources 

for the journalist to be able to approach the subject. 

"Sports for all" might be an Olympic ideal, but Olympic information 

for all is not a practice yet. One just needs to recall the 

plight CNN experienced in covering the Centennial Olympic Park 

bomb blast that occurred right on its adjacent block. CNN didn't 

suffer such a humiliation when it was covering the Gulf War 

thousands of miles away from its home base. Even with ACOG'S 

concession, CNN still had the obstacle in taking its terrorism 

expert Art Harris into the MPC where the FBI conducted briefings. 

Granting access selectively has room for abuses and news management, 

too. 

Accreditation is a necessary evil, but the Olympic authorities 

haven't yet figured out what to do with the growing number of 

media representatives who are eager to cover the Olympics without 

obtaining credentials. Such non-accredited journalists are there 

at the Olympic venues with well intentioned enthusiasm. They 

often cover the subjects that are being overlooked by the credentialed 

press. They often see in the Olympics the real life happening 

outside the stadium. In fact, they cover the other side of the coin 

while the accredited press is stuck with the staged side. 

The third, and usually the most complex, level of journalism 

ethics is related to the media's role - taking, role perception, and 

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ole preparation. What is there to see in the Olympics for the 

journalist? Does the Olympic journalist cover it to its fullest extent? 

Is the Olympic journalist adequately prepared to do the job? It's 

easier to raise questions like these than accomodate the complexity 

of the task at hand. One needs to be a specialist to tackle the 

complexities, but at the same time one needs to be a generalist, 

enough to capture the full context of Olympism. While the questions 

remain almost unanswerable, the complexity of the Olympics keeps 

growing and getting beyond manageability. 

2. Complexity of Olympic Realities 

Multidimensionality might be a better term to describe the 

complexity of today's Olympic realities. Sizing up the Olympics 

in the context of sports alone is becoming a complex task inasmuch 

as today's sports themselves are increasingly becoming more than 

physical activities. Sports, especially at the global level, have become 

commerce, trade, business, politics, national egos, cultural 

exchanges, and an embodiment of societal issues. Perhaps they 

once used to be competitions, contests, victories, or defeats, and 

nothing else. At the Olympic level, sports now emerge as festival, 

ritual, and big, big business. Even drugs and environmental concerns 

have become a fixture of the Olympic Movement. 

The Olympics pose a challenge to the journalist for its multiple 

scopes, too; it has the local, national and global dimensions, often 

all at once. The 1996 Atlanta Games provided an additional challenge 

for its centennial occasion. Everything and anything at the 

Olypics this time could be seen in the centennial context. 

Furthermore, the prime forces of the Olympics make the job 

of the Olympic journalist cumbersome, to say the least, for their 

claims of different Olympic identities. The Olympic authority, including 

the IOC, wants to present the Olympics in its own image. 

The host city tries its best to put its own stamp on the Games 

it stages. It also wants to showcase the facade of the spectacle 

on stage as the focal point, not the mundane life going on off 

stage. On the other hand, the sports federations and participating 

countries want to see their own places first and above all anything 

at the Olympics. 

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Speaking of Olympic identities, how can we ignore the multicolored 

Olympic realities being presented by the television medium to billions 

of people around the world? In fact, for these billions, their Olympic 

experiences are nothing but mediated experiences framed up by 

the limited number of television networks. Most Americans saw the 

Atlanta Games vicariously through the "feminine sensibility" of the 

NBC TV cameras (1). Apparently, the Atlanta Journal - Constitution 

also watched NBC's Games; in its Olympic post-mortem analysis, 

the primary newspaper of the host city commented: "...you kinda 

wondered whether any other countries sent teams to Atlanta" (2). 

Perhaps the NBC's coverage of the 1996 Games deserves one 

more comment, having served the large audience in the country 

of the host city. On July 31, in the midst of the Games, there 

was an Internet e-mail sent by an "English girl named Christine" 

in Texas to her friend Helen back in England (3). Describing her 

experience with the NBC's coverage, she wrote, in part, "we have 

come to the conclusion that you can't go to the Olympics unless 

you have: a) lost a close relative to breast cancer, b) your wife/husband 

is in a coma, and c) you either had a baby within the last 

eight years or are making a comeback (having retired two weeks 

before)." We come to the realization that NBC's coverage was also 

being watched by the visiting guests at the Olympics. 

NBC is not in the business of public broadcasting. It is a 

private enterprise. Here lies the reason why we cannot make a 

one-dimensional criticism. We also have to consider the system 

of payment for coverage rights in Olympic broadcasting. Furthermore, 

the media covering the Olympics face yet another thorny 

professional quandary in the very nature of the Olympics, namely, 

Olympics being news, entertainment, and sports, all at the same 

time. Depending on one's primary orientation to the use of the 

media, media's composite coverage of the Games would be neither 

informative enough, not entertaining enough, or not enough about 

sports. If nothing else, this aspect alone makes the Olympics 

coverage a monumental task in journalism. 

3. Temptation of Pack Journalism 

Ethics contains an idealistic and ideological dimension of its 

151

own. However, ethical concerns in professions need to be practicable 

for the idealistic component to be of any value at all to 

practicing of the given profession. In this light, one particular 

observation can be advanced that the Olympic journalists would 

be better off if they try to overcome the tendency of "pack journalism", 

a latent liability in most sports journalism practices. 

Pack journalism is prevalent in political campaign reporting 

(4). The accredited press corps members follow the candidate 

throughout the campaign as a group, traveling together, sleeping 

together, eating together, drinking together, talking about the same 

things together, and thus eventually developing an in-group psychology 

and like-minded perspectives. The typical outcome of such 

a pack journalism is a journalistic uniformity. 

We see pack journalism in the coverage of such spectacles as 

super - power summit meetings and political party nomination 

conventions. Typically, thousands of media representatives rush 

to the scene. More often than not, most of them end up watching 

the CNN coverage of the centerpiece developments on the monitors 

installed in the press rooms. In the meantime, their editors at 

home often get the main news via the Associated Press first. 

Covering today's Olympics has all the trappings of pack journalism. 

Thousands of media representatives descend on the Games 

venues right before the opening ceremony much like a flock of 

migrating birds. And then, after having 16 days of hectic schedule 

chasing the events of their favorite sports, they all head home 

the day after the closing ceremony, much like a military division 

withdrawing in unison from the baule ground. What did they do 

at the Games venues? To borrow Atlanta Journal Constitution's 

observation, "they [foreign press] have been whining about their 

harsh life in the insular confines of the Main Press Center" (5). 

If there is any grain of salt in this observation, the non accredited 

press has the enviable freedom to roam around the host city and 

cover the much bigger dimensions to the Olympic Games that 

flow over the confines of the stadiums. In this respect, Atlanta 

took a small step, but a very meaningful one, in providing services 

for such non-credentialed press with the operation of the Southern 

International Press Center. 

152

In today's Olympics, advanced communication technologies can 

make Games results instantly available to the parties of interest. 

The press, especially the accredited press representatives, can 

now afford to go beyond score - keeping and look beyond the 

Games event. The Games are, of course, the highlights of the 

Olympic Movement, but yet they are not the entirety of the Olympic 

Movement. The multidimensionality of the Olympics can be either 

a limitation or a potentiality for media coverage, depending on 

the way the journalist takes it. 

4. Serving the People 

In the Olympic parlance, the media are members of the Olympic 

Family, a very important one at that. In the case of television, 

it is a partner of joint investment in the very subject it is supposed 

to cover. Accordingly, the Olympic authorities give a careful consideration 

to the professional conveniences of the press at the 

Olympics. In this milieu, the press, if not careful, might entertain 

a false conception of its role as one of a partner to the Olympic 

authorities. 

To the extent that the Olympic authorities symbolize the Olympic 

Movement, the media might be considered a partner in advancing 

the causes of the Olympic Movement. But at the same time, we 

also note that politics writers, for example, are not partners to 

the political establishment, however essential their service might 

be to the cause of democracy. 

It seems imperative that the Olympic journalism circles retain 

the perspective that their primary constituency is the people their 

media serve. In this regard, it is heuristic and instructive to recall 

the possibility that the media can conceptualize the people they 

serve in different lights depending on the given circumstances at 

a given time. The following scheme would denote the different 

perceptions the media can retain about the people they serve. 

153

Media's Perceiving of the People They Serve 

Typology 

Human beings 

Citizens 

Clients / 

customers 

Collectivity 

Mankind 

Public 

Setting/ 

Environment 

Global civil 

society 

Community/ 

nation state 

Objectives 

Humanity 

Participatory 

democracy 

Audience Market Profits 

Even a quick look at this scheme would remind us of some 

glaring examples of problematic tendencies in the Olympic journalism. 

Some media tend to treat the people as if they are nothing 

but commercial clients and customers. Some other media tend 

to treat the people as if they are nothing but constituents of a 

sovereign state. They are both, of course, and at the same time 

they are human beings, too, who are living together in the global 

civil society, embracing the values common to all humanities. 

The Olympic cause would be less than complete if it is taken 

devoid of the properties and the characteristics germane to the 

level of "human beings". 

The three different ways of perceiving the people the media 

serve would be seen as three different faces of us that we all 

exhibit when we use the media. The scheme above presents one 

more ethical quandary the sports journalist at the Olympics has 

to take into account in the course of his or her professional 

conduct. Merely being conscious of this scheme would serve as 

a reminder of what the job of sports journalism at the Olympics 

entails. 

Sports journalism at large is made much more professionally 

challenging, rewarding, and prestigious for the complexities and 

sophistication brought in by the rich history of the Olympics (6). 

Having emerged as an important speciality in journalism, sports 

journalism in general and Olympics coverage in particular continue 

to call forth well - rounded generalist reporters equipped with 

154

some relevant specialization (7). Let's ask ourselves: Are we ready 

to tackle this challenge? 

Endnotes 

1. David Remnick, "Inside - out Olympics: The NBC strategy that made the 

Games a hit", The New Yorker, Aug. 5, 1996, pp. 26-28. 

2. Atlanta Journal - Constitution, "Atlanta Games" section, Aug. 6, 1996, p. 19. 

3. Copy of an Internet e-mail forwarded to the Olympic Media Awards website. 

4. Timothy Crouse, The Boys on the Bus: Riding with the Campaign Press Corps 

(New York: Ballantine Books, 1973). 

5. Atlanta Journal - Constitution, op. cit., p. 19. 

6. See Heinz - Dietrich Fischer, Sports Journalism at Its Best (Chicago: Nelson 

- Hall Publishers, 1995). 

7. John C. Merrill endorses this multiperspectíval approach to reporting as "ethical 

mutualism". It is akin to a concept requiring art critics to practice empathy 

and aesthetic distancing simultaneously. See his Journalism Ethics: Philosophical 

Foundations for News Media (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997). 

155

ATLANTA'S MISTAKES AND SYDNEY'S 

RESOLUTIONS FOR A MORE EFFICIENT PRESS 

ORGANIZATION AT THE GAMES OF THE YEAR 2000 

by M. Alain BILLOUIN (FRA) 

The pictures of the great feats at the Atlanta Olympics, Michael 

Johnson's double victory in the 200 and 400 m, his fabulous 

world record in 19"32 in the 200 m and so many other beautiful 

competitions are still vivid on our minds. 

However, we did not have to wait until the end of the Games 

in Atlanta to discover that the largest country in the world, so 

proud of its dynamism, its technology and its organization genious, 

had been overcome by events in many areas, right from the beginning. 

The purpose of this lecture is not to resume the organized 

attack that was launched by the whole of the international written 

and radio - TV press and all news agencies against the Atlanta 

organizers for the serious shotrcomings at the level of press services 

and transports at the Games. What I want to do is evaluate, with 

maximum objectivity, the reasons for this situation and draw some 

conclusions which have already mobilized press associations, such 

as the AIPS and of course the IOC, in order to improve things for 

Sydney, without forgetting the Nagano Winter Olympics next year. 

WAS ATLANTA A FIASCO? 

Should we talk about a big Olympic fiasco, a gold medal for 

a total mess as a result of transport problems and IBM's technology 

flop at the Atlanta Olympics, to say nothing of the many other 

associated problems? We have to admit that, before the opening 

of the Games, there had been serious indications that all was 

not well, before matters started to get out of hand as soon as 

the competitions began. Very soon the international press, which 

numbered 11000 representatives at the Games, flew into a rage 

156

when it discovered that, for a number of reasons, it would be 

unable to fulfill its mission for lack of adequate conditions and 

when it saw how slow the ACOG was when it came to solving 

the problems that were arising. 

These problems were mainly of three sorts and they have of 

course made the objects of reports which have been carefully 

studied by the IOC's specialized commissions already since October 

1996 in Lausanne. 

1) Inadequaste organization of trasnports and incompetence of 

the staff assigned to that area. 

2) The computer systems multinational giant, IBM, which had 

signed a new contract with the IOC in 1993 which made it the 

exclusive world supplier of technology services until the year 2000, 

failed right from the beginning, making everybody mad. The news 

agencies first of all, which were deprived of their basic tool, i.e. 

accurate results, without any errors and of course television net 

works which were also deprived of their basic information source 

and were left with pictures and no words. Just as serious was 

the absence of the INFO 96 data bank, the internal information 

service which would supposedly provide access to information 

sources and which never worked. In short, the IBM fort was 

seriously shaken in Atlanta. 

3) Furthermore, the journalists' working conditions and acco 

modation were well below standard. Journalists often found them 

selves mingling with spectators in order to reach the competition 

venues and caught up in bottlenecks on their way back. Many 

journalists stayed at Clarke university, far from the city and 

under most inadequate conditions like for example no curtains 

or shutters at the windows. In addition, reference should be made 

to a certain lack of understanding and brutality on the part of 

security services. 

I should add that very soon, in addition to the strong criticisms 

which journalists immediately put in their reports, Mr Juan Antonio 

Samaranch, the IOC President. Michèle Verdier, its press chief, Bob 

Brennan, the ACOG's press manager and Bill Payne, the President 

of ACOG, were alerted to the problems so that the necesary steps 

157

could be urgently taken in the sensitive areas of technology and 

transports in an attempt to find a solution. But it was already 

too late. 

WHY DID TECHNOLOGY FAIL? 

Mr Juan Antonio Samaranch was extremely concerned about 

the breakdown in technology at the Atlanta Olympics and on his 

return to Lausanne addressing the IOC's Press Commission he 

declared: "As there are only a few months to Nagano the best 

solution may not be to try to invent anything new, but simply 

repeat what worked so well at the Lillehammer Games. On the 

other hand, we have more time to prepare for Sydney." 

This statement clearly shows the IOC's dismay in the face of 

such a highly technical problem... which only information wizards 

could handle. The IOC decided to appoint a new technology director, 

M. Wattiaux. 

In the month of September which followed the Atlanta Olympics, 

there was a meeting in London between the representatives of 

IBM, the IOC and international press agencies, for some stocktaking. 

A working group was established under the chairmanship 

of the IOC's Director General Me Carrard. The presidents of the 

IOC's media commissions, Mr Kim and Mr Gosper, were of course 

also involved. 

Bob Brennan's report was carefully studied and declared by 

the IOC to be frank and honest. 

Why was there such an explosion in Atlanta, when there had 

been no problem with IBM In Barcelona? According to Michel 

Henau, the head of the sports department of Agence France Presse, 

the Spaniards had imposed the DSF company for the processing 

of results and all had worked satisfactorily. 

At first, IBM tried to shift the responsibility to ACOG, the 

organizing committee which was supposed to instai all systems, 

while IBM was only responsible for supplying the equipment, using 

its local division. According to IBM, in addition to the fact that 

the users' requirements were decided too late, operation tests 

were also carried out much too late. It would seem that the major 

158

technological challenge which Atlanta wanted to address was disproportionate 

compared to basic needs. Atlanta, the "technology 

showcase" was one of the ambitious challenges which the ACOG 

wanted to meet. But it required equipment, software, personnel, 

facilities which would be available when needed and financial 

resources. In all these areas major shortcomings could be identified, 

including the fact that certain facilities were wired and tested 

just 48 hours before the opening of the Atlanta Olympics. It's 

unbelievable! 

IBM did concede that it had not quite understood the real 

requirements of the media, which is a bit surprising coming from 

a giant with millions of customers in the world. 

"They were on the wrong track, says Michel Henault of AFP, 

forgetting that the minimum service, the basic requirement was 

a quick and accurate results system". 

Alex Gilady, who is a member of the IOC's Radio and Television 

Commission has also remarked that there were about 1500 commentators 

in Atlanta and that their information system, called 

CIS, had also failed. "When you have to run a commentary on 

the Games without information, he said, TV viewers lose interest 

and turn away from their screen". 

One of the major arguments that was used to explain such a 

failure was that the systems were installed by people who did 

not know much about sport or the real needs of the press. 

When the first problems occurred, as soon as competitions 

started, IBM sent some of its brains on the spot to try to remedy 

the situation. There was some progressive improvement, but all 

the problems could not be solved. In any event, IBM recognizing 

that the press and international agencies in particular, which 

had paid huge amounts for the use of the systems, had suffered 

serious damage, agreed to reimburse them. Thus, Agence France 

Presse for example, recovered 11,000 dollars. 

Michel Henault, the head of AFP's sports department, speaking 

in Lausanne even asked that the IBM's contract should be cancelled. 

He also recommended that the excellent structure that had been 

used at the Barcelona Games should also be put in place for 

159

Sydney, to avoid the shortcomings of the Atlanta programme which 

contained too much statistics for example. 

To conclude on this sensitive technology issue, where more or 

less everybody tried to put the blame on somebody else, it is 

clear that the IOC firmly believes that to launch an operation of 

the size of the Olympics without the backing of a reliable and 

carefully tested system would be impossible. 

In this respect, Mr Fekrou Kidane, Mr Samaranch's advisor, 

assures us that a working group on technology is now in place 

within the IOC and is already preparing for Nagano as a first 

priority, but also for Sydney, in close cooperation with SOCOG 

2000, the Sydney Olympics organizing committee. He also points 

out, moreover, that the SOCOG, which had sent 250 to the Atlanta 

Olympics, has identified all the problems so as to take good care 

not to repeat them at the 2000 Olympics. Fekrou Kidane also 

stresses that the Minister in charge of Olympic Affairs, Mr Michael 

Knight is the President of SOCOG and that Australia is the only 

country with a Minister for Olympic Affairs and that the success 

of the Games of the third millenium has become a matter of state. 

For its part, IBM has appointed a very high level technical 

representative, a man with thirty years experience, Mr Furry, who 

was not in Atlanta but who is responsible for Nagano and Sydney. 

He affirmed before the IOC, already in October, that everything 

would be ready for the next Games and that all defective areas 

have been identified and analyzed. There were 1800 digital information 

screens in Atlanta at the venues and press centres for 

the journalists. We are promised maximum efficiency for Syndney. 

Accurate results without any errors. It's the least they can promise. 

We should never again see Germans becoming Ghanaians, a boxer 

aged 95 acording to the computer, a weightlifter measuring 6 m, 

football matches ending with a score of 0-0 or riders bearing the 

name of their horses...! 

THE TRANSPORT PROBLEM, WHAT WENT WRONG IN AT- 

LANTA AND WHAT ARE THE FORECASTS FOR SYDNEY 

The second fiasco in Atlanta, in addition to the erratic operation 

of the information system, had to do with transports. 

160

Journalists discovered, already on the day of the opening ceremony, 

Sunday 21 July, in Atlanta that the underground could not accept 

any more passengers and that police did not allow access to it. 

The use of shuttle services to and from venues also proved 

disastrous, as a result of the length of the trips, bottlenecks, to 

say nothing of the total ignorance of the staff assigned to transports. 

To need double or triple time to get to the competition venue is 

already bad for journalists and photographers who, most of them, 

travel from one venue to the other on the same day. If you add 

the heat, humidity and fatigue, you have every reason to grumble, 

all the more so that for journalists working at the MPC, the 

general transports centre was 15 - minutes walk away. This explains 

the headlines of some newspapers on the "great Olympic chaos 

in Atlanta". 

The problem of transports could not be handled in Atlanda 

and there again the official explanations that were provided implied 

that the IOC was putting the resposnibility on the ACOG with 

some IOC members saying that "the Americans had refused to 

listen to advice or pay any attention to previous experience and 

that to entrust the oganization of the Games to a private undertaking 

was a big risk". 

We should also add to this the security restrictions in force, 

over and above the difficulty to access sites, to say nothing of 

the long queues where journalists often found themselves in the 

middle of spectators. The attack at the Olympic Park of course 

led to draconian security measures which made life even more 

difficult for journalists. 

We also learned, with much surprise, that many of the 1480 

buses that had been requisitioned for transportation from neighbouring 

states were in appalling condition. Several broke down. 

The drivers who had been recruited at the last minute and on 

questionable criteria, lacked experience in most cases and did 

not know the city's layout. Some of them picked out a direction 

at random and took two or three times longer to get to their 

destination. 

Journalists were not the only ones to deplore the transport 

161

shambles in Atlanta. The famous British rower, Steve Redgrave, 

after having to wait for two hours on the bus at the Olympic 

Village, wisely decided to leave the village and move to a hotel 

near the rowing venue. 

The problem of transports was also affected of course by the 

spreadout accomodation. The integration of public transport in 

the Olympic transports schedule should have been more complete 

and not limited to the underground for many journalists who 

finished work very late at the competition venues and therefore 

did not leave at the same time as the public could have used 

other means apart from their shuttles. 

Mr Bob Brennan, commenting conditions offered to the press 

in Atlanta, admitted that things had gone wrong when addressing 

the IOC last October: These Games were a real success at the 

level of the participation of athletes, spectators and visitors, the 

population of Atlanta... but the same could not be said for the 

press". 

So, what would be the best way to prepare for the Sydney 

Olympics in the year 2000? The SOCOG's sport director, Mr Elphinston, 

has presented a report to the IOC's Press Commission, 

which stresses the following elements: 

There will be two main zones where all facilities will be grouped, 

the larger one being the "Sydney Olympic Park" where 14 sports 

will be held in the city's urban area. This sector will also include 

the Main Press Centre and the Radio and Television Centre, as 

well as the Olympic Village. 

Seven competition venues are presently under construction, including 

the Olympic stadium which will be completed in November 1999. 

Already for the 27 sports on the Olympic programme 23 venue 

managers have been recruited who are in contact with the international 

federations concerned. Of course trial events will be held 

in all the venues before the year 2000 as a dress rehearsal, under 

the exact conditions of the Games, in order to test technology 

too. A media village will be built at a distance of approximately 

ten minutes from the Olympic Park. An agreement has been concluded 

with Sydney hoteliers to secure 80% of available rooms 

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for the SOCOG. As in the case of Barcelona, the use of ships for 

added accomodation capacity is also being contemplated. This is 

a solution which primarily concerns sponsors. For it is clear that 

in future a press village able to accomodate 5000 to 6000 journalists 

should be provided in the Olympic facilities of the Summer Games. 

The thorny transports issue has already been thoroughly studied 

since Sydney does not wish to face the same criticisms as Atlanta's. 

The Olympic Park is not situated in the city centre but at a 

distance of 14 km with the advantage that Olympic activities will 

not have to coexist with the business community and the city's 

life. 

Only accredited vehicles will be allowed to circulate. Special 

lanes will be allocated to the exclusive use of Olympic vehicles 

along the avenues. 

SYDNEY WANTS THE GAMES TO BE A SUCCESS 

Although the Olympic Games in Atlanta can be considered as 

a big success in terms of participation, spectators and TV viewers, 

the net outcome in terms of press services and technology, because 

of the size and complexity of the operation and the number of 

partners involved, was a resounding failure. Of course we should 

not condemn everything; the Main Press Centre for example gave 

satisfaction on the whole and was able to accomodate about 500 

journalists. Competitions themselves were held under excellent 

conditions. Broadcasting facilities were also very good. I also wish 

to recall that the president of the IOC's Press Commission is Mr 

Kevin Gosper, an Australian who has, therefore, two strong reasons 

to want the Sydney Games to be a success. A media guide to be 

updated ever three months will be available. In the area of technology, 

the data bank INFO 2000 which news agencies are so 

fond of, is being developed. During an IOC meeting in Lausanne, 

Mr Palfreyman, the SOCOG's Media Services Director gave assurances: 

"In view of the Atlanta experience, the links between 

the division in charge of daily relations with the media and its 

interface with media operations responsible for the technical part 

should be strengthened. The person responsible for the MPC will 

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also have to act as the liaison with the press accomodation and 

transports departments. All figure estimates which were prepared 

before Atlanta will have to be revised upwards. The Telstra will 

handle telecommunications. The recruiting of volunteers, many 

of them from universities and international specialists or technicians 

who will act as guides, has already started. The athletics 

stadium, for the major Olympic sport, will be albe to welcome 

2000 journalists. 

Sydney wants to organize perfect Games, its main objective 

being to restore the world press' confidence which was seriously 

shaken during the last Games in Atlanta. This is also the IOC's 

wish: the idea is not to blame or to go on attributing responsibility 

to Atlanta, but rather to encourage and help Sydney by saying: 

"You have seen in Atlanta exactly what should be avoided". 

164

THE OLYMPIC GAMES AND THE MOVING IMAGE 

by Adrian METCALFE (GBR) 

In 1996 the World celebrated the Centennial Olympic Games. 

In nearly 200 countries billions of people shared in the greatest 

sporting show on earth - probably the only event which genuinely 

captures the World's interest. There may be disasters, tragedies, 

even wars which enforce our attention, but only the Olympics 

celebrates the good things of which human beings are capable. 

Talent, commitment, achievement, risk, honour, comradeship. 

These are the values so often excluded from our daily lives. Through 

sport and the Arts human beings can find moral nourishment 

and emotional connections to counteract the in-humanity that 

surrounds and gnaws at them. And how did the World participate 

in the Games? Through that unique combination of the Arts with 

Sport; through Television, through that live signal which carries 

identical pictures to the whole world simultaneously. Though as 

we shall see, perhaps the advances in technology which make it 

possible also contain the seeds of its destruction. 

It is perhaps fitting that the revival of the Olympic Games 

coincided almost identically with the birth of the other great force 

of the 20th Centrury. While Pierre de Coubertin brought his first 

Olympic Committee together in 1894, elsewhere in Paris the brothers 

Lumiere were perfecting the cinimatographe. As we shall see, 

these 2 phenomena have come ever closer over the past century 

until they now totally co-exist. 

Yet what we see cleearly in hindsight was not evident at the 

time. The Lumières sent operators all over Europe to film a multitude 

of happening, but actually missed the first Games in Athens. 

Footage claiming to be authentic coverage actually comes from 

the 1904 Athens event. The only visual recording we have comes 

from an artist - capturing the scene with his paintbrush. 

165

The first moving pictures of the Games date from 1900 in 

Paris and 1904 in St. Louis. 

Despite the inaugural success of Athens, both subsequent 

Games were submerged in major World's Fairs - another global 

fraternal phenomenon of the time which still survives. Any coverage 

survives only as remnants of general news coverage. It was only 

in 1908 in London that a Games looking like it does today was 

established. Opening ceremonies, uniforms, medals, sports organisation! 

All captured by the very active newsreel companies. 

Just as the journalists could telegraph their reports, so now film 

could be shipped around the World. 

To us, these images have a rather comic charm, exaggerated 

by the shutter speed of the cameras of the day. Their 18 frames 

per second projected at modern 24 fps gives that characteristic 

silent movie speeded up action appearance. But what we actually 

learn, is that the athletes were genuine, their skills limited by 

the primitive technology. The pitted cinder track: the hard-sand 

high-jump landing; the freezing water in pool. But the cameras 

at least made the first hero of the Games, Dorando Pietri disqualified 

from marathon gold after an over-enthusiastic official helped him 

over the line. (It also turned out later than Pietri had sipped 

copiously from his coach's special tonic - a lethal combination 

of cognac and strychnine - thus becoming the first drugs - assisted 

Olympic star). 

By 1912 the film industry was maturing, and in Stockholm 

many hours were shot. We have the feeling of an idyllic Games 

reflecting the last peaceful days of Europe before the Great War. 

Nevertheless there is no evidence that great film makers like 

Fritz Lang or DW Griffith were inspired by this great festival of 

sport. The coverage remained predictable news coverage; wide 

angles, no movement, no close - ups. 

It was not for another 12 years when the Games returned to 

France that an attempt was made to shoot a real feature. Rapid 

Film - a French company shot a 2 reel film of the first Winter 

Games in Chamonix and more ambitiously a 10 reel 2 1 / 2 hour 

feature of the Paris Summer Games - a striking fore - runner of 

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Chariots of Fire. All the major athletics events - the 100m of 

Harold Abrahams, the 400m of Eric Liddell; the sensational debut 

of 4 gold - medal winner Paavo Nurmi - are recorded with portraits 

of these heroes after they finished. But the film makers also 

expanded their interest to the great range of the other Olympic 

sports. 

Yet despite this significant step-forward the 1928 Games in 

Amsterdam had no official film and even more surprisingly neither 

did the 1932 Games held down the road from the centre of the 

film world, Hollywood. Apart from the usual newsreel,only the eccentric 

notion of a Universal Studio executive to send along some 

studio crews to shoot what they wanted, gives us some images 

of Los Angeles, including the first synch - sound interviews. The 

Universal reels were left unattended, unloved and forgotten in 

the Studio archives for over 50 years until unearthed and restored 

by Olympic film maker Bud Greenspan. 

So as the 40th anniversary of the Games approached it could 

be said that they had made little impact on what was already 

the World's greatest medium of popular entertainment. Yet 1936 

was to be the greatest watersheb in the history of the Games 

and its relationship with the moving image. 

There were 2 revolutions at work in the 1936 Games and the 

one which seemed an eccentric experiment at the time was to 

have unimaginable significance. Television made it's debut in Berlin. 

There were only 3 cameras - great dinosaurs dwarfing the 

operators; the lenses were wide and fixed - no zoom lenses at 

this time. The pictures had very limited distribution - to a few 

thousand experimental sets around Berlin and giant screens on 

the Stadium surrounds. Yet it is estimated that nearly 200,000 

viewers managed to see these tiny flickering black and white 

images. For the first time a sports event could be seen live as it 

happened and most significanlry, direct to the home. Film was 

seen in a picture palace, a communal activity available for the 

price of a ticket. Television changed this relationship, made it 

more individual and personal. At the time it seemed like a clever 

scientific toy. With hindsight this was the beginning of a mutually 

167

eneficial relationship which would unlock unimaginable wealth 

for the Olympic movement. 

The much more visible revolution in Berlin concerned the official 

Olympic film, the responsibility of the Organising Committee. Berlin 

as we know, was not a normal capital city. It was the centre of 

the Third Reich, "destined to last for a thousand years". The 

Games were seen by Hitler and Dr Goebbels - his propaganda 

chief as a unique opportunity to set Germany at the heart of 

Europe as its cultural, sporting and of course ultimately its military 

leader. Money therefore was of no object - money to build the 

finest sporting venues and the first athletes village; money to 

entertain politicians and celebrities; money to stage the first torch 

run bringing the sacred flame from Olympia ever closer to the 

centre of the World. To Berlin. 

But staging the Games was only half the plan. The results 

had to be seen, indeed proclaimed. Germany had the largest state 

controlled film industry in the world , and all advanced distribution 

system. They needed a film of the Games. Goebbels saw an 

opportunity for a massive news operation; rushing out short stories 

within 24 hours around Europe and the rest of the World. He 

reckoned without Leni Reifenstahl, popular actress turned filmmaker 

who had already produced "The Triumph of the Will" - a 

brooding and disturbing celebration of the huge Nazi rally in Nuremberg. 

Despite many objections she persuaded Hitler that she could 

achieve similar results with an Olympic Film. And she did. She 

produced a masterpiece of filming almost without equal. Certainly 

no film about sport has ever and may never come near it. Yet 

its terrible beauty also raises as many questions as it satisfies. 

Firstly it brought aesthetics into the coverage of sport. It moved 

from simple reporting - "I was there with a camera" - to the 

camera being always in the most important place, at the heart 

of the action. Secondly it inevitably stimulated new technology. 

To achieve the effects she wanted, a host of new cameras, lenses, 

mounts and film stock had to be created. Cameras to track as 

fast as the runners; to submerge with the divers' slow motion to 

capture human movement; airships to range overhead. There is 

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almost no technique which Reifenstahl and her creative team did 

not attempt, or anticipate, which today's producers would struggle 

to do better. 

Thirdly her ambitious plans inevitably ran foul of cautious 

sports officials. The deep pits she dug in the stadium to achieve 

very low-angle shots almost became instant graves for the runners. 

This was probably the first time the needs of a producer came 

into conflict with sporting regulations. That dialogue has developed 

over the past 60 years and arguably the balance has dramatically 

changed. 

Fourthly, her technique moved so far from any reportage, that 

a considerable amount of the 250 hours of shot film, edited to 

just under 3 hours, was shot outside the actual competition. 

Even the original ceremony of lighting the flame in Olympia, was 

completely re-staged and choreographed solely for the cameras. 

Actual performances were not allowed to get in the way of Reifenstahl's 

vision. And was that vision not greater than the scrupulous 

recording of every media winner? 

Subsequently that role would fall to television leaving impressionism 

to the film maker, until the need to control the emotional 

power of Olympic images would also become the policy of television. 

Which brings us to the fundamental question raised by Reifenstahl's 

undoubted genius. Was her film inspired by a love and understanding 

of sport and human beings, or did it cros over into a 

distorion of Olympism to worship the triumphalism of fascism? 

Certainly for Hitler it was a propaganda exercise, to protray 

Germany as a peace-loving state in 1936. In that sense it was 

undoubtedly political. Yet although Reifenstahl was commissioned 

directly by Hitler, her film eschews any crude manipulation. The 

great victories of black Americans - Jesse Owens of course being 

the most memorable, are fairly represented and her celebration 

of physical beauty and sporting achievement is unsurpassed in 

the history of film. 

As we know, World War II changed the World. It caused devastation 

and horror. It also accelerated science and technology. And it changed 

society. It replaced leisure for the lucky few with entertainment for 

169

the masses. Henceforth sport would inexorably transform into a 

professional business, where its greatest ally would be mass communication. 

In the Forties it was overwhelmingly film, through 

features and newsreel, but the home was where the family were 

entertained together listening to the radio. Television was an expensive 

new - fangled gadget, a toy. It could never replace Radio 

they said. 

In 1948 a war - torn London staged the Olympics. On a modest 

budget they adapted old venues but nevertheless this patched-up 

Games attracted huge crowds and the attention of the BBC and 

the British Film Industry. The first colour film of the Games 

dutifully covered the action but totally lacked the passion and 

imagination of Reifenstahl. 

Much more interesting was the infant Television coverage. The 

cameras were huge by today's standards: unwieldy and visually 

underpowered. But the BBC was able to send out a daily live 

programme to a few thousand domestic sets, mostly near London. 

Also, in a portent of things to come, the BBC paid a fee of £1,500 

to the IOC. 

Neither Helsinki nor Melbourne contributed greatly, if at all, 

to the coverage of the Games. It was Rome in 1960 which really 

established Television as the world's window onto the Games. 

RAI - Italian State Television - provided live multi - camera coverage 

from all the main venues, supported by on - screen timing and 

informative graphics. The pictures were distributed live across 

the Eurovision system in Europe, and kinescopes - film of the 

TV pictures - sent to the rest of the World. The cameras at the 

time were still large and relied on a variety of fixed lenses. Nevertheless 

a bold pattern of coverage was established which has 

not materially changed since. The diference is that modern technology 

now allows huge close-ups, slow motion and tracking cameras. 

The Olympic family - and especially the media, travelled to 

Tokyo in 1964 with some trepidation. Remember, this was then 

an unknown country - still recovering from war, and making its 

first step back into the global limelight. In effect, Tokyo staged 

170

a wonderful Games. From its considerable and highly respected 

Film Industry, Kon Ichikawa put together a memorable film: poetic, 

celebratory and technically challenging. The TV Industry too produced 

high quality pictures - still in black and white - which for 

the first time reached the USA and Europe via Satellite. Now the 

viewer at home could be as well informed as the journalists in 

the stadium, something it took the Press a long time to come to 

terms with. 

Two distinct but inter - related themes now emerged which 

have driven Television coverage of the Games, to this day. 

They are rights fees and quality production. Until 1968, the 

broadcasting world was settled and predictable. The Olympics 

were seen as almost a cultural rather than sporting event. Certainly 

not a ratings driver, but in 1968 ABC TV - the youngest and 

hungriest of the 3 Networks acquired the USA TV rights. ABC 

saw sport, as many have since, as a relatively cheap way to 

attract viewers and advertisers and more importantly to establish 

a brand image. ABC by linking itself to the Olympics acquired 

authority and status. They didn't just televise the Games they 

wrapped themselves in it and so began the creation of the Olympics 

as a television brand. Before 1968 the Games had no significant 

commercial value, less than 30 years later fees and revenues in 

the billions are being negotiated. 

But branding means image, and the image of the Games had 

to change, certainly for ABC. Thus the technical and aesthetic 

value of the Games needed investment. Mexico City was the first 

Games in colour although few parts of the world were equipped 

to receive it. New cameras - back pack recorder and slow - motion 

appeared. 

By 1972 colour was standard and the major national broadcasters 

of Germany combined their technical resources to offer 

the world the most advanced coverage. They were rewarded with 

unforgettable pictures, like the elfin Olga Korbet which overnight 

transformed the sport of gymnastics. But also names like Keino 

Stevenson, Spitz Borzov caught the world's imagination. Every 

country with a TV station was now seeing the Games and sharing 

171

in its unique excitement. But they also shared its vulnerability 

to tragedy, as the same TV stations turned sports announcers 

into newscasters to report the terrorist attack. The very success 

of its global TV image had made the Games a vehicle for political 

outrage. 

Following Munich both Montreal and Moscow suffered from 

boycott, to the extent that NBC were unable to transmit any 

significant pictures from the Soviet capital. TV coverage was competent 

and professional, but there was a general mood of depression 

surrounding all aspects of the Olympic movement. 

It took a return to Hollywood to brighten the picture. In 1984 

ABC TV was the national broadcaster, and thus the so-called 

Host Broadcaster. By tradition and practicality the pictures created 

by the national broadcaster (or as in Munich a joint operation 

between ZDF and ARD called DOZ - Deutsche Olympische Zendung 

- German Olympic Broadcasting) were made available to all other 

nations who had acquired rights from the IOC. The problem in 

Los Angeles was that ABC had fought hard against NBC & CBS 

for the rights and were determined to extract full advantage. For 

ABC that meant "An American Games for an American audience". 

A perfectly proper editorial position. Unfortunately for the rest of 

the world it meant no shows at all of their competitors unless 

they just beat an American. Impartial reporting had never been 

an issue previously since no host country had dominated the 

medals. But in the absence of the Soviet Block, the USA was 

unstoppable and other nations were frozen out. As a result it 

was decided that henceforth the role of Host Broadcaster supplying 

images to the world would be separate from that of the national 

rights holder, who would supplement the HB signal exactly like 

other rights holders. 

Hence by Seoul in 1988, all the world's major broadcasters 

led by NBC arrived with tons of extra equipment, so they could 

personalise the HB signal for their own viewers back home. An 

International Broadcast Centre was opened to cope with their 

demands. Here all the signals from all the sports were delivered, 

plus many unilateral feeds from extra cameras belonging to broad- 

172

casters, who then each made a customised selection appropriate 

for their needs. From Table d' hôte to "A la carte. But the basic 

coverage was there for those smaller organisations who could not 

afford the de-luxe coverage. 

Even in Seoul it was becoming clear that no one country had 

the resources both to provide a Host Broadcast operation and 

produce its own national coverage. Not did it have the skills in 

producing coverage of many sports unfamiliar to that country. 

So in Barcelona in 1992 for the first time there was a completely 

independent HB operation, drawing heavily on the production 

skills of rights holding broadcasters by inviting them to send 

complete production teams - directors, cameramen, tape operators 

etc - to cover certain sports for which their country might be 

specially renowned. The BBC perhaps for Equestrian or the Swedes 

for Table Tennis. 

But the HB operation would also spearhead technological advance. 

A whole new concept of coverage was inaugurated, benefiting 

from the micro - isation of equiment and the beginnings of the 

digital age. Cameras that could creep under - water, or travel 

beneath the stadium roof. Mini - cameras the size of pen - tops, 

to lurk in football nets or on High Jump bars. In all a much 

more exciting and penetrating coverage, putting high value images 

on screen to match both the quality of the competition and the 

investment by rights holders. 

In all, this sweep through TV history at the Summer Games, 

it is well to note two other strong parallel developments. The 

tradition of an official Olympic film had continued with varied 

success since Tchikawa in 1964. A little seen Mexican production 

was followed in 1972 by a more ambitious plan. Hollywood producer 

David Wolper devised an anthology film, "Pieces of Eight" to contain 

diverse short film essays on topics of their choosing at the Games 

by distinguished film makers - including Mai Zetterling, John 

Schlesinger, Arthur Penn and others. Unfortunately many of them 

preselected favourites who flopped while missing the truly legendary 

performers like Korbet and Spitz, and the African contribution 

was never even edited. 

173

Not until 1984 did someone come along with an exciting new 

concept in a narative documentary telling the stories of winners 

and losers from their point of view. Something that Television 

did not do, with camera angles that TV did not have. As a result 

Bud Greenspan has become one of the most influential and important 

contributors to the recording of Olympic history "16 Days 

of Glory" - no more, no less and he is still hard at work polishing 

up the final cut of his 1996 Atlanta film to release on the first 

anniversary of the opening of the Centennial Games. 

The other great sporting event is of course the Winter Olympics, 

started in 1924 with a history of TV coverage broadly parallel to 

the Summer Games. It's impact has been less because so many 

fewer countries practice winter sports. But it has suddenly taken 

on a new life and become a major target for TV. The reason is 

that in 1994 the Winter Olympics broke out of the traditional 4 

year Olympic cycle. Henceforth Winter and Summer would be 

separated by 2 years rather than hold in the same year. Thus 

budgets and airtime could be freed up to support the Winter 

Games, and the creation of a separate identity for them. In Lillehammer 

CBS made the Ice Skating a great national story, and 

for the first time attracted the kind of ratings hitherto reserved 

for the Summer Games. Now the TV rights for Winter are approaching 

those for Summer - certainly exceeding previous Summer 

Games. And TV production is leaping ahead. Who can forget the 

tracking cameras at the Speed skating or the 4-wheel drive chasing 

the skier across country. It made these events - rarely seen on 

most screens, into gripping competition. And who knows how 

many youngsters were inspired by what they saw to try it for 

themselves. 

And so to the most recent, the Centennial Games. As you 

would imagine in the USA, this was a Games of the most. The 

most cameras - nearly 600, Videotape machines over 400. Host 

Broadcast staff nearly 4000 - budget $120m and so on. 197 

countries participating, all receiving TV pictures, truly the most 

global event ever. Yet paradoxically this apotheosis of globalism 

- the ultimate triumph of universalism -may signal the beginning 

174

of a retreat into nationalism and local triumphalism. How can 

this be? Surely the Games are launched into a well - financed 

future with Television at its heart? This is so, but such is the 

price that the TV companies are paying, they are obliged to use 

every means to capture the largest possible domestic audiences and 

thus recoup their investment. Until now it was thought possible to 

achieve this by extending to a maximum the number of hours 

transmitted. But it is clear that audiences have only a limited amount 

of time and thus it is vital to compress and shape the hours available 

into the most attractive consumer package. 

We saw the first really sophisticated application of this technique 

in the USA in 1996. We recall how ABC TV - 1984 "Americanised" 

their output. In 1996 NBC totally controlled the images and sequences 

offered to the American public. Where ABC had made a 

virtue out of live reporting, NBC offered an Olympic story in a 

carefully shaped 5 hour narrative where events already concluded 

were given the appearance of an unfolding drama. They carefully 

included segments which research told them would attract or at 

least not defer female viewers. They worked with advertisers to 

shape commercials which continued the Olympic theme. And they 

had their reward with the best viewing figures (and therefore 

commercial benefit) ever. But the hapless non - American living 

in the USA or sitting in an Atlanta bedroom could find nothing 

about his own competitors, or receive wide information on the 

day's results. 

In other words we all want to watch "our" version of the Games. 

How did our athletes succeed? We saw in Atlanta how many 

countries built studios in the Olympic Stadium to give a backdrop 

to their presenters. Nearly 30 countries used con cams - mini 

cameras worked by remote control to give a face to the Commentator 

in his working position - to personalise his reporting. 

This process will not only accelerate by 2000, but it will go 

far beyond. Not only will national broadcasters increasingly customise 

their output, the availability of digital transmission will 

mean that in theory at least not only every TV signal from every 

venue could be available but every camera. So the viewer at home 

175

equipped with the appropriate technology could create his own 

personal Olympic Games show, jumping from sport to sport and 

even camera to camera as desired. But of course at a price. 

And so the shared experience of the Games - our mutual delight 

at the great exploits of a Johnson or Lewis or the Dream Team 

may withdraw into a personal reaction and that is to deny the 

whole purpose of the Olympic Games. Where now the glory of 

taking part is to be discarded by the dictates of nationalism. 

Where the Games we see and whom we see will depend on where 

we live. And where the concept of Olympism will be understood 

differently in different countries. The movement may be rich in 

sponsors and TV partners, but its soul is in danger of dying. 

176

CONCLUSIONS 

FROM THE DISCUSSIONS BY THE 

ENGLISH SPEAKING PARTICIPANTS 

1. THE OLYMPIC IDEAL 

Each of us will take away a better appreciation of the deep 

love there is of the Olympics. A feeling that is spread more thinly 

across the four corners of the world is concentrated here in Ancient 

Olympia. 

For four days we have all felt part of the Olympic Movement 

as we have come together to share experiences and make connections 

across the globe. 

In particular, there is a gratitude that the smaller countries 

have been recognised and invited to send representatives to the 

seminar - felt by both the smaller countries themselves and also 

by their larger neighbors who have encountered a unique variety 

of their colleagues. 

2. THE ACADEMY 

The setting of the seminar at the heart of Olympic history 

made it easier to take the lessons of the lectures on board - but 

perhaps more could have been made of this. 

We felt we were not fully introduced to the Academy and its 

role in the Olympic Movement. The seminar would have been an 

ideal platform for the research graduates to present their findings 

and we would have been interested to hear about the work that 

goes on here. 

On a more basic level, the accommodation and food was of the 

expected standard although there was not enough facility for recreation 

in the evening, there was little to do. In addition, more 

could have been made of the facilities that are available - an 

organised football match for example. 

191

3. THE SEMINAR CONTENT 

The seminar appeared to have two aims but only succeeded 

in completely fulfilling one of them. 

The fundamental aim - to impart a more theoretical understanding 

of the Olympic Movement and its history - was achieved 

in a comprehensive and interesting manner. 

As sports journalists we are constantly being asked to work 

in the present so it is a rare treat to have the time to sit back 

and reflect on the past and the future. 

A good historic interest was maintained with the lectures of 

Mr Linardos and Mr Metcalfe soliciting particular praise. 

In future seminars it would be helpful to concentrate on more 

journalistic issues (e.g. sensationalism or conflict of interests) with 

lighter reins placed on lecturers with regards to subject matter. 

One particular topic suggested for inclusion in future seminars is 

an in-depth analysis of the problems associated with the shift of 

the Olympic games from amateurism to professionalism - a subject 

touched by all lectures but explored by none. 

The second aim of the seminar seemed to be a more practical 

re-examination of lessons learnt from recent Olympic Games, in 

particular Atlanta '96. 

Too often the seminars were burdened by accreditation problems 

and consideration of inadequate facilities. Questions were 

addressed to lecturers who were not in a position to answer them 

adequately. 

Some felt that this was not the arena to try to solve these 

problems, but if it is to be attempted then there must be representation 

from the I.O.C. and conceivably the Sydney organising 

committee as well. 

The presence of such dignitaries would have the added advantage 

of giving the discussion a more obvious hard - nosed news 

angle making stories arising from the week easier to sell to our 

respective sports editors. 

192 

4. ORGANISATION OF THE SEMINAR 

On the whole the organisation was good but the muddled na-

ture of question sessions meant that a unique forum for discussion 

failed to realise its full potential. 

It was felt that the technology hindered rather than helped 

and more informal discussion groups may have led to more valuable 

debate. 

As it was, the questions were interesting but too restricted by 

time. When talking in a language that is not the mother tongue 

more time is needed to formulate questions and there was little 

allowance made for this by the frenetic push - button nature of 

the sessions. 

There was no need for such harsh time constraints. We were 

perfectly happy to work longer hours -aftenoons for example- in 

the interests of a fuller discussion. 

5. SUMMARY 

The criticisms outlined above are only minor gripes intended 

to help an excellent seminar develop into an even better one. 

All participants appreciate the invitation to attend and would 

like to thank the Academy for offering a remarkable opportunity 

to meet with colleagues from around the world and work together 

to overcome problems that face us all. 

193

THE EVOLUTION OF JOURNALISM 

AT THE OLYMPIC GAMES 

by Alain LUNZENFICHTER (FRA) 

The evolution of journalism at the Olympic Games is a vast 

subject that cannot be tackled in a matter of minutes. All the more 

so as it is linked to events which journalism itself has not always 

been able to control. Reporting has changed substantially as a result 

of the growing power of sport in everyday life and its political, 

commercial, technical, ideological and financial ramifications. 

If journalism has changed, it is because sport itself has changed. 

If sport has changed, it is simply because it has gone from a 

carefree phase to that of passion and interest. In short from 

amateurism to professionalism. 

Of course, Olympism has not remained untouched by these 

development and changes. The men who succeeded Pierre de 

Coubertin at the presidency of the IOC, have left their mark on 

the growing significance of the games. 

Moreover, they each had a very different perception of their 

mandate. To deal with political problems and "wild" amateurism 

befell on the American Avery Brundage. His successor, Lord Killanin, 

discovered commercialization and Juan Antonio Samaranch, 

who has been leading this institution since 1980, guided it into 

a revolutionary phase. 

The Irishman brought the Olympic Movement to a turning point. 

This was the period when the media began to show interest in 

the games and when the economic weight of sport started to be 

felt. It was also during the 70s that the political world (always 

because of the media) began to move closer to the games, obviously 

because of the notoriety associated with them. This was the time 

of the "cold war" when all possible means could be used to promote 

the superiority of one's system compared to that of the other 

block... Or of one's system compared to that of one's neighbour for 

that matter. This was the time of the matches between the USA 

177

and the USSR and the rising influence of the GDR which, as was 

proved later, would use all available means to achieve victory. 

Olympism changes 

Olympism does indeed change but, along the way, it is able to 

profit from the evolution, the revolution we should rather say, in 

the area of technology, which gave birth to radio in the '20s and 

television after World War 2. For sixty long years, the written 

press had reigned alone. Today, unfortunately, this is no longer 

true. With each new games, it lost some of its power. Before 

television, the written press was the eyes of its time and ever if 

they took some liberties with historic truth, the author - journalists 

unquestionably gave a supernatural almost divine dimension to 

champions. Their exploits made people dream. And so, Montherland, 

Giraudoux, Genevoix and a few otherrs brought sport to the centre 

of attention... before stepping aside slowly in front of progress. 

Thirteen journalists in Athens 

In Athens, in 1896, there were only 13 journalists covering 

the first modern Olympics. 13 Journalists for 13 participating 

nations and 311 athletes who had come to Greece to compete 

for the 32 first Olympic prizes. We should also mention that all 

these countries did not have a media representative in the marble 

stadium's stands. 

In Atlanta, in 1996, for the Centennial Games they were 17912 

(including technicians and support staff), more numerous than 

the competitors (10700) - who had come to win one of the 271 

titles - and officials together. At the Lillehammer Olympics in 

1994, 1739 athletes had been entered and 7144 journalists covered 

their performance, i.e. more than four journalists for each competitor. 

These simple figures clearly show sport's impact on the 

media... and certainly the impact of media on sport. Already in 

1924, Frantz Reichel, Secretary General of the Organizing Committee 

of the Paris Games realized that relations between the 

press and Olympism and major sport competitions in general, 

should be governed by a set of rules. There were no more than 

41 countries represented by journalists in the city of lights, but 

178

the Frenchman knew the subject very well, since he had the 

double advantage of being a professional journalist and having 

been an Olympic rugby champion with the French team in 1900, 

which certainly helped. 

Reichel, a man with brains in the French Sports Journalists 

Association, of which Pierre de Coubertin was also a member, 

understood that certain rules should apply to the journalist's 

access to competition venues. He therefore created AIPS (the International 

Sports Press Association) of which he became the first 

President. AIPS held its 60th annual Congress in Oviedo, Spain, 

last week and is proud to include more than 130 countries and 

to represent approximately 30000 journalists today. 

Reichel, like Coubertin, was a visionary who already knew that 

the influence and power of the press would grow, although he 

couldn't have imagined the role of television and even less that 

of the sponsors. Sixty years later, we have to admit that here 

too a revolution has taken place and there has been a transfer 

of power from influence to money. 

Two kinds of press 

It is a fact that in all sports, there is a distinction between 

two kinds of press: the one that pays and to which we owe everything 

and the other, the written press and radio, which to some is a 

parasite that we simply have to accept. 

Because today, more than a medium, television has become a 

true partner since all the protagonists in the world of sport are 

fully aware of the fact that the independence of sport and Olympism 

cannot be achieved without financial independence. There was a 

choice between two sources of financing: the state or TV rights. 

It was the second that was chosen. However, in order to avoid 

depending too much on television - the IOC looked for a second 

source of financing which it found in the TOP programme launched 

in 1985 by Horst Dassler and ISL. 

It was during that period in fact that everything changed and 

that, on the admirable pretext of universality, gigantism set in. 

Juan Antonio Samaranch, when he took over in 1980, wanted 

to extend the IOC's field of action and importance. The number 

179

of National Olympic Committees encouraged by the annual TOP 

premium began to grow, more so now that Olympic Solidarity 

allowed half a dozen competitors and officials to be entered by 

each country at the games... They were 93 in Tokyo, in 1964 

and 197 in Atlanta. But when we say country we also mean of 

course the journalists who have come to recount the "feats" of 

their nationals. I am not trying to say that the stands in Atlanta 

were taken over by press people from Saint Lucia, the Comoros, 

Djibouti or Macao. On the contrary, Fekrou Kidane of the IOC 

should be commended for his efforts aimed at bringing journalists 

from as many countries as possible to the games, in order to 

ensure planetary coverage of the Olympics. However, we should 

have no illusions: it is just a small group of about 20 countries 

which provide 80% of journalists present at the Olympic celebrations. 

And we should not forget that all counties are subject to 

quotas. From Barcelona (1992) to Atlanta (1996), the number of 

NOCs present at the games went up from 169 to 197 (+ 16,56%)... 

while the number of journalists representing the written press, 

which had remained almost stable during several games, rose 

abruptly from 3134 to 4529 (+ 44,51%). 

These figures, however, are nothing compared to the increase 

in TV numbers. By bringing more and more money into the Olympics 

(900 million dollars in Atlanta) television has caused the numbers 

of journalists accredited to the games to soar. Before 1964, there 

were practically no TV people present at the events. 

Just think. In Tokyo, in 1964, there were only 60 television 

representatives. Today, things have completely changed. In Atlanta 

there were 12831 people altogether accredited by the networks (journalists, 

technicians, ets.) of whom more than 3200 were there just 

for NBC. At Liliehammer, out of 7144 accredited press people, only 

2258 were tagged "written press and photographers"; all the others 

came from radio and television, of whom more than 2000 for CBS. 

2000 in Sydney? 

What is even more serious is that, with the present rate of 

increase (34.82% in 1984, 16.15% in 1988, 35,78% in 1992, 

37.92% in 1996) accredited TV people will reach a figure of 15500 

in Sydney in 2000... which means a total of about 22000 for the 

180

"press" as a whole, if we add the written press and photographers. 

These figures are causing a strong reaction on the part of the 

Australian organizers who, let me add, do not think twice about 

taking television's millions of dollars, but mainly on the part of 

athletes and officials. The latter cannot understand why they are 

being penalized by having their numbers cut down, while the 

press is allowed to expand as it pleases.This is one of the questions 

raised by the Sydney Olympics coordination commission which 

is headed by Jacques Rogge. 

The rising power of television has revolutionized the working 

methods of the written press. Until the mid - 70s, sports newspapers 

were practically the only ones to report on events and on all 

sports. The Olympic Games were a joy ride for special correspondents, 

especially since the space given to them by newspapers 

was not that big. In any event, it was nothing compared to the 

space which is presently devoted to the coverage of the Olympics. 

Just think. In 1960, a smart journalist could go down on the 

track of the stadium in Rome to interview a winner, a few moments 

after he had received his gold medal. Today, this would be impossible, 

even in a small provincial meet, because there is total segregation 

of the actors from spectators. Journalists are confined in areas, 

called "mixed zones", which remind me more of a zoo where a 

few nuts are thrown to the performing animals, than a working 

environment. The losers ignore you; the winners come long after 

your newspaper deadline has expired..., television comes first. 

220 countries facing television 

IN 1977 if you had accreditation you could enter the Olympic 

Village without problem. At least until the taking of hostages by 

Black September. After that things changed a lot. It is of course 

understandable, although we have to admit that the work of journalists 

has been strongly affected. In Rome, only 21 countries 

watched the 1960 Olympics on television... In Atlanta, 220 nations 

were following the show on their screens. 

I will give you a specific example. France aired the games of 1996 

during 1071 hours, through Eurosport (350h.), TF1 (162 h.), France 

2 (107.5 h.), France 3 (69 h.) and Canal + (382.5 h.), with the 

181

help of about 600 accredited staff. The pay channel showed the 

Olympic Games 22 hours a day. What more could the written 

press offer?-Simply its technical skills and the comments of experts, 

its vision and knowledge of sport and athletes. Something which 

television is not able to do since its role (live) is to broadcast 

events on all 24 time zones. Newspapers, inspite of their spectacular 

progress ("L' Equipe" in Atlanta gave the events' results until 

3 o'clock in the morning, Paris time, and the paper was available 

in the news stands just four hours later), are just the complements 

of the televised show, putting into practice what our Spanish 

colleague Andres Mercé Várela has said: "Radio announces, television 

shows and the written press explains". 

Thanks to its financial resources, television has gradually imposed 

its law. The law of the strongest. The law of the one who 

pays. The law of the one without whom the show could not go 

on. Little by little, without any fuss, the television like a spider 

has spread its web, changing data, time schedules... to say nothing 

of its attempts to eliminate events which it felt took too much 

time or did not really interest its target audience. It was left to 

sport to oppose a resistance, to officials to begin negotiations and 

to the press to adjust by bringing every day something more than 

what television could offer because of lack of time or knowledge. 

It is true that, very often, television offers us the material in raw 

form without giving its viewers all the ins and outs. It will certainly 

not be the journalists of the written press who will complain 

about that. Far from it. 

The only question that has to be answered is how far can we 

go in order to continue to inform readers, listeners, viewers, so 

that they can find what they are looking for every day. Today, 

Olympism is a well organized, structured, timed, regulated, orchestrated, 

supported, fenced, policed operation, for it has evolved 

into a gigantic enterprise that grew too fast and which we wonder 

how well be able to control. Certainly with improved coordination 

between IOC bodies and journalists association representatives. 

182

1964 

1968 

1972 

1976 

1980 

1984 

1988 

1992 

1994 

1996 

Written 

Press 

722 

1095 

1207 

993 

1048 

1839 

1862 

1495 

1802 

- 

JOURNALISTS 

Winter games 

Photo 

157 

301 

362 

320 

404 

524 

477 

596 

456 

- 

Total 

1164 

3152 

3713 

4170 

3905 

7393 

7201 

7407 

7144 

- 

Written 

Press 

1268 

1220 

2647 

2675 

3129 

2776 

3157 

3134 

- 

4529 

Summer games 

Photo 

179 

172 

358 

745 

400 

533 

782 

978 

- 

1357 

Total 

1507 

2249 

4587 

5223 

7629 

8837 

10360 

12831 

- 

17912 

JOURNALISTS / WRITTEN PRESS AT THE GAMES 

WINTER 

SUMMER 

1964:722 1268 

1968: 1095 1220 

1972:1207 2647 

1976: 993 2675 

1980:1048 3129 

1984: 1839 2776 

1988: 1862 3157 

1992: 1495 3134 

1994: 1802 - 

1996: - 4529 

JOURNALISTS PHOTOGRAPHERS AT THE GAMES 

WINTER 

SUMMER 

1964: 157 179 

1968:301 172 

1972: 362 358 

1976: 320 745 

1980: 404 400 

1984: 524 533 

1988:477 782 

1992: 596 978 

1994: 456 - 

1996: - 1357 

183

JOURNALISTS / WRITTEN PRESS - PHOTO 

AT THE GAMES 

WINTER 

SUMMER 

1964: 879 1447 

1968: 1396 1392 

1972:1569 3005 

1976:1313 3420 

1980:1452 3529 

1984:2363 3309 

1988: 2339 3939 

1992:2091 4112 

1994:2258 - 

1996: .- 5886 

ACCREDITED T.V. - RADIO JOURNALISTS 

AT THE GAMES 

WINTER 

1964: 285 

1968: 1756 

1972: 2144 

1976: 2857 

1980: 2453 

1984: 5030 

1988: 4862 

1992: 5316 

1994: 4886 

1996: - 

SUMMER 

60 

857 

1582 

1803 

4100 

5528 

6421 

8719 

- 

12026 

JOURNALISTS ACCREDITED TO THE GAMES 

WINTER 

1964: 1164 

1968: 3152 

1972: 3713 

1976: 4170 

1980: 3905 

1984:7393 

1988: 7201 

1992: 7407 

1994: 7144 

1996: - 

SUMMER 

1507 

2249 

4587 

5223 

7629 

8837 

10360 

12831 

- 

17912 

184

NUMBER OF NOCs PRESENT AT THE GAMES 

WINTER 

1964: 36 

1968: 37 

1972: 35 

1976: 37 

1980:37 

1984:49 

1988: 57 

1992:64 

1994:67 

1996: - 

SUMMER 

93 

112 

121 

92 

80 

140 

159 

169 

- 

197 

ATHLETES PARTICIPATING IN THE GAMES 

WINTER 

1964: 1091 

1968: 1158 

1972: 1006 

1976:1123 

1980: 1072 

1984: 1274 

1988: 1423 

1992: 1801 

1994: 1739 

1996: - 

SUMMER 

5133 

5498 

7121 

6043 

5283 

6802 

8473 

9368 

- 

10700 

TV RIGHTS (in millions of dollars) 

WINTER 

1964: 0,1 

1968: 2,6 

1972: 8,4 

1976: 11,6 

1980: 20,7 

1984: 102,6 

1988: 324 

1992: 290 

1994: 355 

1996: - 

SUMMER 

1,5 

9,7 

17,8 

34,8 

87,9 

287 

402 

636 

- 

900 

185

-o- TV rights, for the Summer Games in $ million 

-x- TV rights for the Winter Olympic in $ million 

-ο- average no of athletes for NOC at the Summer Games 

-x- average no of athletes for NOC at the Winter Games 

186

-o- no of athletes per accredited written press / photo personnel at the Summer 

Games 

-x- no of athletes per accredited press / photo personnel at the Winter Games 

-o- no of athletes per accredited press personnel at the Summer Games 

-x- no of athletes per accredited press personnel at the Winter Olympics 

187

-o- athletes taking part in Summer Olympics 

-x- athletes taking part in Winter Olympics 

-o- no of athletes per accredited TV/radio personnel at the Summer Games 

-x- no of athletes per accredited TV/radio personnel at the Winter Games. 

188

-o- no of NOCs at Summer Games 

-x- no of NOCs at Winter Games 

- Journalists at Summer Games 

-∆- TV radio journalists at Summer Games 

- Jurnalists at Winter Games 

-∆- TV radio journalists at Summer Games 

-x- written press - photo at Summer Games 

-x- written press - photo at Winter Games 

189

190

DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 

OF THE FRENCH-SPEAKING PARTICIPANTS 

The French-speaking group (Ivory Coast, Tunisia, Burundi, Cape 

Verde, Roumania, Lebanon, Seychelles, Belgium, Portugal, Bosnia-Herzegovina, 

France) which met this morning, after a democratic 

debate arrived at a certain number of common conclusions: 

- To begin with, we greatly appreciate the fact that the inter 

national seminar for journalists is being held for the 9th censecutive 

time, for it has allowed us, once more, to share our respective 

professional experiences, but also to listen to outstanding speakers 

whose knowledge and expertise have provided us with useful elements 

on the conditions and development of our profession which 

will help us in our future work. 

- However, the French-speaking group would like to make some 

criticisms, in a constructive spirit, for the purpose of improving 

the quality of our work. 

- There are many colleagues who complained that they had to 

listen to lecturers who, as a rule, limited themselves to presenting 

facts, instead of real solutions in order to overcome existing problems 

(technical organization and logistics of the Olympic Games, 

excessive commercialization, doping, etc.). 

- In this context, we deplore the fact that we did not have the 

opportunity to hear what was the official position of the International 

Olympic Committee, although it was most ably represented 

by Mr Nikos Filaretos who conducted the debate, since the IOC's 

role is capital and we would have wished to be able to ask numerous 

questions about its operation, whether it faces political and financial 

blackmail or pressure on the part of candidate cities, how does 

it dispose of the enormous amounts of money it receives from 

TV rights and sponsors, can it have some influence on certain 

National Olympic Committees which are too "stringent" in the 

eyes of some of our African colleagues... 

- Moreover, the French-speaking group had a lengthy discussion 

194

on the commercial and economic evolution of the Olympic Games 

and the growing gap between rich and third-world countries, which 

leads to grave injustice which is totally incompatible with the 

Olympic ideal as it was expressed, in particular, by Baron Pierre 

de Coubertin. As a result, third-world countries are the victims 

of many kinds of discrimination: 

- In the field of sport first of all, with regard to the number 

of participants (a few hundreds Africans for a total of 10,000 

competitors!), preparation conditions, to say nothing of the delays 

which do not allow African athletes in particular to achieve the 

minimum performances required... In this respect, we should find 

the courage one day to reduce the number of competitors from 

strong countries who are not always so outstanding (!) in favour 

of third-world athletes who often find themselves eliminated for 

reasons that have nothing to do with sport (lack of resources, 

facilities, the need to go to distant countries for training, etc.). 

- Professional discrimination against sports journalists whose 

accreditation level varies according to their country's wealth, history 

(some have just come out of a war, others have just started it)..., 

as well as media coverage of organizing countries which is highly 

subjective, while that of participating nations is often precarious 

because of lack of means or local political will, leading to a high 

amount of frustration among the populations concerned. 

- Economic discrimination, in particular with regard to Olympic 

Solidarity and the funds given by the IOC which often arrive too 

late in certain poor countries and whose distribution and allocation 

should be reconsidered. 

- Finally, the French-speaking group suggested that, in future, 

in addition to those we have had so far, lectures should focus 

more on specific problems (IBM for Atlanta) and there should be 

more interactive discussions for which more time should be pro 

vided. 

- In conclusion, although our stay in the magnificent surroundings 

of the International Olympic Academy was most pleas 

ant, we would have liked a more flexible timetable for outside 

visits (archaeological museum, the village of Olympia...), as well 

195

as more professional facilities (fax, telephone, office) to allow the 

many participants who wanted it to send their first article on 

our seminar from the Academy's premises. This certainly would 

be in line with one of your strongest wishes so that, through us, 

the Olympic Flame can go on burning forever. 

196

WORKS OF THE 3rd JOINT INTERNATIONAL 

SESSION FOR EDUCATIONISTS 

AND STAFF OF HIGHER 

INSTITUTES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

5 - 12 June 1997



Mr Kostas GEORGIADIS 

Dean 

Mr George MOISSIDIS 

2nd Vice - President 

LECTURERS 

Dr. Doris R. CORBETT 

Professor of Sport Sociology 

President, International Council 

for Health, Physical Education 

Recreation, Sport and Dance 

(ICHPER.SD), Howard University 

Washington 

Dr. Ronnie LIDOR 

Head of The Motor Behavior 

Laboratory, The Zinman College 

of Physical Education and Sport 

Sciences at the Wingate Institute 

Dr. Marc MAES 

Director of the Belgian Olympic 

and Interfederal Committee 

Director of the Belgian 

Olympic Academy 

Dr. Mike McNAMEE 

Department of Leisure Maganement 

Cheltenham & Gloucester 

College of Higher Education 

Dr. Dimitris PANAGIOTOPOULOS 

Professor of Sports Law 

Faculty of Physical Education 

and Sport University of Athens 

Secretary General of the 

International Association of 

Sports Law 



106 74 Athens 

GREECE 




Howard University 

10604 Cannonview Court 

Fort Washington, MD 20744 

U.S.A. 

The Zinman College of Physical 

Education and Sport Sciences 

at the Wingate Institute 42902 

ISRAEL 

Avenue de Bouchout 9 

1020 Brussels 

BELGIUM 

Francis Close Hall 

Swindon Road, Cheltenham 

Gloucestershire GL50 4AZ 

GREAT BRITAIN 

41 Olgas street 

172 37 Athens 

GREECE 

199

Prof. Jim PARRY 

Head of the Department of 

Philosophy, University of Leeds 

Prof. Hai REN 

Director of the Centre for Olympic 

Studies, Beijing University of 

Physical Education 

Prof. Thomas YANNAKIS 

Professor of Sport History 


and Sport, University of Athens 

Prof. Ioannis ZERVAS 

Professor of Psychology 



University of Leeds 

Leeds LS2 9JT 

GREAT BRITAIN 

Beijing University of Physical 

Education 

Beijing 100084, CHINA 



GREECE 

41 Olgas street, 

172 37 Athens 

GREECE 

ALBANIA 

Ms Vjollca CURANI 

Pedagogue in the Department of 

Social and Human Sciences at the 

Higher Institute of Physical 

Education 

Ms Majlinda PILINCI 

Teacher of Physical Education 

Mr. Artan SKENDERI 

Teacher of Physical Culture and 

Coach in Athletics 

BELGIUM 

Prof. Andie STORM 

President of Institute of Physical 

Education and Readaptation 

CANADA 

Mr. Matthew BENDER 

Teacher of Physical and Health 

Education Department 

Head in High School Athletic 

Director 

200 

PARTICIPANTS 

Rr. Islamalla Rallo I.R.I., 

Shk. 2 Ap 15 Tirana 

Lagja 5, 

Rr. "Malig Muco", Nr. 112 

Dures 

Lagjia e re 

Rr. Rinia, Nr. 28 

Elbasan 

Piace Pierre de Coubertin 1 

B. 1348 Louvain - la Neuve 

21 Larkspur Dr. 

Nepean, Ontario 

K2H 6K8

Mrs Arlene LEBOVIC 

Director, Marketing Services 

Canadian Olympic Association 

CHECH REPUBLIC 

20ShallmarBlvd#912 

Toronto, Ontario M5N 

1J5 

Mrs Anna HOGENOVA 

Ftvs-UK 

Ass. Professor of Faculty of Physical Martiho 31 

Education and Sport Praha 6, 160 00 

Mr. Svatopluk HORAK 

Lecturer 

CHINA 

Mr. Chonggan YU 

Vice President of Shanghai Institute 

of Physical Education 

COLOMBIA 

Mr. Everardo CORREA TRUJILLO 

Journalist 

CYPRUS 

Mr. Philippos SOPHOCLEOUS 

Physical Education Teacher in 

Tertiary Education (H.T.I.) 

DENMARK 

Mr. Niels ANDERSSON 

Advisor, N.O.C. and Sports 

Confederation of Denmark 

Ms Winnie BRANDT MADSEN 

Lector, Sociologist 

The Danish State Institute of 

Physical Education 

Mr. Torben HERTZ 

Adviser, N.O.C. and Sports 

Confederation of Denmark 

Mr. Astrup PREBEN BECK 

Consultant in N.O.C. and 

Sports Confederation of 

Denmark 

772 00 Olomouc 

Pred Lipami 1 

650 # Qingyuanhuan Rd. 

Shanghai Institute of P.E. 

200438 

Calle 66 # 45 -177 

Kykkou 2 

Strovolos 

Nicosia 2062 

Solskranten 9 

2500 Valby 

Norre Alle 51 

2200 N 

Idraettens Hus 

2605 Brondby 

Saralyst Alle 7 

8270 Hojbjerg 

201

EGYPT 

Dr. Ashraf Abd El Moez 

ABOU ELNOUR, Teacher 

Department of Sport Administration 

Facutly of Physical Education 

for Men, Helwan University 

ETHIOPIA 

Mr. Tesfaye TEFERI BEFEKADU 

Head of the Educational and 

Technical Department of the 

Physical Education and 

Sport at the Ministry 

of National Defence 

Dr. Bezabih WOLDE 

Lecturer in Physical Education 

Sciences 

FINLAND 

Ms Leena KAUPPI 

Language Teacher at the Sport 

Institute of Finland, Vierumaki 

FRANCE 

Mr. Jean KONIECZKA 

Professor of Physical Education 

GERMANY 

Mr. Reinhold DIEZEMANN 

Professor at the University of Mainz 

Dr. Gerard GRASMANN 

Scientific Collaborator in 

the Institute of Sport Science 

in Greifswald 

Prof. Dr. Manfred LAEMMER 

University Professor 

Institute for Sport History 

German Sports University 

Cologne 

11 Ali Sharef St. 

El – Manil 

Cairo 

P.O. Box 62522 

Addis Ababa 

College of Teacher Education 

P.O. Box 31248 A.A. 

Tommolankatu 11 B 15 

18130 Heinola 

1, Rue Général de Gaulle 

67116 Reichstett 

Joh. Friedr. v. Pfeiffer - Weg 2 

55 128 Mainz 

Rue de Sund 

18445 Parow de Stralsund 

Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln 

Carl - Diem - Weg 6 

50933 Köln 

202

Ms Margarete SCHORR 

Teacher of Gymnasium 

am Steinwald Nèunkirchen 

GREAT BRITAIN 

Mr. Simon EASSOM 

Senior Lecturer 

De Montfort University 

Mr. Andrew HIBBERT 

Teacher 

Head of Physical Education 

and Dance Faculty 

Bowndstone Community College 

Mr. Ian MOIR 

Senior Lecturer in School of 

Sport and Exercise Sciences 

University of Birmingham 

GREECE 

Mr. Vassilios BOUTAS 


Mr. Michails KATSIKADELIS 


Mrs Andriani ZAGOUTA 

Secretary to the Ambassador of 

the Embassy of Greece in Poland 

Masters of Physical Education 

HONG KONG 

Mr. Wai Man John LEE 

Vice Principal of a secondary school 

Johann - Wichern - Str. 20 

66564 Ottweiler 

De Montfort University 

37 Lansdowne Road 

Bedford MK40 

23 Riverside Road 

Shoreham by sea 

W. Sussex 

Jolliffe's Barn 

Cofton Church Lane 

Cofton Hackett 

Worcs B45 8BB 

62, Karpou street 

Neos Kosmos 

2, I. Ritsou street 

Koukouli, 263 35 Patra 

Rydla 67, Warsaw 

01 850 

or 

54, Panagouli str. 

157 73 Zografou 

2D, Block 8 

Woodland Crest 

33 Tin Ping Road 

Sheung Shui, N.T. 

HUNGARY 

Dr. Istvan KERTESZ 

Professor of University 

Alkotas Street 44 

1123 Budapest 

203

IRAN 

Mrs Shokouh NAVABINEJAD 

University Professor, National 

Teachers Education, Tehran 

National Women Sport Consultant 

NOC Research High Counsel 

Member NOC Sport Psychology 

Committee, Member 

Mr. Nasrollah SAJADI 

University Educator 

Mr. Rahmat SEDIGH SARVESTANI 


ISRAEL 

Dr. Arie ROTSTEIN 

Dean of Students 

ITALY 

Mrs Angela TEJA 


Professor of ISEF Cassino and Rome 

JAPAN 

Ms Yuko HATANO 

Associate Professor of Hyogo 

University of Teacher Education 

(Physical Education) 

Ms Keiko WADA 

Director, Japan Olympic Academy 

Mr. Nobuo YUZA 

Professor of Chukyo Women's 

University, Junior College 

c/o N.O.C, of the Islamic 

Republic of IRAN 

44, 12th Street 

Gandhi Avenue 

Tehran 15178 

c/o N.O.C. of the Islamic 


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211

FAIR PLAY by Dr. Thomas 

YANNAKIS (GRE) 

According to Greek mythology, the historic link with the ancient 

past, the god of all gods and men, Zeus, wishing to inpoint the 

earth's centre, sent out two eagles, symbols of his omnipotence, 

and instructed them to fly in different directions and they finally 

met in Greece. The flight of the eagles, symbols of Zeus' omnipotence, 

represents the human cultural adventure and their meeting, 

the centre and cradle of universal civilization, 1 the place where 

Olympic Sport and the Olympic Ideal were born, according to 

Gardiner ("Athletics of the ancient world"). The history of ancient 

athletics is the history of Greek sport since the Greek nation was 

the only athletic nation in antiquity. 

The competitive ideal is one of the most striking features of 

ancient Greek civilization. This spirit was deeply rooted in the 

soul of the Greek people, arising from a need to survive in a 

arren and divided land at first, until it became a way of life.The 

strong competitive spirit of the Greek race was certainly the pay 

o 

to its progress and prosperity. 

The Greek vocabulary is filled with words which express all 

the meanings of this driving spirit: pain, risks, vicissitudes, struggle, 

anxiety, contests, prizes, emulation, rivalries, fortsmanship, etc. 

This is just a small example of the wealth of Greek language 

which fully expresses the plethora of competition - related aspects 

of Greek life. 4 

Toil, pain and struggle was the tragic historic fate of the Greeks, 

"Greece grows stonger through struggle". 5 

The Greeks faced life as a contest which they deified. The 

presence of the divine element and its love for the contest expresses 

the Greeks' deep conviction that it was the gods themselves who 

had established and protected athletic institutions, athletes and 

213

games. This belief explains the indivisible link which exists between 

the gymnic contests and religion. And we should not forget that 

Plato considered gymnastics and music as the supreme educational 

gifts of the gods 6 whom he described as "contest - loving". 7 

The deification of the desperate struggle of the contest, consolidates 

the view that the athlete, at all times, should bide by 

moral values and rules in order to justify his struggle, take part 

in the contest and conquer victory. 

Greeks saw "labour", in conformity with a very useful etymological 

correlation as "laborious", i.e. hard, tiring and difficult. 

They saw all major creations, whether material or spiritual, as 

they really are, i.e. the product of a lot of effort, of tension, of 

overpowering difficulties, overcoming obstacles. The chryselephantine 

statue of Zeus in Olympia, one of the seven wonders of the 

world, the work of Pheidias, Praxiteles' Hermes, Polycleitos' golden 

canon and all the other wondrous creations of antiquity were the 

object of continuous comparison and control and remained classic 

works of art because their creators abided by the written or unwritten 

"competitive" laws of religion, knowledge, aesthetics and 

timelessness. Through his work the creator projects his respect 

and love for the divinity and man. 

All the Greek words which begin with the adverb "eu" (good, 

well), as for example - ευανδρία (manlihood), ευτυχία (happiness), 

ευεξία (wellbeing), ευρυθµία (eurythmia) or which combine this adverb 

with a verb - ευ οίδα (know well), ευ γιγνώσκειν (learn well), 

ευ αγωνίζεσθαι (fair play) etc. denote physical and moral virtues 

and are subject to competition and judgement. This adverb, ευ, 

condenses and expressses the whole philosophy of the Greek sporting 

spirit. 

In the 87 Orphic Hymns, prayers to the gods and divinities, 

we find the adverb ευ (in more than 60 cases) which expresses 

a divine property or invokes the clemency of the gods. In particular, 

we find references to Ευνοµία, the daughter of Zeus and words 

like "εύδροµος", "ευκλεία", "εύθυµος" and others. 8 

Already in the Orphic Hymns we realize that physical exercise 

and competition were placed under the care of the "god of Gontest" 

Hermes. 9 

214

According with the information provided by A. Evans, in Minoan 

Crete, during different athletic contests, bull fighting in particular 

- the taurokathapsia - the goddess of contest was watching over 

spectators and athletes. 

In Mycenaen times, in Homer's epics we have been able to 

isolate 210 cases of words using the adverb "ευ", such as "Ευαγγέλιον" 

10 (Evangile), "ευστέφανος" (well - crowned), "ευδικίη" 11 (fair 

1 η 

administration of justice) "ευνοµία" law - abiding), etc. 

In classical times, the whole process of exercise and contest 

was based on sportsmanship and fair play 13 , and the Greeks 

firmly believed that the games in Elefsina and Olympia had been 

established by the gods. Pindar, uses the words "ευ πέπραγεν" 14 

and "ευ πασχέµεν" 15 to build the ideal of "kalokagathia", which is 

expressed in the ethics of Olympic victors, who incarnate high 

ideals and divine virtues. Pindar has expanded more than any 

other writer on the concept of fair play and advises athletes that 

we should not cause injustice to our fellow men, either through 

our deeds, or through our words 16 . Fair play, on the whole, was 

the general attitude of the Greek people in all aspects of their 

activities and life. 

This competitive, heroic ideal finds its root in religion and this 

was confirmed in pre - Mycenaean times with the games that 

were staged in the market place of the land of the Phaeacians 17 

by Alcinoos in honour of his guest, Ulysses. At these games the 

goddess Athena herself officiated as judge. This means that athletes 

and judges alike followed the rules of fair play, which is the basis 

of the religious ideal, if we take into serious consideration the 

god - centered social system that prevailed at the time which did 

not allow any deviation from the moral law. 

Fair play at the gymnic games was strengthened by religious 

and educational training, the truce, the competition rules, the 

oath given by the athletes and the exemplary punishment of transgressors. 

The gathering of many men in the agora (from the word "άγω" 

from which the word "αγών" is also derived), a place of assembly, 

is an opportunity to demonstrate, judge and compare skills and 

215

facilities, "the virtues" of the gathered men. At the games, already 

in Mycenaean times, there have been a few cases when the rules 

of fair play had not been respected, caused by a lack of mutual 

respect and recognition of the opponent's value which, however, 

are completely different in form and scope from what we see 

today. 

In relation to our subject, let me remind you that the first 

event in the contests held in honour of the dead Patroclos was 

the chariot race 18 between the Mycenaean aristocrats, Eumelos, 

Antilochos, Menelaos, Merionis and Diomedes and that these were 

the most beautiful funeral games held outside the walls of Troy 

on the Trojan coast. The chariots raced in the direction of the 

farming fields. The horses of Diomedes and Menelaos "were flying" 19 

towards the plain, followed by the horses of Antilochos, son of 

Nestor from Pylos. But the young Antilochos, full of rage, is thinking 

about the best way to tackle the race. "I have to think carefully 

of what I should do in order to be ahead when the road becomes 

narrower, so as to rush forward and grasp victory". 20 So, when 

they arrived at a point on the road which rainwater had made 

narrower, he tried to move in front of Menelaos' chariot. Menelaos, 

seeing this foolish charioteeing behaviour on the part of Antilochos 

21 , restrained his horses to avoid disaster and allowed Antilochos 

to go by and finish the face second after the winner 

Diomedes, with Menelaos in the third place, followed by Merionis 

and Eumelos. It would seem that this behaviour on the part of 

Antilochos was not compatible with the rules of the contests and 

fair play, because Menelaos protested against the result of the 

race to the organizer of the games, Achilles. 

"Why did you break the rules Atnilochos without thinking? 

You cunningly obstructed my horses so that yours, which were 

not as good as mine, could move forward. Rulers of the Argives 

and archons, you should pass judgement on both of us, without 

making any exceptions so that no Achaean could ever say that 

Menelaos after cunningly overtaking Antilochos, led his chariot 

to victory because his horses were less good but he was superior 

in rank and power. If you agree, I will rule on this question that 

216

has risen and my decision will be so fair that none of the Achaeans 

will reprimand me for it." 22 

We have a dilemma here: human passion in confrontation with 

divine law. What will Antilochos choose? His personal interest 

and a satisfied ego, or respect of the moral law? Will he admit 

his fault thus showing superiority, or will his egoism take over? 

At the end, reason and conscience will prevail, passion will be 

suppressed and the moral law respected. Antilochos will admit 

his wrong behaviour, his act being attributed, as it would be 

today, to his youth: "you do know, Menelaos, that young men 

may break the rules, because they get carried away and their 

thinking is thin (superficial)" 23 

Menelaos invites Antilochos to swear: 

"Dear Antilochos, come here in the front as is customary and 

stand in front of your horses and chariot, holding in hands the 

supple whip you used for the race and after you have touched 

your horses, I ask yo to swear in the name of the earth - shaker 

and girdler of the world that you did not hold up my horses with 

malicious intent" 24 

The touching of the horses, meant that the man who taken 

an oath on the sacred animal of Poseidon chose the god himself 

as is witness, ready to punish the perjurer. Antilochos had to 

hold his whip as he stood in front of his chariot to recall in his 

mind the moment when he whipped his horses and broke the 

rules. 

Touched by Antilochos' repentance, Menelaos was as happy 

as the "dew on the crop" and said with satisfaction: "... the 

spirit of youth got the better of discretion, but another time be 

careful not to overreach your betters" 25 

The epics of Homer shaped the conscience of the Greeks and 

guided them to heroic deeds with the help of admonitions to 

excell, to be good and virtuous in all things 26 . 

In this ethics - oriented atmosphere and as a complement to 

religious worship, the ancient Greek games were instituted. Their 

purpose was pure and noble competition. The four panhellenic 

games of antiquity far from dividing Greeks brought them closer 

217

together 27 .The Olympic Games were a very strong institution which 

brought together all Greek tribes, all cities, in the mainland and 

on the isles, all metropolis and colonies. The Olympic Games in 

particular were the major festival of all Greeks, a panhellenic 

gathering where physical and intellectual virtues could be exhibited 

and one of the strongest foundations of the Greek people's moral 

unity and national conscience. 

The value and essence of sport as an institution which characterized 

the education and life of the ancient Greeks and brought 

about the so-called "Greek miracle, had attracted the interest of 

the legislators and philosophers of ancient Greece. With the help 

of their philosophical experience, the Greeks educated their youth 

and contributed significantly to the consolidation of the spirit of 

fair play by emphasizing the deeper emaning of exercise and competition. 

The dialogue that follows is a characteristic example of 

this approach. 

Philinos from Cos, was a good stadium runner; however, he 

had some reservations and before he attempted to compete in 

Olympia he informed his teacher, the philosopher Nicandros, of 

his decision and Nicandros replied: 

- You should know Philinos, my boy, that in inaccessible Olympia 

it is not enough to have a strong body, if you do not also have, 

along with it, a sound mind. To compete in the stadium of Olympia 

you must be perfect. 

Master, what does perfect mean? asks the athlete Philinos. 

"The body, Philinos, is cultivated with the help of gymnastics, 

the soul with music and the mind with knowledge. This is the 

only way to achieve beauty. Beauty expresses the whole meaning 

of man. The man is not someone who just has a strong body, 

but he who, at the same time, has a beautiful soul and mind. 

Beauty, therefore, is the expression of this plenitude and this 

perfection is virtue and the man who possesses virtue is perfect". 

And so, stadium racer Philinos competed in the sacred panhellenic 

games and was proclaimed Olympic victor five times (264 - 256 

28 

B.C.), Pythian victor four times and Isthmian victor seven times. 

This perfection which is pursued through Olympic education 

218

and fair play, is of course achieved by means of continuous improvement. 

Fair play, the result of a religious, agonistic and civic 

education, was the supporting framework within which the huge 

edifice of Olympic sport could be built; without it, the Olympic 

Games would not have survived from 776 B.C. to 393 A.D. that 

is for 1169 long years during which 293 Olympiads were celebrated 

and a corresponding number of truces proclaimed. All athletes 

had to be present in the capital of Eleia, Elis, thirty days before 

the opening of the games. 

If the judges, the hellanodikai, felt that some athlete would 

not abide by the moral principles of the competition, in order to 

safeguard the prestige of the Olympic Games they would disqualify 

him 29 . One of the reasons for which the Olympic games could 

survive for so long was the impartiality and objectivity of the 

Elean judges. Agis, the Spartan general, aman of sound judgement, 

vision and moral fortitude, confirms this when he remarks on 

the great contribution of the Eleans through the years in this 

aspect. It is also no accident that the ritual and ceremonial part 

of other local and panhellenic games was founded on the oral 

principles which governed the Olympic Games. 

Fair play is the means through which the social individual, 

the athlete, can tame his passions and weaknesses and dominate. 

The victory against one's self is the greatest victory of all 30 and 

we should not of course forget that this precise idea of Plato, as 

expressed in his Laws, constitutes the highest value of modern 

Olympism, "to go beyond one's self every day". 

This dimension of fair play had a positive impact and contributed 

to the development of the magnificent Greek civilization which 

has been accepted by the whole world; the proof is that the whole 

of the civilized world celebrates the Olympic Games every four 

years: "the whole of the civilised worlds hares a common homeland, 

Greece, Olympia" (V. Hugo). 

Greece was the cradle of civilization and sport and Olympia 

the mother of the gold - crowned athletes. In Greece, the sporting 

spirit and the noble ideal of competition were alive from the very 

beginning. The most beautiful civilization flourished here in all 

219

domains and as someone said, very aptly, "Greek art would be 

inconceivable without sport" . 

To sum up what has just been said, let us emphasize that in 

any human action which has a social dimension there is the risk 

of deviation. This risk is also inherent in sport and there is always 

the possibility that athletes may resort to unlawful means. But 

under the influence of morality, another human quality, already 

since ancient times, athletic contests were governed by honesty 

and fairness and could thus encourage the development of man's 

physical, intellectual and mental qualities and control his passions 

and instincts and strengthen cooperation and friendship between 

individuals and peoples. Without this element of honesty and 

fairness, sport would lose its moral dimension and become just 

a struggle serving individual interests, selfishness and arrogance. 

Based on the concept of fair play, Olympic education has functioned 

from antiquity to this day as an ideal school of moral teaching, 

because it is: 

the nucleus of the sporting ideal, the essence of a nobler 

human activity, a shield against irrational competition which 

transforms an honest contest into an relentless struggle, a 

resistance against frenzied commercialization, the corruption 

of sport, blind fanaticism leading to excessive destructive aggresiveness. 

It is widely acknowledged that it represents the 

highest educational value for it cultivates self - knowledge 

and further reconciliation between individuals and groups.It 

promotes man's inherent religiousness. 

Fair play is a fundamental educational concept that can teach 

spectators and athletes to recognize the value of the opponent 

who is also a winner since he participated actively in the 

beautiful contest, in the strenuous effort. Fair play supports 

mutual respect, the personality of man and mutual concessions 

in explosive moments in the heat of the game. It teaches 

chivalry, integrity, it emphasizes man's personality. Fair play 

disciplines the individual, brings him to his senses after 

reminding him that the purpose is not to break a record, by 

any means, but to strive for the first place using accepted 

moral means. 

220

Fair play is waging an inexorable war against the dishonest 

practices which unfortunately are all around sport, threatening 

noble competition. 

Fair play means equality before the law, recognition of one's 

merits, incessant effort to safeguard sport against rigged games, 

manipulated refereeing, etc. 

Fair play is not just the measure of competitive sport, but of 

social activity as well. A good social struggle is a means to 

achieve a moral quality of life. 

Fair play is an all - human message wich comes from 

the divine land of Olympia, born from the heart of the 

sacred Altis. It is a unique panacea that can cure deviations 

in sport which we have provoked through our arrogance, 

selfishness and expediency and contribute to fraternity 

among peoples and world peace(Lysias, Olympic Speech 2). 

Fair play expresses Olympism's highest value. Sport and culture 

would be inconceivable without this crown. (Newspaper 

"Athlitikos Syntaktis", no 2, February, Athens 1997, p. 2). 

With the help of education and fair play and Plato's "gymnastics 

and music", the Greeks were able to move away from man's primeval 

bestiality and cultivate and develop all the qualities and virtues 

which humanize life: love, justice, respect, which allowed them 

to expand their knowledge in many fields and approach contemporary 

reality. Thus, man's fullfilment as a human being (how 

happy man is when he is a true man, Meandros) can be achieved 

through his philosophical attitude to fair play and the sporting 

spirit that drove the Greek race through the ages. 

I hope I have been able to show you in this paper how necessary 

it is to protect and safeguard the true Olympic spirit from the 

growing dangers and threats which exist in our materialistic contemporary 

society. The Olympic Idea, the true child of the Greek 

spirit, which as been the solid cultural foundation on which the 

whole of our modern civilization rests, a conquest of all makind 

which must, at any cost, be placed above any opportunistic or 

interest - related considerations. 

Olympic education is the only means by which we can attain 

this objective. Only if we turn with an unquenchable thirst for 

221

learning to the clear and pure sources of Olympism, only if we 

give to the sporting generation of this country the opportunity 

strengthen its will and character through honest competition and 

fair play, only if we, the teachers and initiates of the Olympic idea 

can convey the true spirit of sport to the young, only then will 

Olympism succeed in overcoming the present crisis and promote 

its true, bright, shining image to a world that needs it so badly. 

References 

1. Pindar, P. 4, 4, Pausanias 10, 16, 3 J BOUSQUET. Observations sur 1'omphalos 

archaique de Delphes, BCH 1951, p. 210. 

2. Papahatzis, Pausanias, Travels in Greece, Boeotia - Phocis, Ekdotiki Athinon, 

p. 357. 

3. E.N. Gardiner, Athletics of the Ancient World, Oxford, p. 1 

4. Else Spathari, The Olympic spirit", ADAM Pubi. Athens 1992, 29-30. 

5. Con. I. Vourveris, The ancient sporting spirit, Greek humanitarian Society, 

Athens 1964, pp. 1-17. 

6. Euripides, Supplicants, 323. 

7. Plato, Rep. C 41 IE. 

8. Orphic Hymns, 43,2 29,8 36,66 76,1 19,20 27,14. 

9. Orphic Hymns, 28.2 32,7. 

l0.Odys. XXIV 152,156 

11.Ibid. 111 

12. Ibid. 487 

13. Phil. Gymnastics 54 

14. Pindar, P. 2.133. 

15. Ibid. P. 3.184. 

16. Ibid. P. 9. 165-16. 

17.Odys. VIII 7-208. 

18. Iliad XXIII 258-652 

19. Ibid. 379-381 

20. Ibid. 416 

21. Ibid. 426 - 428 

22. Ibid. 581 - 595 

23. Ibid. 589 - 590 

24. Ibid. 581 - 585 

25. Ibid. 604 - 605 

26. Ibid. IX 1443 

27.Lysias, Ol. 2-3 

28. CI. Paleologos, Legends of Olympia, Athens, 1972. 

29. Flavius, Filostr. Life of Apollonius, Cap. XI. HI 

30. Plato, Laws 263e. 

31. Lucían, Anaharsis 31. 

32.Takis Sakellariou, Greek Sport, Athens 1947, p. 14. 

222

SPORT ETHICS IN THE PAST AND NOW 

by Yannis ZERVAS (GRE) 

Humanity has recognized sport as one of the most important 

educational, social and cultural factors in the life of man. Sport 

is a part of education and culture and as such it is given serious 

consideration by many other fields of science, e.g. biology, paedagogics, 

sociology, behavioural sciences a.o. 

However, the existence of an ethical dimension in sport is being 

questioned increasingly as of late. Up to a certain degree, this 

doubt is justified, because the incidents of violation of the athletic 

spirit recorded in the history of sport, are numerous, particularly 

in the last few years. 

Let us see, however: what is an athletic competition? Or, even 

better, let us see what our ancestors say about it, beginning from 

the oldest and by far most perfect description of athletic games, 

namely the ones Achilles organized in honour of his dead friend, 

Patroclos [Homer, Iliad, 23 [Ψ]: as it unfolds we encounter all the 

characteristics of sport and, of course, modern sport as well. 

Already in the first contest, the chariot race, three actions entirely 

opposed to the athletic spirit can be observed: the victory won 

by Antilochos against Menelaos by devious means [Iliad, 400-442], 

the unbecoming verbal exchange and behaviour between Ajax and 

Idomeneus in the spectators' rows [Iliad 23, 474-495], as well as 

gods resorting to violence when Athena supports one athlete and 

Apollo the other to the effect that one of them gets wounded [Iliad 

23, 383-397]. But also the verbal challenge of Epeios against 

anyone who whould dare to brave him, is contrary to the athletic 

spirit [Iliad 23, 672-675]. And yet, these games constituted a 

cultural event of the highest order: it was these games through 

which the dead were honoured, it was these which offered the 

223

people recreation, these also which pacified and conciliated warriors 

with one another, these also which taught competitors "fair play". 

Antilochos, attempting to make good his anfair behaviour towards 

his opponent wanted to return his prize and thus make good the 

negative impression he had created of himself. Menelaos on the 

other hand, showed magnanimity and accepted the repentance 

of his young rival as well as his plea for forgiveness. 

It would be no exaggeration to say that the ancient Olympic 

Games constituted the most successful Institution in the history 

of humanity. This success is attributed to the love Greeks had 

for an honest contest as well as for the beauty and harmony 

between body, soul and spirit. 

But there have also been periods during which sport suffered 

a decline. During the lifetime of Philostratos for example, gymnastics 

brought about a change in sport ethics thus bringing 

athletes into disrepute, while on the other hand the people became 

indignant even with the behaviour of sports fans [Philostratos 

"Gymnastikos", chapt. 1]. 

In antiquity, spectators inspired the athletes and encouraged 

them [Iliad 23, 681-682 and 767-768]; they applauded the victors. 

scattered flower - leaves on them, crowned them with wreaths, 

became deeply moved, shed tears, shouted, sprang up from their 

seats and embraced one another [Philostratos, Eikones, fj.But 

fanatism existed as well, manifested through phaenomena closely 

resembling those of our times: for example, the incidents incurred 

by the "transfers", as they are called today, of athletes from one 

team to the other; e.g. Astylus, a runner from Kroton and winner 

of the stadion as well as the diaulos foot-race, competed as a 

citizen of the city of Syracuse at a later date thus becoming "red 

rags to a bull" to his fellow Krotonians who destroyed his statue 

in rage and turned his house into a prison for criminals. 

In spite of all this, in human life sport continues to enjoy the 

foremost preference and be the recreational activity of choice. The 

modern Olympic Charter has been drawn up on the basis of the 

ancient Greek philosophy and experience by the two pioneers of 

modern sport, i.e. Dimitrios Vikelas [first President of the Inter- 

224

national Olympic Committee and President of the Organizing Committee 

of the first modern Olympic Games] and Pierre de Coubertin 

[Secretary General of the Games and afterwards President of the 

IOC] and their associates. The basic points of the Charter of the 

Olympic Games referred to the aims and aspirations of the Olympic 

Movement as, for example, developing the mental, physical and 

moral values and educating youths in a spirit of mutual understanding, 

friendship and international good will with the further 

aim of creating in this way a better and more peaceful world. 

Thus the sum total of principles, ideals and values which constitute 

the basis of the Olympic Games and are valid for every society, 

has become known as "Olympism". 

The crisis in our time 

In our time sport is going through a major crisis which undermines 

the athletic values and ideals. The problem lies not in 

the individual phaenomena registered from time to time, but in 

the exacerbation and above all the generalization of these phaenomena. 

The so-called "diseases" of modern sport, such as for instance 

commercialization, professionalism, doping, the waging of psychological 

war and violence, have destroyed every value and every 

notion of a spirit of sportsmanship. All the above phaenomena 

are connected with profit, public relations, fame and publicity, 

all of which are correctly termed negative and nonethical values 

[Lumpkin, Stoll & Beller, 1994]. Nowadays, threats, insults, vilifications 

and squabbles constitute day-to-day routine in all facets 

of athletic life and events; they constitute actions with which we 

have become so familiar and used to in such a high degree that 

they no longer impress us. Thus actions and ways of behaving 

which even a few years ago were charecterized as punishable 

both from the athletic and social point of view, today go unnoticed. 

On the other hand, exaggerations in both the training and competition 

programmes, such as the extreme physical and psychological 

pressures, are actions which do not only harm the athletic 

spirit but also cause serious damage to the athletes' health. Consequently, 

a beautiful athletic contest which only a few years ago 

225

constituted at the same time a form of festivity and recreation - 

in reality it was a delightful cultural event - in our time and day 

has been reduced to unlawful competition and to a sheer battlefield. 

Noble competition has turned into ruthless rivalry and into a 

struggle aiming solely at serving specific interests. Never before 

had the frequency, intensity and duration of incidents of violence 

reached such a dangerous point as the present one. And this is 

ample reason for grief because, experiencing as we do the phaenomena 

of ruthless rivalry and violence on a daily basis we can no 

longer see or feel the immense beauty of sport! Thus it is not 

coincidental that relatively recent research has shown that athletes 

have lower levels of ethical logic than individuals not engaging 

in sport [Lumpkin et al., 1994]. 

These phaenomena have influenced to a high degree even children's 

sport and school sport. School championships copy the 

worst habits and forms of behaviour prevalent in out-of-school 

sport. Furthermore, for many children but also for many parents 

recreation and athletic education have ceased to constitute the 

number one priority for pariticipating in sport. 

Human nature 

On whom or what are we to lay the blame for al this? The 

problem is not incurred by sport as such - it is caused by man 

himself and his human nature. In other words, sports does have 

its ethical dimension [e.g. its principles, rules, values and ideals], 

so if an ethical behaviour exists also on the part of those who 

serve sport, then a sum total of values which constitute the ethics 

and the spirit of sport is created, without which there can be no 

sport. 

Competition is interwined with our life; but there is the positive 

and the negative aspect of competition. Positive competition means 

who will write the best essay in school or who will surpass a 

fellow athlete in athletic activities. Negative competition means 

who is going to wear the most expensive sports clothes; negative 

is also the competition among sports fans as to who will shout 

out the most vulgar and insulting slogans. And this only results 

226

in conflict, thus destroying one of the greatest values in the life 

of man, i.e. competition for the conquest of noble goals and aspirations. 

Athletic competition means above all equal opportunities 

for success as well as honest behaviour. 

Undoubtedly, striving for victory does constitute the characteristic 

of competitive sport, yet in no case can this be done by 

violating the rules; a good athlete accepts defeat and knows that 

victory is by no means the beginning and the end of the world. 

On the contrary, one can draw important conclusions for his next 

effort from a defeat. 

Sport helps man to recognize his limits and by accepting the 

one who is best strengthens the will of the athlete to achieve an 

even better performance in his next attempt. The athletic contest 

is a struggle both against oneself and against one's environment. 

Plato tells us that "to win a victory over one's own self is the 

foremost and best of all victories, whereas to be defeated by one's 

own self is the most humiliating and most shameful thing" ["το 

νικάν αυτόν αυτόν πασών νικών πρώτη τε και αρίστη, το δε ηττάσθαι 

αυτόν υφ' εαυτού πάντων αίσχιστον τε και κάκιστον" [Plato, Laws, 626E]. 

For the young sport means seeking, exploring, solving problems; 

it means forecasts and perspectives. Athletic contests are contests 

of imagining , of thinking, of developing ideas leading to mastery 

and to self-knowledge; what is important is participating, making 

the effort and manifesting honest behaviour. Sophocles tells us 

that man "must act honestly even if he fails rather than succeed 

by fraudulent means" ["βούλοµαι δ'άναξ, καλώς δρων εξαµαρτάνει 

µάλλον ή νικάν κακώς" - Sophocles, Philoctetes 94-95]. 

Models of athletic behaviour 

The history of sport contains many models of ethical behaviour. 

One such model worthy of emulation is the behaviour of the 

American soccer player Nile Kinnick. I am referring to a real 

incident related by the author Ralf Sabock [1985] in his book 

"The Coach"; this incident took place before World War II in the 

final match for the American Soccer Championship between the 

Iowa and Michigan teams, in the seat of the Iowa team, i.e. in 

Iowa, USA. 

227

It is the last phase of the game and the score is 7-6 in favour 

of the Michigan team; the victorious team would win the USA 

Soccer Championship. The ball, however, is in the hands of the 

Iowa team at the four yards' line of Michigan. The player who 

had undertaken to pass the ball was the best defenser of the 

Iowa team, Nile Kinnick. Therefore, everybody was awaiting breathlessly 

the player's throw: if he made it, he would reverse the 

score and his team would win the Championship. 

The referee blows his whistle, Kinnick starts, he gets wedged 

between the players, manages to escape but when he reaches 

the line he loses the ball from his hands - the end of the phase 

is also the end of the match. However, nobody has been able to 

understand what exactly happened; the open question was whether 

Kinnick lost the ball before crossing the line or not. The only one 

who really knew what had happened was Kinnick himself. So, 

the referees decide to call the player and ask of him to tell the 

truth. 

From that moment on Kinnick finds himself in a dramatically 

emotional situation; he feels the silent pressure of the players of 

his own team, of the players of the rival team, of the sports fans; 

he also feels his own desire for his team to win the Championship. 

In an atmosphere of breathless silence, the referee looks Kinnick 

straight in the eye and asks him, in the name of the athletic 

spirit, to tell the truth. Kinnick could have said whatever he 

wished, since he was the only one who knew what had happened 

and since he was trusted by all. He could have said what served 

his interests best. Yet, how would he have lived his whole life 

afterwards, bearing the burden of a lie? And what would be the 

sense of such a victory? Therefore, without the least hesitation 

whatsoever, he declares that he lost the ball before crossing the 

line... After which statement the referee blew his whistle again 

signalling the end of the game and at the same time proclaiming 

the Michigan team winer of the USA Soccer Championship. 

The epilogue of this incident is as follows: Nile Kinnick lost 

his life in World War II. In 1972 the Stadium of Iowa was named 

"Nile Kinnick Stadium" to remind to all and sundry through the 

228

ages that honesty is a concept far more important than any victory 

and any trophy. 

Another, equally important example of bringing sport ethics to 

bear is the incident which occured during the Olympic Games 

in Seoul: in the sailing race a yachtsman from Singapore fell into 

the sea; due to the enormous waves his life was in danger and 

he would have drowned but for the help from the athlete in the 

sailing yacht right behind his own, the Canadian Lawrence Lemieux 

who although at that moment was second in the race, abandoned 

it in order to rescue his opponent. At that moment he thought 

of nothing else. He had been training for this victory for years 

and years, yet at that moment what predominated in his mind 

was his moral duty to save a human life. There functioned in 

his mind a mature, assimilated ethical programming, an assimilated 

ethical commandment. And for this noble action of his he was 

honoured with a special prize by the President of the International 

Olympic Committee, Juan Samaranch [Halliwell, 1989]. 

The above, of course, are not the only examples of ethical 

behaviour one could call to mind. I am certain that each one of 

us would have his own incidents of sport ethics brought to bear 

to relate. But what has to be stressed is the importance of models 

of athletic behaviour. According to Bandura's theory of social learning 

[1977], the integration of the individual into society takes 

place to a great extent through emulating or modelling a model 

role. The question is: how can we multiply the models of sport 

ethics and ethical behaviour? 

Proposals 

My proposals regarding the problem of cultivating sport ethics 

can be summarized as follows: 

First of all, what is needed is for the problem to be tackled 

in a scientific manner; in other words, more and more systematic 

research is necessary in order to define its root causes and to 

work out a strategy for its solution. 

Moreover, the issue of legislation is also an important factor 

for its solution. As a rule, in all countries pertinent legislation is 

229

satisfactory, but the problem is that the laws are not applied. A 

wise Greek of the last century, Emmanuel Roides, had proposed 

"to pass a law imposing the application of laws"... Of course, 

neither laws nor police measures can cure the problem alone; 

they merely postpone it. For example, the law on doping and 

other prohibited substances provides for very strict penalties [for 

both users and suppliers]; however, it does not contain information 

regarding the inherent risks of doping, it does not explain - nor 

can it explain - why the use of anabolic steroids is prohibited. 

In this respect it is similar to the Trafic Code which stipulates 

that the driver who disregards a red traffic - light shall be liable 

to such and such a fine, but fails to explain why this traffic rule 

should not be violated; such enlightenment is the task of an 

educational programme. 

Therefore, what I am mainly proposing - and what else could 

be expected from an educator that I am - is systematic education. 

"Education is training the human being in virtue already from 

childhood", we are told by Plato ["την δε προς αρετήν εκ παίδων 

παιδείαν", Plato, Laws, 643c]. And Plutarch adds that "among the 

things human only education is immortal and divine" ["παιδεία δε 

των εν ηµίν µόνον εστίν αθάνατον και θείον", Plutarch, Ethics, 5 Ε]. 

Ways of thinking, attitudes and behaviour of men can be 

changed only by education. 

As regards to athletes and their coaches, let us not forget that 

athletic grounds are at the same time educational grounds. It is 

not coincidental that the Greek words "παιδί" [= child], "παιδεία" 

[= education] and "παιδιά" [= athletic game] have one and the 

same root [Zervas, 1987]. Athletics alone, however, do not teach 

manners of ethical behaviour nor do they reinforce the capacity 

of the individual to take ethical decisions when confronted with 

a dilemma, unless and if they are complemented by a systematical 

educational intervention. Parallel to his training programme, an 

athlete also needs athletic education. This, however, requires educated 

staff; it is not enough for the coach to know his specific 

sport thoroughly - this is the easy part of his job. He needs both 

education and the ability to educate individuals. What if someone 

230

teaches the technique of a sport to perfection? Does the glory of 

sport stop there? Which are really the aims and the goals of 

athletic education? If they merely consist in how many basketball 

throws, or goals, or points an athlete achieves, then we are simply 

developing a machine that produces mechanical performance. If, 

however, we are trying to find out what we have succeeded in 

inculcating in the soul and mind of this young man, what positive 

changes we have brought about in him through his participation 

in sport and his athletic effort, then we have really added something 

to his spiritual and ethical stature. 

As a concept, ethos lies between morality and habit. "The word 

"ethics" - we are told by Aristoteles - is derived fro the notion of 

"acquiring a habit", this is therefore the reason it has got its 

name with but a small deviation from the word habit" ["Η ηθική 

εξ' έθους περιγίγνεται, όθεν και τούνοµα έσχηκε µικρόν παρεκκλίνον από 

του έθους", Ethical Nicomacheia Β, 1103a, 17-18]. In other words, 

habit does influence ethics, thus morality can and does become 

a habit. 

Athletes, coaches, sports administrators, referees, judges, parents 

and sports fans, we all need ethical logic and ethical knowledge. 

Ethical logic is the form of thinking which motivates an 

individual to proceed to right actions and to know why they are 

right. There are certain things that are not provided for by regulations 

but only by the athletic spirit, such as for instance, politeness, 

respect for one's opponent, being "a good loser", helping 

the referee in his work, supporting the efforts of one's opponent 

etc. Ethical knowledge means all that one must know about the 

moral rules and values of sport [Lumpkin et al., 1994]; what each 

one must know and do both for himself and for others, what is 

important for himself and what he has to do when he finds himself 

in a difficult position. What he must know is that over and above 

every victory, every reward and every publicity lie integrity, sincerity, 

righteousness and dignity. 

Epilogue 

Sport forms the wealth of civilization. The violation of athletic 

231

spirit, therefore, is incompatible with our culture. The responsibility 

rests with all of us. The honest and righteous contest depends 

on all members of the athletic community. The problem of distortion 

of the athletic spirit will be solved only if and when the attitudes 

and efforts of all concerned are coordinated and if there is systematic 

and co-ordinatd action on their part. Man does learn. Since he 

is able to learn what is bad, he is also able to learn what is 

good. It is there that our hope lies. A little effort on the part of 

each and every one of us and everything can be achieved. Let 

us call to mind Socrates' words: "No great effort will be required 

to awaken the hearts of men; the soul has a divine element and 

it seeks its liberation. In the depths of each man's soul there is 

not only rubbish, there is gold too." 

Bibliography 

1. Aristoteles, Ethical Nicomacheia. 

2. Bandura, A. [1977] Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice Hall. 

3. Zervas, Y. [1987] The effects of sport on physical and social-psychological 

well-being. Sport Science Review, 10, 61-64. 

4. Halliwell, W. [1989] Delivering sport psychology services to the Canadian sailing 

team at the 1988 Summer Olympic Games. The Sport Psychologist, 3, 313-319. 

5. Lumpkin, A., Stoll, S.K., & Beller, J.M., [1994] Sport Ethics, applications for 

fair play. N.Y. Mosby. 

6. Homer, Iliad, 23 [Ψ]. 

7. Plutarch, Ethica. 

8. Plato, Laws. 

9. Sabock, R.J. [1985] The Coach. N.Y.: Human Kinetics. 

10. Sophocles, Philoctetes, 94-95. 

11. Philostratos, "Gymnastikos". 

12.Philostratos, "Eikones" [Images]. 

232

ETHICAL ASPECTS OF THE OLYMPIC IDEA 

The Olympic Idea 

by Prof. Jim PARRY (GBR) 

For most people, I suppose, the word "Olympic" will conjure up 

images of the Olympic Games, either ancient or modern. The focus 

of their interest will be a two-week festival of sport held once in 

every four years between elite athletes representing their countries 

or city-states in inter-communal competition. 

Most people, too, will have heard of an "Olympiad", even 

though it is sometimes thought to refer to a particular Games. In 

fact it refers to a four-year period, during which a Games may or 

may not be held. So: the Seoul Games are properly referred to not as 

the XXIV Games (since there have been only twenty-one, three 

having been cancelled due to World Wars) but as the Games of the 

XXIV Olympiad. 

Few, however, will of heard of " Olympism", the philosophy developed 

by the founder of the modern Olympic Movement, Baron 

Pierre de Coubertin, a French aristocrat who had been much influenced 

by the British Public School tradition of sport in education. 

This philosophy has as its focus of interest not just the elite athlete, 

but everyone; not just a short truce period, but the whole of life; not 

just competition and winning, but also the values of participation and 

co-operation; not just sport as an activity, but also as a formative 

and developmental influence contributing to desirable 

characteristics of individual personality and social life. 

For Olympism is a social philosophy which emphasises the 

role of sport in world development, international understanding, 

peaceful coexistence, and social and moral education. De 

Coubertin understood, towards the end of the nineteenth century, 

that sport was about to become a major growth point in popular 

culture - and that, as physical activity, it was apparently 

universalisable, providing a contact point across cultures. 

233

A universal philosophy by definition applies to everyone, regardless 

of nation, race, gender, social class, religion or ideology, and so the 

Olympic movement has worked for a coherent universal representation 

of itself - a concept of Olympism which identifies a range of values 

to which each nation can sincerely commit itself whilst at the same 

time finding for the general idea a form of expression which is unique 

to itself, generated by its own culture, location, history, tradition and 

projected future. 

De Coubertin, being a product of late nineteenth - century liberalism, 

emphasised the values of equality, fairness, justice, respect for 

persons, rationality and understanding, autonomy, and excellence. 

These are values which span nearly 3000 years of Olympic history, 

although some of them may be differently interpreted at different 

times. They are, basically, the main values of liberal humanism - or 

perhaps we should say simply humanism, since socialist societies 

seem to find little dificulty in including Olympic ideals into their overall 

ideological stance towards sport. 

The contemporary task for the Olympic Movement is to further this 

project: to try to see more clearly what its Games (and sport in wider 

society) might come to mean. This task will be both at the level of 

ideas and of action. If the practice of sport is to be pursued and 

develped according to Olympic values, the theory must strive for a 

conception of Olympism which will support that practice. The ideal 

should seek both to sustain sports practice against unjust criticism 

(where it exists) and to lead sport towards a vision of Olympism which 

will help to deal with the challenges which are bound to emerge (see 

Parry, 1989 and 1994, pp. 181-2) 

Concepts of Olympism 

Let me try to set out some of the many attempts that there have 

been to capture the meaning of Olympism, to try to give a flavour of 

the idea in all its complexity. 

1. Contemporary Official Sources 

The first words of the Olympic Charter (1994) state simply the 

nature and goals of Olympism: 

Fundamental Principle 2 (p10) says 

234

Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in α 

balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending 

sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a 

way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational 

value of good example and respect for universal fundamental 

ethical principles. 

Fundamental Principle 6 (p11) says 

The goal of the Olympic Movement is to contribute to building a 

peaceful and better world by educating youth through sport 

practised without discrimination of any kind and in the Olympic 

spirit, which requires mutual understanding with a spirit of 

friendship, solidarity and fair play. In referring to this goal, 

President Samaranch appeals to six 

"basic elements" of Olympic ethics: tolerance, generosity, solidarity, 

friendship, non-discrimination and respect for others (1995, p3). 

Later in the same editorial he says: The principles which inspire 

the Olympic Movement are based on justice, democracy, equality 

and tolerance." 

2. Hans Lenk 

Lenk (1964, p. 206) refers to over 30 Olympic aims and values 

dealt with in his book of the same title as the essay, including: 

• values or religious - cultural import 

• festive, artistic and spiritual planning of the Games 

• creation of a sporting elite 

• performance ideas (records and competition?) 

• the equal starting position... 

• the Agon 

• Fair play 

• the ancient idea of an unarmed truce... and the movement's... 

peaceful mission 

• making the movement international and independent 

• the desire to give the Games the character of the host country 

• amateurism 

235

• sweeping aside all cultural, racial, national, religious and social 

barriers 

• uniting all forms of sport on an equal footing at Olympia 

• the ancient meaning of the Games in relation to their modern 

form 

• regulating sporting life by looking towards the Olympic Games 

periodically 

• beneficial effects of the example of Olympic competitors 

• incentive provided by the possibility of participating in the Games. 

3. Ommo Grupe 

Grupe's recent paper (1997) addresses De Coubertin's pedagogical 

concept of Olympism. If you're wondering why his title is 

in quotation marks, it is because it was taken (without attribution) 

from a letter of de Coubertin's (1918, Letter IV, p55): "Olympism 

is not a system; it is a state of mind". 

De Couberin's idea, he says, was based on five points: 

1. unity of mind and body 

However, de Coubertin (1894) had a more differentiated view: 

"... there are not two parts to a man - body and soul: there 

are three - body, mind and character, character is not formed 

by the mind, but primarily by the body. The men of antiquity 

knew this, and we are painfully relearning it." 

And later (Letters III, 1918): 

"I prefer to harness a foursome and to distinguish not only 

body and soul,... but muscles, intelligence, character and conscience." 

2. self-improvement (developing one's abilities) 

3. amateurism. This value seems to require nobility and chivalry 

- but de Coubertin was ambivalent about the social inequality 

reinforced by certain expressions of this value. For example, he 

fulminates against "the English of England, and on their heels 

the English of the Dominions" (1924, p. 94), alleging against them: 

"A good sports club in their eyes continues to be a club in 

which the members are gentlemen on the same level. That was 

the first condition. They have not succeeded in freeing themselves 

236

from it. That is why, in rowing for example, they formerly 

declared every manual worker a professional. The university 

rowers wished to preserve in this way the aristocratic hall-mark 

of their favounte sport. It took a long time to put an end in 

theory to such medieval legislation. When it will disappear in 

practice no one knows." 

4. faitness, and fair play 

5. peace 

Hans Lenk had pointed out that "citius, altius, fortius" may 

lead us astray, given the dangers for humaneness of politics and 

commercialism. Grupe tells us that Lenk had added "humanius" 

- but actually, at this reference, Lenk also includes pulchríus 

(more beautiful) "to correspond to the five Olympic rings." (1982b, 

p. 228). 

Grupe warns us of today's dangers, and asserts that we need 

a new definition and a new legitimacy. On his account, Olympism 

today is about: 

1. Education, self-fulfilment, effort 

2. Fairness 

3. Peace, toleration, anti-discrimination 

4. Sport for All 

4. Pierre de Coubertin 

Now let us remind ourselves of the considered ideas of the 

founder of the modern Olympic Movement, Pierre de Coubertin. 

His mature article "The Philosophical Foundations of Modern Olympism" 

(1935a) clarifies the idea of Olympism: It is: 

1. A religion of sport (the religio athletae). 

"I was right to create from the outset, around the renewed 

Olympism, a religious sentiment (transformed and widened by 

Internationalism, Democracy and Science)... This is the origin 

of all the rites which go to make the ceremonies of the modem 

Games." (p. 131) 

Roesch (1979), however, argues that this is to misunderstand 

the nature of the religious life: 

"Religious life and cultic expressions take part in other forms 

and contents, such as gesture, attitude, ritual dance, prayer, 

237

speech and rites. The individual athlete, no matter what his 

religion, denomination or ideology, lives and acts, according to 

his religious conviction as a Christian, Moslem, Buddhist, Jew 

and so on... "Olympism" can't take the place of that" (p. 199). 

Roesch calls the ritual elements of Olympism consciously created 

by de Coubertin "pseudo-cultic" expressions (p. 200), and he proposes 

four central values of Olympism, which seem to be entirely 

secular: Freedom, Fairness, Friendship, Peace. 

2. An aristocracy, an elite (but egalitarian and meritocratic) 

3. Chivalry (comradeship and rivalry - suspension of exclusively 

national sentiments) 

4. Truce (the temporary cessation of quarrels, disputes and mis 

understandings. "... to interrupt their struggles for a moment in 

order to celebrate loyal and courteous muscular Games". 

5. Rhythm (the Olympiad) 

6. The Young Adult Male Individual. "It follows from what I have 

said that the true Olympic hero is in my view the adult male individual", 

(p. 133) who alone should be able to enter the Altis, or sacred 

enclosure. This means that team games will be at best secondary, 

taking place outside the modern Altis ("...fittingly honoured, but in 

the second rank."). It also means that women "could also take part 

here if it is judged necessary", although de Coubertin himself thought 

that they had no place even in the second rank. He says: 

"I personally do not approve the participation of women in public 

competitions, which is not to say that they must abstain from 

practising a great number of sports, provided they do not make a 

public spectacle of themselves. In the Olympic Games, as in the 

contests of former times, their primary role should be to crown 

the victors." (p. 133) He is at least consistent on this: 

"I still think that contact with feminine athletics is bad for him 

(the modern athlete) and that these athletics should be excluded 

from the Olympic programme" (1934, p. 129). "As to the 

admission of women to the Games, I remain strongly against it. 

It was against my will that they were admitted to a growing 

number of competitions". (1928, p. 106). 

238

There are very important corollaries of this kind of statement. 

For example, those who simply disparage the Muslim doctrine of 

"separate but equal development" should notice the echoes of 

that view in de Coubertin's work, in the practice of the Ancient 

Olympics, and in the educational ideology of single - sex schooling 

throughout Europe. And those who, on other issues, call upon 

the authority of the thought of the Coubertin or of ancient practices 

to support their views, should notice that such "authority" does 

not necessarily derive from justifiable principle. 

7. Beauty (artistic and literary creation - "intellectual manifestations 

organised around the Games", so as to promote "civilisation, truth, 

and human dignity, as well as... international relations.") 

8. Peace, promoted by mutual respect based on mutual under 

standing. 

9. Let us also add: participation and competition. De Coubertin 

(1935b, p. 19), said in London in 1908: 

"Last Sunday, in the course of the ceremony organised at St 

Paul's in honour of the athletes, the bishop of Pennsylvania 

recalled this in felicitous words: "the important thing in these 

Olympiads is less to win than to take part in them".... Gentlemen, 

let us bear this potent word in mind. It extends across every 

domain to form the basis of a serene and healthy philosophy. 

The important thing in life is not victory but struggle; the 

essential is not to have won but to have fought well". 

5. Avery Brundage 

Just to show how things change over a very short period of 

time, consider the views expressed by the former President of the 

IOC, Avery Brundage, in terms that remained fairly standard (although 

under threat) into the 1980's: 

"The first and most important of these rules, for good reasons, 

was that the Games must be amateur. They are not a commercial 

enterprise and no one, promoters, managers, coaches, participants, 

individuals or nations, is permitted to use them for profit". 

(1963, p. 30) 

The Olympic Games were revived by the Baron de Coubertin 

to: 

1. bring to the attention of the world the fact that a national 

239

program of physical training and competitive sport will not only 

develop stronger and healthier boys and girls but also, and perhaps 

more important, will make better citizens through the character 

building that follows participation in properly administered amateur 

sport; 

2. demonstrate the principles of fair play and good sportsman 

ship, which could be adopted with great advantage in many other 

spheres of activity; 

3. stimulate interest in the fine arts through exhibitions and 

demonstrations, and thus contribute to a broader and more well 

rounded life; 

4. teach that sport is play for fun and enjoyment and not to 

make money, and that with devotion to the task at hand the 

reward will take care of itself; the philosophy of amateurism as 

contrasted to that of materialism; 

5. create international amity and good will, thus leading to a 

happier and more peaceful world." (p39) 

The Philosophical Anthropology of Olympism 

What are we to make of this bewildering welter of ideas, offered 

by various writers as values, aims, goals or principles of Olympism, 

the Olympic Movement or the Olympic Games? The ideas so far 

presented are highly suggestive, but they are not systematic or 

coherent, so we need to try to find a way to organise our thoughts. 

My topic is "ethical aspects of the Olympic Idea". However, it 

is not possible to do ethics without a philosophical anthropology 

- whithout having a conception of the human being first. 

So what I want to say is this. If Γ m thinking about ethical 

aspects of Olympism or ethical problems facing the Olympic Movement, 

I need first of all to know what I think Olympism is. And 

the first thing that Olympism seeks to be, is a philosophical anthropology. 

Now, a philosophical anthropology is a theory of the human 

being. Social antrhopology, practical scientific anthropology, is 

the investigation of whole cultures which are preferably, from 

the point of veiw of the researcher, quite alien to the researcher's 

own society. If I'm British and I investigate Britain, I'm a sociologist. 

240

If I'm British and investigate a group of people whose lives, language, 

culture and ideas are foreign to me Γ m a social anthropologist. 

A social antrhopologist investigates the living instantiations of 

human nature - the quite different kinds of human nature that 

are to be found around the world - practically, scientifically, through 

observation and so on. 

What a philosophical anthropologist does is to create a theory 

about human nature in general. It's thinking about the human 

being at its most general level. Hoberman (1984, p. 2) writes 

about the differing political conceptions of sport, but finds it necessary 

to refer to several levels of explanation and theorising: 

"(Different societies) ...have distinct political antrhopologies or 

idealized models of the exemplary citizen which constitute complex 

answers to the fundamental question of philosophical anthropology: 

"What is a human being?" 

He quotes John F. Kennedy as a representative of "centrist 

neo-Hellenism": 

"... the same civilisation which produced some of our highest 

achievements of philosophy and drama, government and art, 

also gave us a belief in the importance of physical soundness 

which has become a part of Western tradition; from the mens 

sana in corpore sano of the Romans to the British belief that 

the playing fields of Eton brought victory on the battlefields of 

Europe". (p. 21) 

In order to try to fill out just what were the ideas that have 

been handed down from classical times, to be reinterpreted (by 

de Coubertin and others) we need to examine two central ideas. 

The Ideas of Kalos K'agathos and Arete 

Lenk says (1964, p.206): 

"Many representatives of the Olympic movement combine these 

values together to form a picture of the human being harmoniously 

balanced intellectually and physically in the sense of the Greek 

"kalos k'agathos". 

This is also a theme in Nissiotis (1984, p.64): "... The 

Olympic Ideal is what qualifies sport exercise in general 

241

as a means for educating the whole man as a conscious citizen 

of the world... The Olympic Idea is that exemplary principle 

which expresses the deeper essence of sport as an authentic 

educative process through a continuous struggle to create healthy 

and virtuous man in the highest possible way ("kalos k' agathos") 

in the image of the Olympic winner and athlete". 

Eyler (1981) pursues the meaning of the Olympic virtue of 

excellence in performance and in character, through Homer, early 

philosophers, Pindar and Pausanias. He concludes: 

In summary, arete has several meanings - distinction, duty 

(pimarily to oneself), excellence, fame, glorious deeds, goodness 

greatness, heroism... valour and virtue. Some of the many implications 

of these meanings contextually are: man is born, 

grows old, and dies; performance is not without risks; winning 

is all; man achieves by his own skills... human performance 

is the quintessence of life; and finally, man is the measure of 

all things and the responsible agent" (p. 165) 

He quotes Kitto (1951): 

"... what moves a Greek warrior to heroism is not a sense of 

duty as we understand it, i.e. duty towards others, it is rather 

a duty towards oneself. He strives after that which we translate 

virtue or excellence, the Greek "arete" (The Right Stuff)." (p. 166). 

Lenk (1982a, p. 166) emphasises the centrality of the ideas of 

action and achievement: 

"The Olympic athlete thus illustrates the Herculean myth of 

culturally exceptional achievement, i.e. of action essentially unnecessary 

for life's sustenance that is nevertheless highly valued 

and arises from complete devotion to striving to attain a difficult 

goal." 

Paleologos (1982, p.63) echoes the mythical origins of the Ancient 

Games in the deeds of one of the great heroes of antiquity, Hercules: 

"With the twelve labours depicted by the bas-reliefs on the two 

metopes of the Temple (of Zeus), the world is presented with 

the content of the moral teachings which Olympia intended 

with the Games". 

The idea is that the sculptures of the demi-God Hercules should 

242

stand as a role model, especially for the athletes who were there 

to train for the Games, of physical, moral and intellectual virtue: 

"... Hercules is shown bearded, with beautiful features,... a 

well-trained body, fine, proportioned musckles, ... as a epresentative 

of the "kalos k'agathos" type,where the body is wellformed 

and harmonious, the expression of a beautiful soul,and 

the face radiates intelligence, kindness and integrity", (p.67) 

Nissiotis concludes (1984, p.66): 

"The Olympic Idea is thus a permanent invitation to all sportsmen 

to transcend... their own physical and intellectual limits... for 

the sake of a continuously higher achievement in the physical, 

ethical and intellectual struggle, struggle of a human being towards 

perfection. " 

So: a philosophical anthropology is an idealised conception of 

the human. If we ask ourselves what the Olympic Idea is, it 

translates into a few simple phrases which capture the essence 

of what an ideal human being ought to be and to aspire to. From 

the above, I thing we might suggest that the philosophical anthropology 

of Olympism promotes the ideal of: 

• individual all round harmonious human development 

• towards excellence and achievement 

• through effort in competitive sporting activity 

• under conditions of mutual respect, fairness, justice and equality 

• with a view to creating lasting personal human relationships of 

friendship; 

• international relationships of peace, toleration and understanding; 

• and cultural alliances with the arts. 

That's the general idea - a conception of the human being who 

is capable of being and doing those things. 

Ethical Applications 

Then we ask ourselves: and how does that relate to ethical 

aspects of participation in sport? 

1. The first way of looking at this is as follows: when you state 

the philosophical anthropology of Olympism - when you describe 

243

what the ideal conception of the human being is - does that 

statement itself straight away throw up any ethical principles? 

Well, obviously it does. The specification is already packed with 

ethical indicators. 

First of all, for example, there is the value of respect for persons. 

If you are interested in individual development you are obviously 

interested in individuals - which raises some interesting questions 

about team games, but we may discuss that later. If you have a 

concern for someone's development it is very difficult to do that 

without respecting them and their rights. So already my philosophical 

anthropology draws with it certain values and makes 

me do certain things in practice. 

The second value is one which you can call equality, or fairness, 

or justice and it draws with it other subsidiary values. Anti-discrimination 

is one; and three examples are race, class and gender. 

If you seriously believe in fair play, if you seriously think that 

the athlete is a person who fully understands and fully respects 

the conventions of fair play, what follows that? You have to take 

a stand on equality and support it - you just have to. 

2. The second way of looking at this is as follows: when you 

have decided what ethical principles you ought to be committed 

to if you subscribe to the philosophical anthropology of Olympism, 

you are not out of the woods yet! For it still remains to be argued 

which principles are to be applied in what way to particular 

examples in ethical dispute. How might all this be beneficially 

worked out in practice? 

Two Examples 

1. The drugs issue 

Is it permissible or wrong to take drugs in sport? A knee-jerk 

reaction is to say: drugs are wrong and they should be banned, 

so let's set up an apparatus to ban them. I'm not saying that's 

wrong, but look at the values that underlie that conclusion. Does 

that respect the individual autonomy of the athlete to take decisions 

for him/herself? I'm working back to the ethical aspects of the 

philosophical anthropology. If I really believe in that philosophical 

anthropology and I really believe in the values that it throws up, 

244

then they should apply in practice. And if you're not going to 

apply them in practice then you don't fully believe in them. Here 

we see a punitive authoritarian response to an issue and not an 

educative response to an issue; and didn't we say that one of 

the rhings we were interested in was human development? 

I would rather appeal to drug users to consider the values 

within Olympism, and to try to square them with drug taking. I 

would want to say to someone who is taking drugs, "is it fair to 

other competitors"? If the answer is no, then that might be why 

drug taking is wrong. Or I might say that in taking drugs are 

you being an instrumentalist - a self - instrumentalist, in using 

your own body as an instrument to success. If we are sincerely 

interested in human values such as respect for persons (which 

includes them not being used as a means to an end but that 

they should be seen as ends themselves) then is wrong for them 

to be used (even by themselves) as an instrument. 

Much of the drugs debate really irritated me because it seemed 

as though people were appealing to principles that they weren't 

really prepared to regard as principles. For example, some people 

said that drug-taking is wrong because it removes the competition 

from the running track to the pharmaceutical laboratory, making 

the competition not between athletes but between people in white 

lab coats. I would say that, if someone believed in that principle.he 

ought to be able to follow it up a little bit: would he agree, then, 

that we should not remove competition from the track to the 

physiology lab, or the psychology lab, to the nutritionists's lab 

or the medic's table? If all those things are permissible, there is 

not a very good reason why it shouldn't be removed to the pharmaceutical 

lab. What's wrong with that kind of argument is that 

it pretends to a kind of principle and then contraverts it. It refuses 

to allow that principle to run and run, it just wants to apply that 

principle to the drugs issue. Now that looks to me like the unprincipled 

use of a principle. 

2. Equality 

Take equality, the anti-discrimination issue. If we really do 

245

elieve in equality, we really do believe in anti-discrimination. If 

we really do believe in anti-discrimination then lets see it applied. 

On the race issue in South Africa: it was quite clear that there 

was racial discrimination - The Group Areas Act was quite explicitly 

a racially divisive act. If you are against that kind of thing, then 

you have to oppose it. If it is so blatant, you have to oppose it 

blatantly, and to the credit of the IOC that's what they did. They 

didn't say "Well we don't like your politics and we don't play with 

people whose politics we don't like". (If we all said that no-one 

would play with anyone!) They said instead: you can't play sport 

with people who don't play sport properly; and you can't play 

sport properly unless you have equality of opportunity and equality 

of treatment and consideration. 

A related example: why is it then that with countries who don't 

permit women to participate virtually at all, we permit their men 

to participate in the Olympic Games? If you really believe in Olympism 

as philosophical anthropology and the values it generates 

of equality, justice, fairness to all, we have no answer at present. 

This is a very thorny issue for the IOC and its President. It brings 

up the difficult matter of the definition of equality. What is wrong 

with separate development? What is wrong with pouring a lot of 

money into women's sport and not allowing men to compete? 

Another example: social class. If you are really committed to 

equality and fairness then you will seek to eradicate important 

distinctions on the basis of social class, and in my view that is 

what the amateurism debate was all about. It was all about an 

absurd and historically generated class-based idea of who could 

participate at what. Years ago in equestiran events you could 

only participate if you were an officer and not in other ranks. 

Creative NOCs promoted some members to officer status for the 

period of the Games and then demoted them afterwards! The 

idea, I suppose, was that, if you are committed to the value of 

equality, then such inequalities should not have been permitted 

in practice - and it deserved to be subverted. 

I recommend that you try taking this route: try thinking about 

what your basic values are and then try to work them through 

246

to the conclusion; or begin with a conclusion and work all the 

way back to the principles. What I'm trying to say is that you 

can look just at these principles that Olympism is trying to throw 

up and see how they can be aplied, or you can ask yourself how 

would an Olympist, a person who is committed to certain principles 

approach a particular ethical issue like drug taking or anti-discrimination. 

Conclusion 

I have tried to present many examples of ethical aspects of 

the Olympic Movement. More importantly, though, is that I have 

tried to suggest, with examples, a systematic method of arriving 

at principled judgements about ethical matters through the values 

of Olympism. Our answers to our ethical dilemmas must resonate 

with a previously established set of values which relate to the 

philosophical anthropological nature of Olympism. We should be 

trying to make an argumentative relationship, a reasoned relationship, 

between principles, values and practical outcomes. 

There is no guarantee that even people who agree at the level 

of principle will agree on particular practical applications, since 

there are so many other variables. But at least we should be 

able to assess, from the various arguments, who has made a 

proper appeal to his own principles. 

Bibliography 

1. Brundage, A. 1963 The Olympic Philosophy (IOA Proceedings, pp. 29-39) 

2. Carl -Diem-Inst(ed) 1966 The Olympic Idea: Pierre de Coubertin (Stuttgart: 

Olympischer Sportverlag) 

3. De Coubertin, P. 1894 Speech... at the Paris Congress (in Carl-Diem-Institut, 

ed, 1966, pp. 6-7) 

4. De Coubertin, P. 1918 Olympic Letters III, 26 Oct 1918 (in Carl-Diem-Institut, 

ed, 1966, p. 54) 

5. De Coubertin, P. 1918 Olympic Letters IV, 22 Nov 1918 (in Carl-Diem-Institut, 

ed, 1966, pp. 54-55) 

6. De Coubertin, P. 1918 Olympic Letters VII, 11 Dec. 1918 (in Carl-Diem-Institut, 

ed, 1966, p. 57) 

7. De Coubertin, P. 1924 Amateurism at the Prague Congress (in Carl-Diem-In 

stitut, ed. 1966, pp. 93-95) 

8. De Coubertin, P. 1928 Message... to the athletes... of the IXth Olympiad (in 

Carl-Diem-Institut, 1966, pp. 105-6) 

247

9. De Coubertin, P. 1934 Forty Years of Olymism (1894/1934) (in Carl-Diem- 

Institut, ed, 1966, pp. 126-130) 

10. De Coubertin, P. 1935a The Philosophie Foundations of Modem Olympism 

(in Carl-Diem-Institut, 1966, pp. 130-4) 

11. De Coubertin, P. 1935b The Trustees" of the Olympic Idea (in Carl-Diem-In 

stitut, ed. 1966, pp. 18-20) 

12.Eyler, ΜΗ 1981 The Right Stuff (IOA Proceedings, pp. 159-168) 

IS.Grupe, O. 1997 "Olympism is Not a System, it is a State of Mind." (Olympic 

Review, Feb/Mar, XXV, pp. 63-5) H.Hoberman, J. 1984 Sport and 

Political Ideology (London: Heinemann) 

15. IOC 1994 The Olympic Charter (Lausanne: IOC) 

16. Kitto, HDF 1951 The Greeks (Harmondswoth: Penguin) 

17. Lenk, H. 1964 Values, Aims, Reality of the Modern Olympic Games (IOA 

Proceedings, pp. 204-211) 

18. Lenk, H. 1982a Towards a Philosophical Anthropology of the Olympic Athlete 

(IOA Proceedings, pp. 163-177). 

19. Lenk. H. 1982b My Olympic Experiences (IOA Proceedings, pp. 221-228). 

20. Nissiotis, N. 1984 Olympism and Today's Reality (IOA Proceedings, pp. 54-74) 

21. Osterhoudt. RG 1984 Modern Olympism... (in Segrave and Chu, eds, pp. 

347-362) 

22. Paleologos, K. 1982 Hercules, the Ideal Olympic Personality (IOA Proceedings, 

pp. 54-71). 

23. Parry, SJ 1988 Olympism at the Beginning and End of the Twentieth Century 

(IOA Proceedings, pp 81-94) 

24. Parry, SJ 1989 An Ideal for Living (Sport and Leisure 30.5.Nov/Dec 89, pp 

36-37). 

25. Parry, SJ 1994 The Moral and Cultural Dimensions of Olympism and Their 

Educational Application (IOA Proceedings, pp. 181-195). 

26.Roesch, H-E 1979 Olympism and Religion (IOA Proceedings, pp. 192-205). 

27. Samaranch. JA 1995 Olympic Ethics (Olympic Review, Feb-Mar, XXV-1, p3). 

248

CULTURALISM AND EDUCATIONAL VALUES 

OF OLYMPISM 

I. Introduction 

by Prof. Hai REN (CHN) 

The Olympic Movement is a social movement, attempting to 

"contribute to building a peaceful and better world" as the Olympic 

Charter declaims 1 . The basic logic idea of Olympism, initiated 

by French educator Pierre de Coubertin, is to start with promoting 

harmonious development of individuals, further, to enhance the society 

since a better society has to be made by better persons, and 

finally to built a peaceful and better world since the world is consisted 

of many societies. Therefore the core of Olympism lies in a harmonious 

development of individuals. The extraordinary thing is that Olympism 

heavily relies on sport, trying to use sport as its main practical tool 

to reach its noble goals, thus a linkage between a social movement 

and sport is formed. That makes the Olympic Movement different 

from any other similar social movements. Olympism expects many 

great valuable things from sport and use sport to cultivate various 

fundamental social values and universal ethical principles such as 

balanced development of personality, equality for all people, fair play, 

healthy life style, positive attitude towards to life as the Olympic motto 

refers "Citius, Altius, Fortius", non-discrimination, honor for talent, 

respect for the loser, friendship, solidarity, international understanding, 

peace, justice, democracy etc. 

Does sport have the capacity to fulfill such a high requirement 

imposed by Olympism? The question seems difficult to answer, for 

we got an extremely contrary picture when looking at the reality. As 

a two-edged sword sport is capable of various doings with dînèrent 

purposes, both desirable and undesirable. 

On one hand, sport may make many good things happen. We have 

had enough evidences in both antiquity and the contemporary time. 

For instance, ancient Greeks had successfully used sport to construct 

249

their brilliant civilization. Sport, as an inseparable part of their culture 

and education had played an essential role in various aspects of their 

social life and contributed a great deal to the splendid Greek civilization 

whose impacts we still feel clearly even today. Many outstanding 

philosophers, politicians, artists and ordinary free citizens in the ancient 

Greece had their life linked to sport in one way or other. In 

ancient China, sport games, such as ball kicking, archery and others, 

had been used as the important means to cultivate moral qualities 

and to enforce the social order. 

When Coubertin was trying to initiate the Modern Olympic 

Movement obviously he was intended to follow the footsteps of 

the ancient Greeks and make sport even a greater instrument 

for an ambitious grand social reform. He viewed "sport is not a 

luxury activity, or an activity for the idle, or even a physical 

compensation for cerebral work. It is, on the contrary, a possible 

source of inner improvement for everyone" 2 "Olympism may be a 

school of moral nobility and purity as well as physical endurance 

and energy" 3 . 

However, on the other hand, it is also true that sport may 

involve with all sorts of problems and misbehaviors which are 

difficult to handle, such as spreading drug abuses, increasing 

violent accidents inside and outside sport arena, various scandals 

from cheating to bribery and many other social problems which 

are strongly against Olympism. 

What makes sport, the main tool of Olympism, so different? 

We have to turn to culture and education for the answer. 

Π. Functions of culture and education in Olympic Movement 

1. Culture and education ennoble and purify Olympic sport. 

Being a type of physical activities, sport works directly on the 

physical dimension of human beings and closely linked with their 

bodily senses, it would be easy to evoke various material desires 

and to become external value oriented while tends to neglect or 

despises the non-material values. Moreover, since sport takes the 

form of competition, a direct face-to-face confrontation, it is not 

difficult to stimulate aggressive feelings within players and spectators, 

making them inhuman, indulged in wild passion, resulted 

250

in uncivilized behaviors, even moral degeneration. Especially at 

this highly commercialized and industrialized world sport could 

play a role as, bad as a devil. Modern history has witnessed too 

many cases to reveal the ugly side of sport. 

How to bring the potential advantages of sport to their full play 

while minimizing its negative aspects, as Olympism suggests "to 

place everywhere sport at the service of the harmonious development 

of man, with a view to encouraging the establishment of a peaceful 

society concerned with the preservation of human dignity"? 

The only answer for that is to blend sport with culture and 

education and to put the cultural and educational values at the 

top priority in the Olympic Movement. Only in this way can sport 

be purified and ennobled as a proper means to realize the noble 

goals of Olympism, and become a "driving force behind the philosophical 

ideology of Olympism" 4 . This is why leaders of Olympic 

Movement all focused on the relationship of sport and culture 

and education, as Coubertin pointed out "The sole mission of the 

Olympiads is not to exalt physical strength. On the contrary, they 

must also be intellectual and artistic" 5 Samaranch also stated 

clearly, "Without education Olympism could not attain its noble 

objectives." 6 In his view Olympism surpasses sports. It is inseparable 

from education in its widest and most complete sense. It 

combines physical activity, art and the spirit and tends toward 

the formation of the complete man." 7 

Moreover, Olympism insists on a close combination of sport 

and various cultural forms thereby to make the Olympic Movement 

a grand aesthetic campaign, full of a noble artistic atmosphere 

to invoke the people's desire for aprreciating and pursuing truth, 

benevolence and beauty. 

It is the emphasis on combination of sport with culture and 

education that makes the Olympic Movement unique. It is culture 

and education that has formed the essential reason to justify the 

existence of the Olympic Movement. 

2. Culture and education set the value judgment for the Olympic 

movement 

Since 1980's the Olympic Movement has had a close connection 

251

to all essential social sectors due to a series of reform carried 

out from that time. The strong and profound interactions between 

Olympism and society has led the Olympic Movement into a new 

dynamic stage and, at the same time, resulted in a variety of 

problems which are related not only to sport but also to a broad 

range of social factors, such as politics, economy, morality, environment 

and so on. Olympic issues have become so complicated 

that demand a basic principle for decision making. What is the 

fundamental principles upon which right decisions can be made 

in dealing with today's Olympic problems? Once more, we can 

find the answer based on those cultural and educational values 

of Olympism. These values should serve as the basic criteria to 

shape and direct the development of the Olympic Movement and 

to prevent it from any sorts of political and economic abuses. 

The basic contents of the Olympic Movement are all stemmed 

from the cultural and educational concerns, so we not only have 

sport competitions but also have the Olympic solidarity ready to 

give help, the International Olympic Academy and National Olympic 

Academies to educate, the splendid Olympic museum and attractive 

Olympic arts festivals to offer the true beauty of sport, youth 

camps for friendship. So we have witnessed the Olympic arena 

being the only one in the world forbidding commercial ads and 

the persistent fighting against doping in sport. Without culture 

and education we even could not tell why things like drug abuse, 

cheating and sport violence are all wrong. Moreover, the Olympics, 

as an international phenomenon, may stir up a variety of conflicts 

due to the fact of their diversified participants with different social 

and cultural backgrounds. To avoid this the Olympic Movement 

has to have the certain fundamentals shared by all participants, 

an accepted standard of behaviors for everyone, and a general 

guideline for its development. The fundamentals, standard and 

guideline could not be anything else but the cultural and educational 

values for a harmonious development of human beings 

and world peace. These values are vital to all human beings as 

well as widely accepted by all nations, therefore they are suitable 

to be the foundation of the Olympic Movement. 

Olympism up held the banner of culture and education is to 

up help the spiritual banner of mankind. 

252

3. Culture and education set the Olympic Movement an example 

for other sport forms 

Sport, as a multidimensional social phenomenon, may be for 

different purposes such as recreation, enjoyment, relaxation, self 

development; it may target at different social groups of childeren 

youth, adults and elderly; it may take place in various social 

settings, like family, community, district, work site, fitness club 

and so on. So there are various forms of sport. All these forms 

of sport have the same questions, in various degrees, related to 

culture and education. The values emphasized, goals pursued, 

and the practical models set by Olympism would have positive 

influences on all those sport forms in one way or other and help 

them keep on the right track to serve the human beings. 

ΙΠ. Current problems in Olympic culture and éducation 

Since Olympic culture and education are so important to the 

Olympic Movement, they have to be carefully observed. The following 

issues related to the Olympic culture and education may 

deserve our special attention. 

1. Olympic education has not obtained enough attention 

Many evidences have indicated that educational values of Olympic 

sport have been put in the secondary place by some sport 

officials, coaches, journalists, even players themselves in comparing 

to its material gains. So we have all witnessed the disproportional 

ratio of cultural and educational programs of sport in comparing 

with the huge commercial advertisements of sport in all forms of 

mass media; sport has been used more frequently as a pure 

entertainment, pursuing profits; the external material values are 

treated superior to the intrinsic educational values; the Olympic 

Games are regarded merely as a magnificent big show and athletes 

as great circus performers; in many countries the Olympic educational 

activities are overshadowed by the powerful athletic programs, 

many national Olympic academies are in inactive status; 

the lack of subject to introduce Olympism in the curriculum of 

253

high physical educational institutions; the shortage of publications 

on Olympic culture and education for general public. All these 

suggest that Olympic education has, to great extent, being neglected. 

We cannot blame the people around us too much for their 

incorrect image of the Olympics because they have no proper 

access channels to comprehend Olympism, especially its cultural 

end educational values. What they have imaged about the Olympics 

come mainly from the mass media which tends to treat Olympics 

as show business purely for material reasons. 

To keep the Olympic Movement prosperous in the next century 

and let it continually play its unique role in human society, we 

have to pay great attention to Olympic education and take efficient 

measurement to reinforce education and stress on the intrinsic 

values or educational values for fostering sound human beings. 

2. Olympic education needs more specific programs 

Another issue related to Olympic education is how to make it 

fit into the diverse social contexts which are so different in terms 

of economy, politics, religion, tradition etc. Even though the cultural 

and educational value emphasized by Olympism are universally 

accepted, how to apply these values to a particular country is 

still a big question. Olympism has to find various concrete educational 

patterns in order to get itself more operational in the 

nations and areas with different social and cultural backgrounds. 

Moreover a country has to find its own proper format of Olympic 

education with regarding to main educational objectives to reach, 

main problems to tackle, target groups and channels for disseminating 

the Olympic message. 

3. Olympic culture needs to be enrìched in its content 

The 20th century is the century of industrial revolution sweeping 

over the world and the Western culture becoming the main stream 

of the human society. However at the eve of the third millennium 

more evidences have indicated that both industrial society and 

the Western culture have to be improved and reformed in order 

254

to fit in the post industrial age in the 21st century. A new trend 

of cultural diversification is gradually taking its form. 

Since the modern Olympic Movement emerged from the Western 

industrial world it is not surprising for it to take as much as 

possible from industrial society and Western culture. This practice 

did promote the growth of the Olympics and made it developed 

so rapidly during the past one hundred years. But it also made 

the Olympics tent to be mono-cultural and lack of non-western 

cultural components. This situation has already become an obstacle 

to the further development of the Olympic Movement and made 

it difficult to have the widest appeal. 

Obviously, the future development of Olympic Movement means 

not only its cultural expansion in the spatial dimension but also 

in its connotation. The Olympic mono - cultural pattern based 

mainly on the Western one needs to be transformed into a multi 

- cultural type which is composed of all cultural element of the 

world. Of course, the task is not easy to be carried out, for it 

does not mean simply to pile up different cultural elements in a 

disorder manner, on the contrary, Olympic culture should be like 

a melting pot in which different cultural factors can be integrated 

into a new universal one. 

IV. Suggestions to enhance Olympic culture and education 

1. On Olympic education 

With regard to promoting Olymic education, the following suggestions 

may be taken: 

1) To reinforce the importance of Olympic education through 

all possible means and organizations disseminating the fundamental 

value and ideas of Olympism among the youngsters, especially 

the Olympic athletes. Let everybody be aware that Olympics 

refers not only the best sport performance, physical excellence 

but more importantly the basic values like harmonious development, 

fair play, friendship, respect for ethical principle, world peace 

and international understanding. It is a pleasure to see that a 

specialized committee of the IOC in charge of the education has 

255

noticed that, and tried seriously to improve the Olympic education. 

2) To set up Olympic research and educational organizations 

in universities. It is clear that the task of Olympic education 

cannot be efficiently carried out only by NOCs because they are 

too much occupied with various sport affairs. So educational in 

stitutions, especially those high educational ones, in each country 

have to be brought in. More and more Olympic research centres 

or institutions appeared in various countries in recent years seemed 

to response to this particular demand. 

There are certain advantages for high educational institutions 

to deal with the Olympic education: Firstly, university is the place 

of large number of young people gathering and university students 

are the future teachers, leaders, experts and parents and will 

play an important role in future society. They are the ideal Olympic 

messengers to carry the Olympic ideal to every corner of the 

society. Secondly, Olympic education is not ought to be offered 

as simply as a stereotyped propaganda, instead it needs a careful 

research. It is true that the basic ideas of Olympism is universally 

accepted, otherwise the Olympic movement would have not been 

so popular. However the general Olympic ideas have to be interpreted 

and explained according to the particular culture of the 

given nation in order to be properly understood. Moreover, the 

Olympic Movement itself is in a changeable process and constantly 

raises new questions which have to be analyzed. Therefore Olympic 

education in fact cannot be separated from research. In the high 

educational institutions it is more convenient to bring specialists 

from various fields to carry out the tasks of both Olympic teaching 

and researches. 

3) To strengthen the cooperative relationship among various 

institutions related to Olympic education such as Olympic mu 

seums, archives, Olympic academies, research centers, universities 

and so on. A special attention should be given to the developing 

nations. 

4) To start regional cooperation in Olympic education and study 

ing. It may be regarded as the first step because it would be 

more practical and comparatively easier to carried out, for instance, 

scholars and institutions in Asia, Africa, Europe, Oceania. America 

256

may cooperate on some educational project on the continental 

bases and communicate more on Olympic education and researches 

through various symposia, conferences and exchange programs. 

A communication network may also be set up to stimulate the 

exchange of all kinds of information. 

5) To set up special educational programs for Olympic athletes 

in educational institutions, especially universities because athletes 

are living examples of Olympism, they are the role models worshipped 

by millions of youth around the world. 

2. On Olympic culture 

With regard to Olympic culture the following suggestions may 

be valid: 

1) To carry out some cross-national or cross-cultural sport 

studies by international scholar groups in order to systematically 

and precisely examine the sport in different countries, to identify 

similarities and differences among different sport culture and to 

investigate the possibilities for their combination. 

2) To organize indigenous sport demonstrations and activities 

in every Olympic Games to expose the sport heritage in different 

regions world - wide. Youth sport exchanging program should 

also be organized in order to let teenagers know the sport forms 

other than their own. 

3) To strengthen the relations between sport and other cultural 

forms such as fine arts, literature, sculpture, music, architecture 

and so on. It is not only to give sports an artistic overlook and 

make them more elegant, but also helpful in refining basic nature 

of sport and enhancing their value. So varius exhibitions and 

salons related to the Olympics should be held in museums, arts 

galleries and university halls. 

Creation, innovation and reformation are always the key words 

to the OlympicMovement. The Olympic history is also the history 

of creation and reformation. The highly developed scientific technology 

has provided us with more opportunities for carrying out 

various Olympic cultural and educational programs. In order to 

ensure the values of Olympism, we have to think new and act 

new to fulfill our duties as educators. 

257

Bibliography 

1. IOC, Olympic Charter, 1996, p. 9. 

2. Pierre De Coubertin, The Olympic Humanist, Conrado Durantez Corral, pub 

lished by IOC & the International Pierre De Coubertin Committee, 1994, p. 

27. 

3. Pierre De Coubertin, The Olympic Idea, edited by Carl-Diem-Institut, Verlag 

Karl Hofmann: 1967, p. 100. 



107. 



65. 

6. Juan Antonio Samaranch, Preface of the Text Book of Olympic Movement, 

Beijing People's Sport Press, 1993. 

7. Cited in Segrave, J.O. and Chu, D. eds. The Olympic Games in Transition, 

Human Kinetics: 1988, p. 159. 

258

SPORT, MORAL EDUCATION AND 

DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTER 

by Dr. Ronnie LIDOR (ISR) 

A Child's Plea 

Well, here it is another hockey season, 

So I am writing you for just one reason, 

Please don't scream or curse and yell, 

Remember I'm not in the N.H.L. 

I am only 11 years old 

And can't be bought or traded or sold, 

I just want to have fun and play the game 

And I am not looking for hockey fame 

Please, don't make me feel I've committed a sin 

Just because my team didn't win 

I don't want to be that great, you see 

I'd rather play and just be me 

And so, in closing, I'd like to give you one tip - 

Remember, the name of the game is 

Sportsmanship 

Donny Chabot, age eleven Sault 

Sainte Marie, Ontario (Smith, 

Smith & Small, 1983) 

Introduction 

The famous American author Ernest Hemingway once said that 

"sport shows us how to win with honesty and sport shows how 

to lose with dignity. That means that sport shoes us how to live" 

(GI11, 1982). This idea has been readily accepted throughout the 

years by sport participants, coaches, managers and the public 

as a prominent motive why sport is so important for us. The 

dynamic situations which exist in sport activities should teach 

us some lessons about behavior, moral education and character. 

However, it seems that the beautiful idea expressed by Hemingway 

is seldom implemented in sport, especially at the high 

259

level of elite performers. For instance, Vince Lombardi, who was 

one of the most famous and well-respected football coaches in 

the U.S.A., once sait that: "Winning isn't the most important 

thing; it's the only thing" (O' Brien, 1987). When you read a 

powerful statement like this from a sport legend, you have to 

stop for a second and think: Can sport activities really expose 

us to values about moral, education and "good" characther? Can 

sport activities facilitate the development of character? Theoretically 

speaking, the answer to these questions should be positive. However, 

practically speaking, the answer may be negative, unless 

some initiatives are taken to decrease and even to eliminate the 

gap between the theoretical level and the practical domain in this 

matter. More specifically, it seems that it is difficult to educate 

people through sport activities because of the competitive and 

winning - oriented demands of these activities. 

We can talk about sport, moral education, and the development 

of character from different points of view. We can take the philosophical 

point of view, we can focus on the theoretical background 

of moral education and development of character and we can 

emphasize the demands of the sport itself as a highly competitive 

domain in which achieving second place is sometimes absolute 

disaster. 

During the first part of this talk, I would like to take a researcher's 

perspective on the topic, and during the second part of this presentation 

I would like to adopt a psychological approach. Both 

approaches may assist physical educators and coaches to develop 

an awareness of moral education and character development in 

sports. It is important to note that the educator has to gain some 

knowledge about a relevant topic. More importantly, the educator 

has to integrate (Boyer, 1990) all these fundamentals into an 

applied approach in order to provide the young participants with 

a variety of opportunities for moral education and development 

of character during sport and physical education activities. 

The purpose of this paper is to briefly examine the theoretical 

aspects of moral education and the development of character in 

sport, particularly those aspects which emerge from research, 

and, mainly, to focus on a practical approach that can be utilized 

260

y practitioners in their work with kids and youth. This approach 

emphasized the psychological and sociological characteristics of 

youth programs. 

The first part of this paper presents two theoretical concepts 

of moral education: (a) approaches of moral-reasoning (Bandura's 

social learning approach and Kohlberg and Haan's structureddevelopmental 

approach), and (b) selective research findings on 

moral development (Bredemeier & Shields, 1993). 

The second part of this paper focuses on the applied aspect 

of the development of character. Critical considerations in character 

development are reported, followed by an emphasis on some practical 

implications for the teaching and coaching domains (e.g., 

Weinberg & Gould, 1995). These suggested implications take into 

consideration the main elaborated points from the first part of 

the paper. 

It is believed that if these practical implications do exist, then 

"... the teaching of sport entails the initiation of children into a 

form of life which, because it involves the acquisition of skills, 

the development of practical knowledge, the active nurturing of 

admired human qualities, as well as moral understanding and 

conduct, is in effect a form of education" (Arnold, 1984, p. 280). 

Approaches of moral reasoning 

Two views about moral reasoning in general and about attitudes 

and behaviors in sport in particular, have been extensively reported 

in the literature (e.g., Bredemeier & Shields, 1993; Weiss & Bredemeier, 

1990). These approaches attempt to explain how the 

individual learns to carry out an act that is defined as "right" or 

"wrong". For this paper, moral reasoning is defined as "the decision 

process in which the lightness or wrongness of a course of action 

is determined". 

The social - learning approach 

According to the social-learning approach, which is mainly based 

on Bandura's (1977) work, an individual learns how to make a 

"moral" decision by: (a) watching what others do and do not do, 

261

(b) perceiving reinforcements and penalties provided for one's behaviors, 

and, (c) exhibiting behaviors in an effort to fit in with 

one's peer or comparison groups (Weinberg & Gould, 1995). The 

social interactions of an individual, i.e. a 12-year old basketball 

player who watches his teammate foul an opponent aggressively 

while penetrating to the basket and who is then congratulated 

for this action by his coach, and also his environment, affect the 

moral development of this individual most. 

The structured - developmental approach 

In contrast to the social - learning approach, the structured - 

developmental approach emphasizes the internal thought process 

more than the observed actions of an individual. Two structured 

- developmental approaches have been discussed in the physical 

education and sport sciences: Kohlberg's and Hann's (.e.g., Bredemeier 

δε Shields, 1993; Weinberg & Gould, 1995; Weiss & Bredemeier, 

1990). Although Piaget (1965) and Gilligan (1977) also 

provided structured - developmental explanations to moral reasoning, 

Kohlberg's and Haan's models are more accepted by researchers 

and educators in the motor domain. According to 

Kohlberg (1984) there are six stages of moral development. In 

each six-stage sequence the individual progresses in his/her ability 

to take the role of others, e.g., to understand others' needs and 

judgments. Weiss and Bredemeier (1990) not only described 

Kohlberg's model in detail, but also provided sport illustrations 

for each stage of the model. 

Haan's model on moral development was developed based on 

research of people's interactive behavior in everyday life situations 

as well as simulated game contexts (e.g., Haan, Aerts & Cooper, 

1985). Haan proposed a 5-level model in which the individual 

progresses in three main perspectives: Moral balance, moral dialogue 

and moral levels. As was pointed out earlier in Haan's 

model, Weiss and Bredemeier (1990) provided unique sports examples 

at each level of the model. 

Although both models were not originally developed for explaining 

moral development in sport situations, sport psychologists 

262

and sport sociologists have been using the six-stage model of 

Kohlberg and the 5-level model of Haan to describe moral sequences 

in sport activities. These two models, as well as the 

social - learning approach, also assisted researchers in the areas 

of sport psychology and sport sociology in examining moral development 

in empirical inquiries. 

Research findings on moral development 

Researchers in sport psychology and sport sociology have shown 

little interest in the area of moral development. Weiss and Bredemeier 

(1990), in an excellent review of the literature on moral 

development in sport, provided three explanations for the lack of 

empirical investigations on moral development: (a) the belief exists 

that morality is a personal or a philosophic concern and not one 

appropriate for scientific investigation, (b) some individuals question 

the idea whether research on morality can be useful, and, 

(c) many individuals feel that the job of nurturing moral growth 

should be left to parents, academic classrooms, and religious 

institutions, and not to teachers and coaches in the physical 

domain. In addition, it should be pointed out that some methodological 

concerns can be observed in the moral development 

investigations which may weaken the research paradigm. Consequently, 

our ability to generalize from one particular case to a 

large population is somewhat limited. 

Studies on moral development can be classified into three categories: 

description, explanation and application (Bredemeier & 

Shields, 1993). These three-type studies attempt to provide an 

inside look at moral aspects of children participating in sport vs. 

children not participating in sport, and of youth participating in 

sport vs. youth not participating in sport. 

Under the first category of descriptive studies, we can observe 

investigations that examine the impact of sport competition on 

children's cooperation and altruism (Kleiberg & Roberts, 1981), 

the effect of cooperative game programs on children's willingness 

to share (Orlick, 1981), and the effectiveness of a combined instructional 

and modeling program on negative behavior of boys 

263

in physical education activities (Giebink & McKenzie, 1985). Although 

there is no clear-cut evidence for the positive effects of 

these intecventional programs on moral development and moral 

awareness, it seems that behavior modification can be positively 

achieved by participation in moral-emphasized educational programs. 

Other investigations (e.g., Bredemeier, 1984; Hall, 1981) which 

used Kohlberg's theory of moral development revealed differences 

between moral thought and sport action among children and among 

athletes vs. nonathletes. For example, Hall (1981) found that 

collegiate basketball players' moral reasoning maturity was lower 

than that of their college peers. 

Under the second category of explained studies, we can observe 

an interesting line of research which was conducted by Bredemeier 

and her colleagues (Bredemeier & Shields, 1984, 1985, 1986; 

Shields & Bredemeier, 1984). In these investigations, an attempt 

was made to set the stage for theory-building about moral thought 

and action in sport settings. For example, Bredemeier and Shields 

(1984) reported that "life" reasoning maturity scores were higher 

than "sport" scores among a sample of 120 basketball players, 

swimmers, and nonathletes. Bredemeier and her colleagues speculated 

that "just as sport may be a "world within a world", existing 

within and connected to the real world, so game reasoning does 

not completely displace or render inoperative basic moral understandings" 

(Bredemeier & Shields, 1993, p. 595-596). 

Finally, under the third category of applied studies we may 

examine what conditions and strategies enhance participants' 

moral growth, and what factors are essential to facilitate moral 

development. A good example of researchers who worked in the 

field with children was Hellison (1985, 1993; Hellison, Lifka & 

Georgiadis, 1990). In his work with at-risk youth in Chicago, 

Hellison developed a model in which "good characteristics" of behavior 

such as self-responsibility and self-control, were emphasized. 

Although more empirical work is needed on Hellison's pedagogical 

recommendations, this kind of model is suggested for physical 

educators to promote moral values throughout their practical 

work with children and youth. 

264

In a recent study (Lidor & Nagal, a manuscript submitted for 

publication) that was conducted on young Israeli participants in 

school-settings, a 4-month interventional program enhanced classroom 

behaviors, self-discipline, self-image and academic achievements 

of sixth-grade children. In addition to its educational goals, 

the program was designed to develop character through physical 

activities. 

Educational programs which were developed through empirical 

inquiry as well as practical experience of educators may strengthen 

the link between moral development as a theoretical framework far 

from the world of sport, and the moral and character considerations 

to be applied by coaches and physical educators. Furthermore, although 

research has not vet explained all the aspects of moral 

development in sport, practitioners have to be more intensely involved 

in an attempt to enhance moral and character development through 

organized sport and physical education activities. 

Critical considerations in character development 

Although the concept of "character" can be defined in many 

ways, for the purpose of this and the subsequent parts of this 

paper it is suggested Shields and Bredemeier's (1995) view be 

used. In their recentbook entitled Character development and 

physical activity, they recommend that four virtues be included 

in the concept of character: compassion, fairness, sportspersonship 

and integrity. These four virtues should be taken seriously into 

consideration when coaches and physical education teachers are 

attempting to develop character through physical activity. 

Broadly speaking, sport and physical activities do not promote, 

develop or facilitate character and its unique virtues. However, 

appropriate and efficiently - designed physical activities may 

enhance character development. If the goal of the coach or the 

physical educator is to stress the concept of character development, 

he/she has to adopt a plan that is based upon this goal. It is 

impossible to conduct a regular physical education program and 

to assume that a character development process occurs by itself. 

This is probably the basic instructional mistake of many educators. 

265

They would like to develop character through game activities; 

however, they do not create a suitable learning atmosphere for 

this to occur. 

Weinberg and Gould (1995), in a new sport psychology book 

entitled Foundations of sport and exercise psychology, emphasized 

the role of educators in the physical domain to positively influence 

character behavior and development. According to Weinberg and 

Gould, there are three critical considerations in character development: 

a) Educators should consider the double-sided role of winning 

by focusing on moral lessons and not only on the winning process. 

b) Educators have to create learning environments in which 

the abiity of the learners to transfer the learned ideas is centered. 

It is a highly-achieved learning goal to create transfer situations, 

but educators should spend more time on discussions, conver 

sations and observations on the transferability and the gener 

alizability of ideas. 

c) Educators should set realistic goals during the learning 

process. The expected outcomes from the learning course should 

be matched to the participants' abilities and their skill level. 

Each one of these three recommended critical considerations 

is difficult to achieve. Moreover, they are difficult to maintain. 

The important key in implementing these considerations is to act 

as if they are the most relevant teaching and instructional aspects 

of the program. In the next part, we will demonstrate a few strategies 

for applying these considerations. 

Practical implications for teaching and coaching 

Recently-published books by Weinberg and Gould (1995) and 

Shields and Bredemeier (1995) have brought to the readers some 

useful moral and character implications for teaching and coaching. 

For example, Weinberg and Gould proposed a six-phase strategy 

that can be used during physical education classes or at any 

other organized sport activities. These six strategies are based on 

the social-learning and the structured-developmental approaches 

to moral development that were discussed before in this paper. 

266

The six strategies are: 

Strategy 1: Define sportsmanship in your particular context. 

Strategy 2: Reinforce and encourage sportsmanlike behaviors and 

penalize and discourage unsportsmanlike behaviors. 

Strategy 3: Model appropriate behaviors. 

Strategy 4: Convey rationales: 

Emphasize "why". 

Emphasize the "intent" of actions. 

Emphasize "role taking". 

Emphasize empathy. 

Strategy 5: Discuss moral dilemmas. 

Strategy 6: Build moral dilemmas and choises into practices and 

classes. 

In their book, Weinberg and Gould (1995) provided specific 

guidelinees on how to implement each of these six strategies. 

In addition, they proposed a written code of sportsmanship for 

a youth sport program (see p. 488). 

Shields and Bredemeier (1995) suggested similar practical implications 

for teaching and coaching. However, they broke down 

the implications separately for coaches, athletes, sport administrators 

and parents. For example, they recommended that coaches 

reflect thoroughly on their own coaching philosophy and objectives. 

If the coaches's philosophy does not fit the recommendations to 

be followed in these programs for character development, the desired 

educational outcomes will probably never occur. Shields 

and Bredemeier also argue that coaches should tailor their styles 

and emphases to the appropriate age level. If the target is to 

educate children and youth, they have to be provided with the 

appropriate models and guidance on how to execute this target. 

One of the more intersting practical recommendations that was 

given by Shields and Bredemeier has to do with motivation. In 

their opinion, coaches should minimize extreme motivations for 

sport participation. If the motive to take part in the activity comes 

from within the child, he/she wil communicate better with the 

coach, and will apply his/her moral guidance. 

Shields and Bredemeier (1995) proposed three recommendations 

for athletes. One dealt with the responsibility of the athletes when 

267

participating in sport activity. They suggested that athletes need 

to take the ultimate responsiblity for their own behavior, and 

that they must be aware of all the circumstances that might exist 

at the end of a moral or immoral act. 

Four recommendations were proposed for sport administrators. 

Among the recommendations were that sport administrators should 

ensure that moral educational goals are not neglected in sport 

programs, and that they should provide opportunities for members 

of different teams to work cooperatively toward achieving short 

goals. The recommendations for parents were that they should 

be more involved with the program and that they should be more 

aware of the coach's philosophy and his/her demands from the 

young participants. 

More guidelines on how to facilitate character development 

through sport activities can be found in Orlick's (1988) cooperative 

games program, Hellison's (1985) involvement strategy suggestions 

for physical educators, Lumpkin, Stoll and Seller's (1994) applications 

for fair play, Thompson's (1995) positive coaching program, 

and Miller, Bredemeier and Shields' (1997) sociomoral program 

through physical education. 

A final educational remark 

Too many reports have been released recently which focus 

mainly on the lack of moral behavior and character, as well as 

on the low values of sport ethics, not only among active athletes, 

but also among college coaches and sport administrators (e.g., 

Dealy, 1990; Funk, 1991; Miracle & Rees, 1994; Ryan, 1995; 

Sperber, 1990). Based on these published reports two leading 

questions may and should be raised: 

1) Is it possible to emphasize moral education and character 

development through sport activities in spite of the public's demand 

to achieve a high level of proficiency at almost any cost? 

2) Assuming that moral and character development can be 

integrated by appropriate youth sport programs, what are the 

chances of the participants to be able to transfer the learned 

moral actions from a pure and well - supervised environment to 

real life competitive situations? 

268

Presumably, despite the sincere efforts of all those involved in 

this topic, these questions will remain vague and open for new 

suggestions. We can provide some "food for thought" for researchers 

and educators who have an interest in promoting moral education 

and development of character, by quoting Sir Roger Banister in his 

foreword to McIntosh's (1975) Fair Play book: "Sport, which occupies 

the professional time of a few and the spare time of many, is a fit 

study for ethics". However, "... there is all too much evidence that 

young people learn lessons from sports that most of us would rather 

they not learn" (Thompson, 1995, p. 109). 

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34. Sperber, M. (1990). College sports Inc: The athletic department vs. the university. 

New York: Henry Holt and Company. 

35.Thompson, J. (1995). Positive coaching: Building character and self-esteem 

through sports. Portola Valley, CA: Warde Publishers. 

36. Weinberg, R.S.,& Gould, D. (1995). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. 


37.Weiss, M.R., & Bredemeier, B. (1990). Moral development in sport. Exercise 

and Sport Sciences Review, 18, 331-378. 

270

DEMOCRACY, EDUCATION AND SPORT 

INTRODUCTION 

by Dr. Doris R. CORBETT (USA) 

THE MYTH OF SPORT AS VEHICLE TO DEMOCRATIZA- 

TION 

It is frequently argued that sport is one of the few areas of 

our respective societies in which class distinctions are not important. 

There are a number of research studies from several countries 

which show that inequalities exist in sport on the basis of 

sex, race, ethnic or socioeconomic background, and age. McKay 

(1991) writes that it is a myth that elite athletes' sporting excellence 

inspires ordinary athletes to emulate their heroes. McKay 

(1991) argues that although there may be some impact on others 

when performers win international honors, "there is no evidence 

to suggest this "emulation" does anything whatsoever to democratize 

cultural activities, including sporting activities because the 

structural barriers to leisure pursuits still remain" (p. 79). As the 

world shifts even closer to the actuality of a global village and 

the terms "new world order", "cultural homogenization", and 

"westernization" become more frequently apart of a nations vocabulary, 

the potential for the export of sport become a reality. 

As one examine the global landscape, one must note that with 

the increasing affluence, leisure time, and mass media exposure 

of sport, there is greater homogenization of the sport participant 

and spectator preferences regardless of class. This paper will address 

"Democracy, Education and Sport" from three perspectives. 

First, I must point out that the distinct elite versus the common 

folk dichotomy that has traditionally described the social 

distinctions in sport is declining. From this perspective, we shall 

examine the democratization of sport as a system of stratifica- 

271

tion. I will discuss to what extent sport has moved from being 

an elite form to an equalitarian mass involvement emphasis (democratization) 

in all facets of social participation. 

Secondly, the presentation will look briefly at sport as a 

democratic - equalitarian movement. This social movement 

has been aimed at goals which focuses on improving the political, 

social, and economic status of sport participants. For 

example, the democratic movement in the USA organized the 

Olympic Project for Human Rights prior to the 1968 Mexico 

City Olympics. The sporting democratic dogma holds that 

sport and athletics be of the people (participants), for the 

pleasure of the people (participants), and run by the people 

(participants). It is an "humanitarian" approach to sport which 

aims at emphasizing genuine concern with the welfare of fellow 

competitors instead of focusing on the elimination or annihilation 

of one's opponent. The democratic movement vilifies the undesirable 

aspects of contemporary sport such as excessive commercialism, 

authoritarianism, winning at all cost, drug-use, recruiting violations, 

the sport elitist and spectator orientation, its overemphasis 

upon sport as a male preserve and the denial of women participation 

in sport at all levels, and the general conservative orientation 

inherent in sport which aggressively strives to maintain the traditional 

status-quo. Consequently, you can see that the democratic 

movement and the traditional tenets inherent in sport often will 

teach a philosophical divide. 

And lastly, an examination will be made in part to look at the 

impact, and of the spread of sport, it diffusion, its' democratization 

throughout the world. The writer recognizes that there are certain 

causes and consequences, and issues which are important connections 

when one looks closely at the spread of sport. For example, 

what happens to indigenous forms of sport in the course of spreading 

sport through out the world. 

The democratization of sport is just one concept that can be 

utilized in describing the spread of sport throughout the world. 

Research has been undertaken in recent years by Holt (1981) on 

the spread of sport within Europe (France) and the rest of the 

272

world. Riordan (1977, 1978) traced the spread of sport to the 

Soviet Union, and similarly, Wagner (1989) looked at the spread 

of sport to Africa and Asia. Research by Arbena (1988) investigated 

the democratization of sport in Latin American countries. 

Obviously, we do not know everything regarding the causes 

and consequences of the spread, the democratization, the diffusion 

of sport throughout the world. The democratization of sport to 

some parts of our world continues to be in its infancy particularly 

in the organization and functioning of sport forms around the 

world. There are many issues of concern that must be examined 

as countries adopt and encultrate into their society sport from 

very different cultures. 

DEMOCRATIZATION OF SPORT AS A SYSTEM OF 

STRATIFICATION 

Since the late 1960's and early 1970's researches (Luschen, 

1969; Pavia, 1973; Grunea, 1972; Baltzell, 1958; Metcalfe, 1972, 

1976; Yiannakis, 1975 and Loy 1972) have examined the democratic 

relationship between sport and social class. Luschen (1969) set 

forth three propositions based on his analysis of social class background 

of the former German Federal Republic young sportsmen. 

Luschen (1969) hypothesized that: 

1. The newer a sport, the higher its social position. 

2. That with the increasing importance of individual achieve 

ment, the social status of a sport becomes higher. 

3. The higher the social status of a sport, as determined by 

the class to which its participants belong, the more it is dependent 

upon organization into clubs. 

Based upon these propositions, Luschen's (1969) research 

yielded the following conlusions: 

1. Basketball in the German Federal Republic and in Australia 

has a high social status because it was a recent import. 

2. The decrease in the social status of soccer and gymnastics 

in the former German Federal Republic may have been a reflection 

of the length of time these sports have been apart of the German 

Sport Culture. 

273

Lunschen recognized that this particular thesis may not hold 

for newer sports such as skydiving or hang gliding which are 

often associated with youth or a developing sport sub-culture. 

3. Sports such as tennis and squash have achieved a higher 

social status because of the increasing importance placed on individual 

achievement. Amateur wrestling is an exception to this 

proposition. It has not attained the same high status despite a 

high degree of individual attainment. 

Historically speaking, sports that are high in status were organized 

within a club framework (Baltzell, 1958; Metcalfe, 1972, 

1976). In North America, many sports are available on a club 

basis. It is only those that are restricted to the elite private clubs 

(such as polo and other equestrian events) that retain an image 

of high status. 

Another theorist writer on the subject of democratization of 

sport as a system of stratification is Yiannakis (1975) who has 

written that the social status of a sport is influenced by four 

factors: 

a. The Structure of the sport (i.e., individual vs. Team sport) 

b. The cost of participation 

c. The publicity it receives 

d. The amount of physical contact. 

Yiannakis argues that higher-status sports are related to 1) a 

greater degree of autonomy in one's occupation (that is, the professions) 

as reflected by greater participation in individual sports; 

2) the cost of participation (the upper classes can afford to participate 

in higher - status sports); 3) the exposure or publicity a 

sport receives (higher - status sports remain the privilege of the 

elite because the masses either do not see or hear about them, 

or they learn very little about the purpose or ethos of the sport); 

and 4) an absence of a combative element or bodily contact. 

Using original and secondary data, Yiannakis (1975) obtained correlations 

of 0.75 and 0.79, respectively, between the four predictor 

variables (sport structure, cost, publicity, physical contact) and 

the respondents' social status. 

There are also cross-national differences in the prestige ranking 

of some sports. For example, gymnastics is low in Belgium (Renson, 

274

1976), at the middle in Germany (Luschen, 1969), and at the 

upper-middle in the United States (Loy, 1972). I would posture 

that these differences are as a result of the historical development 

of a sport in a given country. For example Renson (1976) analyzed 

the system of social stratification in Belgium and noted that the 

higher-class sports such as skiing, golf, field hockey, tennis, and 

fencing are all characterized by the use of "status sticks;" the 

upper - middle class sports of rowing, canoeing, horse riding, 

climbing, skating, hunting, and scuba diving are all "nature" sports; 

the lower-middle class sports such as basketball, volleyball, badminton, 

and table tennis require the "use of balls, nets, and 

targets;" while the lower-class sports of gymnastics, calisthenics, 

track and field, boxing, soccer, and fishing are either of an "individual 

nature" or "involve close bodily contact". In some respects, 

the sports played by a particular social class serve as symbols 

of their status and function within society. 

In more recent years, sport has been cited as one of the systems 

promoting and facilitating a trend toward egalitarianism in society 

through democratization and increased opportunities for social 

mobility. Researchers (Berryman and Ingham, 1972; Berryman 

and Loy, 1976) continue to examine the extent to which there 

has been movement from elitism to mass involvement (i.e., democratization) 

in all facets of social participation, including sport. 

For example, Betts (1974) noted that the form of sport changed 

after the industrial revolution from the elite agrarian pursuits of 

horse racing and fox hunting to commercialized mass entertainment 

in the form of spectator sport. However, as noted earlier, the 

masses were largely excluded form primary involvement in the 

sport pursuits of the upper classes through the organization of 

sport within highly institutionalized country clubs. 

While there has been great democratization in consumption 

opportunities and some increased opportunities for mass participation, 

there has been little, if any improvement in access to 

formal leadership positions in which the decision - making power 

dwell (Gruneau, 1975). Gruneau (1975) argues that despite the 

decline of ascriptive privilege, modern sport actually contributes 

275

to the reinforcement of class distinctions. Access to the sport 

world persist and, although more individuals may be involved in 

sport, the prestige hierarchy of each sport remains relatively stable, 

even though a few sports gain or lose status to some degree over 

time. For example, the prestige of boxing is still low and that of 

polo high. As a result of this prestige hierarchy, some sports 

remain exclusive to a specific group, while those in the middle 

have become more democratized. However, even in those sports 

in which democratization has occurred, status considerations still 

prevail in terms of the style of involvement. 

The increasing affluence of the average American and the proliferation 

of public recreational facilities after World War II have 

combined to produce an increasing "democratization" of leisure 

sports opportunities in the United States. Sports such as tennis, 

golf, and swimming, which once were rstricted to the affluent 

members of socially exclusive private clubs, now are available to 

less affluent members of American society through community 

recreational facilities and programs. However, despite the leveling 

of social class distinctions in opportunities to play at physical 

recreation and sports, patterns of active leisure sports participation 

still are marked by social class differences (Nixon, 1984). 

In contrast to the moral affluent classes, working and lower 

class Americans frequently find that the sports they like to watch 

are not readily accessible to them as players. Equipment and 

private facilities may be too expensive. Community recreational 

facilities may be crowded or unavailable. A rigid work schedule 

or the need to have a second job could make it difficult or impossible 

to find enough leisure time to engage in regular physical activity. 

For these reasons, leagues organized by community recreation 

departments, churches, local businesses, unions, and employers 

for sports such as bowling, basketball, volleyball, and softball 

often are popular with the working class. Without these opportunities, 

active leisure sports participation is likely to be very 

limited for the less affluent members of the working class and 

particularly the poor and the unemployed (Nixon, 1984). 

Along with the economic and practical reasons that make sponsored 

league competition popular with the masses, there seems 

276

to be symbolic reasons for the mass appeal of certain kinds of 

leisure sports. Sports such as weightlifting, arm wrestling, boxing, 

wrestling, the martial arts, drag racing, auto racing, motocycle 

racing, and snowmobile racing, which are popular with working 

and lower class spectators, also tend to be the activities of choice 

for members of these classes who can afford the money or time 

to participate actively in these kinds of sports. Sports symbolizing 

strength, physical dominance, and power provide the masses with 

a chance to play at roles in which they may be what their jobs 

or society do not allow them to be. Many of the masses who 

engage in these sports see sport participation as an opportunity 

to raise themselves above their status as an invisible member of 

an assembly or unemployment line. They can be assertive and 

dominant instead of subordinate, and they can temporarily forget 

about being deprived of many of the "good things" in life that are 

supposed to be available to all who try hard to succeed. 

The sports with special appeal to upwardly mobile and successful 

Americans as leisure players probably are most clearly distinguished 

from leisure sports with mass appeal by their lack of 

physical contact. The white collar world is characterized by mental 

and physical discipline, and the leisure sports choices of upperincome 

groups tend to have this character. The striving and successful 

in the American society tend to prefer leisure athletic 

activities that can be pursued on an individual basis rather than 

with teams. The activities of choice involve precise, disciplined 

movements; and they are expensive or socially exclusive. Running, 

swimming, tennis and the other court games, golf, sailing, alpine 

and Nordic skiing, polo, yachting, bicycling, backpacking, hiking, 

and mountain climbing are the leisure activities with special appeal 

to the more affluent in American society. There leisure recreation 

may not be competitive, and it may not be very physically strenuous 

(Nixon, 1984). However, the popularity of competitive distance 

running and swimming with upper-income players suggest that 

the casual and noncompetitive motives of these players may change 

as they become more involved in their leisure pastimes. 

Nixon (1984) writes that more important than winning, per se, 

277

for upper - income players is likely to be the demonstration of 

form, style, or "class". As in the case of spectator sports, active 

participation in leisure sports may be seen by upper-income and 

especially upwardly mobile players as an oportunity to garner 

status recognition and polish their image. Thus, they may pay 

special attention to sportsmanship/sportspersonship, proper form 

in executing the skills and movements of their sports, and fashionable 

style in outfitting themselves for participation. Knowing 

the nuances of rules and observing them in competition, taking 

private lessons, using expensive equipment and clothing, and participating 

in exclusive clubs and events all can be seen as aspects 

of the conspicuous demonstration of status or "class" in leisure 

sports. The need to win and the desire to gain status recognition 

may come together for upper -income players at the higher levels 

of competition in their leisure sports, as in the case of Masters 

swimming (Nixon, 1984). 

It is important to point out that even within the exclusive 

private clubs in America, social differences between their own 

members continue to be perpetuated. The American sports world 

has always been a predominately male world. But it is less so 

among the rich and more so among the poor (Nixon, 1984). The 

sports in which women have been more accepted such as tennis, 

golf, swimming, and skiing traditionally have been sports of the 

elite and more affluent classes. Most lower income women have 

been relatively unfamiliar with them, and have been unable to 

afford them. 

Even though women of the middle and upper classes have had 

more leisure sports opportunities than women of the working and 

lower classes, their opportunities in exclusive private clubs have 

tended to reflect and reaffirm the different and subordinate position 

they have traditionally occupied with respect to men in the larger 

society. For example, in many private golf clubs women played 

golf less frequently than men, have poorer tee times, usually do 

not play with men, are responsible for organizing children's activities 

at the club, and tend to be exlcuded from important economic 

and political decisions about the clu's survival. 

278

When a sport democratizes to the extent of involving the working 

class, it is likely to undergo significant cultural changes (Donnelly, 

1982). Some changes can be expected because the traditional 

values of sport are essentially upper and middle - class values, 

and the involvement of a different class culture inevitably invites 

the introduction of new values. Thus, one result is the incorporation 

of the sport into the dominate sport culture. 

SPORT AS A DEMOCRATIC EQUALITARIAN MOVEMENT 

A look at the process of democratization in sport raises many 

issues and questions. Why were women not allowed as spectators 

at the original Olympic Games? Why were Jews not allowed to 

play golf at many of the golf and country clubs in the United 

States before World War II? Why are there so few women on the 

National Olympic Committees? And why are there so few African 

- Americans in positions of head coach at major colleges and 

universities, or in top leadership positions in the front offices of 

professional sports in the United States? 

As leaders and analyst of sport, we need to bo beyond a mere 

tabulation of the number of people involved in sport or concern 

ourselves solely with the amount of money expended on sport. 

We need to examine more of the qualitative dimensions of sport. 

The meaning of sport in society is greatly influenced by the evolving 

economic and political organizations and the values of that society. 

Sport, as we all know is a socio-cultural product. In a given 

society, the purpose and meaning of a sport may be to emphasize 

the values of competition, aggressiveness, and violence. This is 

certainly the case for most team sports in North America. Another 

society may stress cooperative social interaction, friendship, skill, 

physical fitness. Over time, the values, purpose, and meaning of 

sport may change greatly (Guttmann, 1988). China, you will recall, 

first entered the international sport arena in the 1970's by engaging 

in "Ping-Pong" diplomacy. By 1984 athletes from China competed 

more seriously and with great success in the Summer Olympic 

Games. China's success was repeated in the 1988 Seoul Olympic 

Games when the Chinese did particularly well in diving and volleyball. 

279

In a world of highly organized sports from Little league to the 

highest levels of professional sport and commercial levels, meritocratic 

and egalitarian principles are supposed to imply an opening 

up of participation opportunities to the talented and hard-working 

regardless of their social background or their ascribed characteristics. 

However, as we have already come to understand, opportunities 

continue to be blocked in a variety of ways for minorities, 

the less affluent, and women. The tragedy for the less privileged 

who pin their hopes for success and upward mobility solely on 

sport is that they will have nothing to cushion their lives if they 

are unsuccessful in their pursuit of a professional sport career. 

Sport has been a path to success and to an assortment of American 

dreams for its champions and stars but few of the champions 

and stars at the lower levels of sport are able to achieve a career 

at the top of the American sport hierarchy. Most of those who 

make it to the top find that their career as a professional or 

Olympic - level athlete is relatively brief. Many of these super-star 

athletes find their lives filled with unexpected pressures and demands. 

The pressures on American super sport stars may not 

be greater than those experienced by the successful in other realms 

of the society. However, these pressures may be felt more intensely 

by sports stars because these stars are likely to be much younger 

and subjected to much more public scrutiny and criticism than 

the stars of industry, the professions, politics, and other areas 

of life (Nixon, 1994). 

CULTURAL DIFFUSION OF SPORT 

It is engrossing to study how certain sports seem to have a 

broad international appeal while others are often restricted to 

national boundaries, and still others are only popular within certain 

regions of a country. The official sports and demonstration sports 

within the Olympic Games represent examples of the social distribution, 

cultural diffusion or democratization of sport (e.g., baseball 

at the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Olympics, tae-Kwon-do at 

the 1988 Seoul Summer Olympics and curling at the 1988 Galgary 

Winter Olympics). 

280

Whenever cultures come into contact, there is an inevitable 

"borrowing" and adaptation of elements from one culture to another. 

In sports, a number of present activities were imported to the 

USA. The "rudimentary" games of rugby, tennis, and handball 

are examples of the role of diffusion in social change (Leonard, 

1993). 

Sport, like any other set of beliefs, norms, and values can be 

exported to other countries. The sport may or may not retain its 

original meaning and form. More often, it will acquire a different 

meaning and form thatis more consistent with the new culture 

(Donnely and Young, 1985; Fox; 1961 RIesman & Denney, 1951). 

Take the case of professional baseball in Japan. In Japan, professional 

baseball reflects the traditional pattern of strong group 

loyalty in that society. As a result, the practice of trading players 

and firing managers in quite different than that found in North 

America (Andreano, 1965; Benedict, 1946; Whiting, 1976). 

Insights about the democratization of the spread of sport have 

been furnished by sports geographer John Bale (1989). According 

to Bale, sport have tended to spread spatially both within and 

between countries, and they have also tended to spread hierarchically; 

that is, within countries from higher to lower levels of 

the social scale. The degree to which elite groups have been able 

to spread sport varies from country to country according to their 

social structures, cultures, and levels of development (Bale, 1989). 

Similar patterns have recurred as sports have spread intranationally, 

intracontinentally, and intercontinentally (Dunning, Maguire, 

& Pearton, 1993). 

Research has been undertaken on the spread of sport within 

Europe and its diffusion to the rest of the world. For example, 

Holt (1981) studied the spread of sport to France, and Riordan 

(1977, 1978) has studied the spread of sport to the Soviet Union. 

Similarly, Wagner (1989) has researched the spread of sport to 

Africa and Asia, while Arbena (1988) and colleagues have investigated 

sport diffusion to the countries of Latin America. Many 

gaps remain in our knowledge and understanding of the processes 

involved in the global democratization of sport. 

281

We know little about the causes and consequences of sport 

diffusion in various countries. For example, not much has been 

written on, the spread of sport within Europe to Germany and 

Italy, or to the Scandinavian countries and those of the Iberian 

peninsula. Correspondingly, the study of the spread of sport to 

the so-called "developing countries" remains in its infancy (Dunning, 

Maguire, & Pearton, 1993). 

A number of issues need to be explored as it relates to the 

diffusion of sport globally. For example, what happens to indigenous 

forms of sport in the course of diffusions? Do they fade away 

completely, or do they survive but become marginalized? What 

sorts or conflicts and struggles are involved? Can some sport 

cultures be described as "dominant" and others as "emergent" or 

"residual" (Gruneau, 1988; Donnely, 1993)? Why is it that some 

originally English sports such as soccer, spread almost universally, 

while others (e.g., rugby and cricket) remain confined almost 

wholly to the countries of the former British Empire? What caused 

the spread of rugby to such countries as France, Argentina, and 

Japan - but when transported to the United States from England, 

it was converted into a very different "gridiron" sport? Why did 

other originally English sports diffuse without undergoing fundamental 

changes? Why has professional soccer not caught on in 

a major way in the United States despite the fact that the World 

Cup Finals were held there in 1994? Will we see the American 

sports of football and baseball garnishing more international appeal? 

Is the relatively slow diffusion of these sports somehow 

connected to the United States dominance as an industiral and 

military power? How, and in what ways is the spread of martial 

arts connected with Japan's emergence as a major industrial and 

trading power? Is this process of diffusion connected more generally 

with the growing commercial and industrial power of the countries 

of Southeast Asia? Are we currently witnessing a worldwide competitive 

struggle between what started out as English, American, 

and Japanese forms of sport, and will it be possible for these 

different forms to coexist and develop (Dunning, Maguire, & Pearton, 

1993)? 

282

The democratization of sport world-wide will likely only occur 

after such movements take place at the national, regional, provincial 

and local levels. Democratization will come from the grass roots 

of sport associations, and organizations, where there is some evidence 

of concern over the practices and objectives of today's dominant 

form of sport. 

Whether we endorse wholly the role sport plays in society, we 

must acknowledge that sport has become a transmitter of economic, 

but not ethical and democratic values. Our schools, colleges, universities, 

and leaders of sport at all levels must become advocates 

for a democratic global sport society. Changes are needed in our 

academic programs to restore ethical and democratic principles 

to sport. 

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285

ETHICS AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION; 

ESCHEWING KOHLEBERG, 

EMBRACING CHARACTER 

ABSTRACT 

by Dr. Mike McNAMEE (GBR) 

Modern philosophical debate in ethics has centred ethical systems 

that reduce morality to the singular ideas of duty or utility. 

In the last ten to twenty years, however, there has been a wave 

of academics who, in response to the theoretical and practical 

weaknesses of modern moral philosophy, have placed the good 

character of persons, embodied in a range of virtuous dispositions 

and supported by a network of practices, back to the heart of 

ethical discussion. This trend has also begun to emerge in the 

psychological literature where a Kohlbergian model of moral development, 

antithetical to the virtues, had been hegemonic for 

over thirty years. I wish to stress again the importance of the 

character traits we call "virtues" in ethics and why it is important 

to move away from both philosophical and scientific accounts of 

moral life that place exclusive emphasis or impartiality, rationality 

and universalizability. In conclusion I offer some rather old-fashioned 

ideas about the ethically educative potential of Physical 

Education. 

INTRODUCTION 

The notion that "morality" is a contested concept is a commonplace 

in modernity. It is often forgotten that the problem 

was raised long ago by Plato. Many theorists, in the face of moral 

diversity are inclined to jump , rather readily, to the easy conclusion 

that therefore there are no moral standards and that the 

moral correctness is hermetically sealed into specific communities 

at specific times. Against this relativism the work of the psy- 

286

chologist Lawrence Kohlberg stands as a bastion of certainty. Following 

in the footsteps of the duty - based moral philosophy of 

Kant and the cognitive psychology of Piaget, he constructed a 

model of moral development that held sway over social scientists 

in the field for over thirty years. In articulating his six 

stages/three level model, Kohlberg attempts to demonstrate the 

greater cognitive and moral adequacy of utilitarian thinking over 

egoism and mere socialization only to trump it with a universal 

perspective founded on the principles of justice. I recommend a 

range of ethical considerations for teachers and researchers in 

Physical Education that is broader and richer than the restricted 

range of the Kohlbergian paradigm. 

KOHLBERG AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 

History has already reserved an eminent place for Lawrence 

Kohlberg in the annals of moral psychology. His works, over 

the course of a professional lifetime, became the standard 

against which all other works compared. He developed, from 

Piaget, the notion of moral development explained in terms 

of increasingly sophisticated cognitive development. Specifically, 

he took from Piaget, after Kant, the idea that "All morality 

consists in a system of rules, and the essence of all 

morality is to be sought for in the respect which the individual 

acquires for these rules 1 " (1932, p.l). Kohlberg's model of moral 

development is one in which the child progresses through invariant 

stages of increasing moral adequacy culminating in the acceptance 

of universal principles of justice that guide one's action at all 

times. Effectively the thesis runs that children necessarily are 

born into an egocentric worldview which is ameliorated through 

cognitive development and that this is manifested as they come 

to solve moral dilemmas of increasing complexity in favour of an 

impartial, justice orientated, perspective. 

Further specification of the thesis refined the notion of this 

development in terms of stages 2 . Specifically, the stages ran as 

follows: 

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LEVEL A: PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL 

Stage 1 

Punishment and obedience 

Content 

Obedience to rules and authority; avoiding punishment 

Social Perspective 

Egocentric; actions judged by physical outcomes 

Stage 2 

Individual instrumental purpose 

Content 

Right is serving ones own needs; fair deals judged by concrete 

exchange 


Concrete individualistic; distinguishes own interests from authorities; 

fairness gives equal shares. 

LEVEL B: CONVENTIONAL 

Stages 3 

Mutual expectations, relationships δε interpersonal conformity 

Content 

"Being good" is important; defined by living up to expectations of 

others, and by role 

Social Perpective 

Individual in relationship with others; the Golden Rule" 

Stage 4 

Social system and conscience maintenance 

Content 

Doing one's duty; uphold law and contribute to welfare of society. 

"What if everyone did it?" 


Differentiate society from individual agreement; society defined rules 

and roles. 

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LEVEL C: POST CONVENTIONAL AND PRINCIPLED LEVEL 

Stage 5 

Individual rights and social contract or utility 

Content 

Individual rights, values, opinions should be upheld. Basic values 

should be upheld regardless (e.g. life, liberty) 


"Prior to society"; individual rights precede social contract; morality 

and legality may conflict 

Stage 6 

Universal ethical principles 

Content 

Personal commitment to principles of justice 


Rational morality and respect for others 

Kohlberg's paradigm held sway over social scientists with remarkable 

hegemonic duration. In parts of the educational system 

in the United States of America he still holds the status of a 

guru. Yet philosophical, psychological and pedagogical criticisms 

of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning are now legion. I do not 

wish to review them all here. What I do want to note, however, 

is that both psychologists and philosophers interested in morality 

and moral education have come seriously to question the efficacy 

of his model. I am interested here solely in the latter, philosophical, 

critiques. 

In the first instance it is not at all clear why utilitarianism, 

characteristic of stage 5, is to be viewed as less adequate than 

the deontology of stage 6. If justice is a principle against which 

conflicts can be solved is not the principle of utility or the Greatest 

Happiness Principle? Furthermore, central to Stage 6 in the notion 

or impartiality which guides both theoretical positions. What seems 

to guide the notion of justice to the highest echelon (however 

crudely put) is the notion of the autonomy of the moral agent. 

The position can be caricatured in the celebrated phrase of Nagel 

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as "the view from nowhere 3 ".The moral agent, when faced with 

a dilemma, reasons without recourse to situational features. The 

apotheosis of such a view is to be found in the positivistic mindset; 

scientists purportedly proceed via value-neutral observation of 

data. 

In sympathy with this mindset is celebrated thought experiment 

of the moral and political philosopher John Rawls called: "the 

veil of ignorance" 4 . Faced with ethical decisions, agents choose 

acts and policies based on justice considerations only since they 

have no knowledge of their individuating factors (e.g. age, sex, 

race, intelligence, ethnic group, physical abilities) nor of the ends 

of life. Such a position (dubbed the "original position" by Rawls) 

ensures that decisions are impartial, objective, abstracted from 

potential bias. Now Rawls' position is the picture of what might 

be called an ideal spectator view. It is a view characteristic of an 

agent who has achieved Stage 6 of Kohlberg's model or moral 

development. I want to return to this notion of the ideal spectator 

who views moral dilemmas, as it were, from nowhere. But before 

that I want to note two further criticisms. 

It might be argued that the criticisms I wish to mention, none of 

which are by any means original, both spring from a common 

source, namely, the cognitivism that informs Kohlberg's conception 

both of ethics and the moral agent (person). Many feminist ethicists, 

among others, noted that the focus on principled positions regarding 

individual rights and interpersonal obligations seriously 

underdetermines the moral sphere. That is to say, there are other 

notions central to the good life that are neglected by the exclusive 

focus on justice. In particular, writers such as Carol Gilligan 5 in 

psychology. Noddings 6 in philosophy of education and Annete 

Baier 7 , Virginia Held 8 and Amelie Rorty 9 in moral philosophy have 

opened up academic debate to notions such as trust, care and, 

more generally, the notion of non-contractual human relationships. 

By way of a very broad brushstroke, what unites these disparate 

writers is what has been termed "the practice of partiality". 10 

While both utilitarian and deontological theories have demanded 

impartiality in the application of moral rules or principles to guide 

290

ight action, in the last decade or so there has been a growing 

acceptance in academic circles that the notion of partiality towards 

those with whom we have deep and close personal relations is 

gaining some acclaim 11 . In these relationships we are quite naturally 

partial: we are specially attentive and responsive since they are 

the kinds of relationships in and through which we define our 

very identity, its character and integrity and are constituents of 

our leading good lives. 12 

I want to draw from this very sketchy set of remarks a few 

pointers for future research and policy development in sport and 

physical education. Focus on the ethics of right action seriously 

underdetermines the range of ethical considerations of our field 13 . I 

am not in any way whatever commited to the view that ethical 

considerations in sport ought always and everywhere to follow 

biases and favouritism. On the contrary, sports very nature is of 

a rule governed contest wherein competitors strive for mutually 

exclusive victory under conditions of formal equality. But there 

are a whole range of ethical issues in sport and physical education 

that emerge unscathed if we adopt these limited and limiting 

constraints. Without them the scope becomes at once more catholic 

and more interesting; how are we best to characterise 

coach/teacher: performer relations and relationships? What is the 

scope of these relations/relationships in addition to the rights of 

the performer and the obligations of the teacher or coach? when 

the rules of the ethos of sports clash with the formal rules or 

when two teams are playing by a different set of unwritten rules, 

how do children know which to follow? If a proper aim of physical 

education teaching is to maximise the playing time of all his/her 

pupils are they being simply unprincipled by not choosing principles 

of justice in team selection? which conception of justice should 

prevail in such team selection? what does it feel like to lose the 

most important match of your sporting career when your identity 

is inextricably woven into the role of physical education teacher 

or star performer of the team? And this is just the beginning of 

a richer list for the ethics of sport and physical education if we 

move from a restricted vocabulary of Kant-inspired Kohlbergian 

agenda. 

291

But there is another, older, point of contrast to the Kohlbergian 

model of moral development as cognitive development. Its name 

is synonymous with the ethical philosophy one of the greatest 

thinkers of his, and any, age: Aristotle. 

Various writers in the virtue theory have noted Kohlberg's failure 

sufficiently to attend to issues relating to the acquisition of desirable 

behavioural dispositions or, less formally, key notion of character 

training. The issue of whether a Kohlbergian scheme could accommodate 

these notions is not one to merit significant attention. 

At rock bottom, there are deep seated theoretical differences that 

make one inimical to the other. In Kohlberg's Kantian scheme, 

the greatest prominence is given to a picture of moral life that 

is focused upon the notion of morality as universal, rationally 

prescriptive principles for right conduct. In any Aristotelian scheme 

moral notions such as justice, courage and honesty are seen as 

seen as ways of acting, feeling, and thinking in the world in ways 

not reducible to mere principle or cognition. As Carr puts it: 

In other words, one could also say that for the Aristotelian 

moral life is rooted more in principled dispositions than in the 

disposition to be principled and, in its emphasis on the ethical 

primacy of those qualities of character ordinarily termed virtues, 

an Aristotelian ethics can only stand in the starkest opposition 

and contrast to the sort of neo-Kantian perspective which informs 

a theory such as Kohlberg's. (p. 355). 

Having sketched out this rather difficult theoretical terrain I 

will now return to the focus of the discussion: Physical Education. 

ETHICS AND THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF CHARACTER 

DEVELOPMENT IN SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

Within the traditional theory of physical education little empirical 

work has been carried out with regard to character and moral 

development. Recently, however, there has been an notable upsurge 

of interest in areas relating to ethics generally. And so it is that 

the literature has recently seen numerous additions to the social 

scientific literature of sports generally 14 . While some psychologists 

of sport have uncritically adopted a Kohlbergian scheme 15 others 

292

have been more critical. I want here to address myself to portions 

of the final section of what is the pre-eminent work in this field, 

namely, Brenda Bredemeier and David Shields' recent book "Character 

Development and Physical Activity" 16 . In particular I want 

to focus on the broader notion of character development and its 

home in virtue theory. 

While it is not the place to offer sophisticated exegesis of their 

model of psychologically processes entailed in moral action I want 

to give an outline here so that I can later develop a critique of 

the virtue - theoretical position they offer which is counterpart to 

it. But I want first to aplaud their attempt to move on From an 

intellectualistic conception of moral action wherein agents understand 

the good and unproblematically act in accordance with it. 

According to their model of moral action four processes are 

entailed: 

1 Interpreting a situation; 

2 constructing a situation - specific moral ideal; 

3 selecting the moral ideal over competing values; 

4 fulfilling one's intention in action. 

The model is then cashed out in terms of the character of the 

person who enacts these processes. Having acknowledged the 

diversity in usage of the term "character", they stipulate that it 

comprises: "the possession of those personal qualities or virtues 

that facilitate the consistent display of moral action". 17 Accordingly, 

they go on to describe character in terms of four virtues that 

correspond to the four processes of moral action: 

(i) compassion; 

(ii) fairness; 

(iii) sportspersonship; 

(iv) integrity. 

It is interesting that Bredemeier and Shields and Shields appeal 

to the concept of virtue. It appears that they recognise the inherent 

weaknesses in the cognitivist scheme and want not to align themselves 

with Kohlberg's infamous disavowal of the "bag of virtues" 

approach. Yet our admiration at their advances in moral psychology 

aside, it is the case that they have not comprehended the schemes 

293

within which the virtues operate. They have commited, as it were, 

"the ontogenetic fallacy". They have uprooted a concept, and in 

this case, components of a conceptual scheme, from its proper 

home (its genesis) and attempted to place it into an alien scheme 

that has not the kind of conceptual ecology to sustain it. They 

write: 

We appeal to the concept of virtue in much the same way that 

Erikson (1964) did. Erikson distinguished virtues, or what he 

sometimes called "strengths", from ethical or moral ideas. According 

to Erikson, moral ideas, by themselves are "non-vital" or "dispirited". 

Moral ideas need the qualities of character that Erikson 

labeled the virtues, to animate them, give them spirit, root them 

deeply, in personality. Ethical constructs or principles provide 

useful guides to action only as they are infused with the vitality 

of the virtues arising from the core of one's being 18 . 

Despite my admiration for the book as a whole, it is in the 

section where the .authors attempt to apply the model of moral 

action to physical activity contexts that their arguments are least 

convincing. One must note, first, that their clarification and justification 

of a virtue approach by contingent association to the 

work of Erikson offers somewhat slim-pickings. In an attempt to 

overcome the potential weaknesses of a cognitive scheme, they 

want traits of character to animate abstract principles. In this 

vein Bredemeier and Shields go on to say that one needs compassion 

in order to interpret situations as a precursor to moral action. 

But this approach is reductive in a damaging way. If one needs 

compassion to guide one's interpretation why might not one also 

need other virtues or character traits such as generosity, insight, 

salience, acuity, insight, empathy or sympathy. Why look for one 

affective notion when there may be so many at play at any given 

time. Ockham's razor 19 is doing too much work here. While parsimony 

is an important intellectual virtue, one can be too thrifty. 

It is the very nature and role of moral perception, however, 

that is problematic here. This may simply be my prejudice against 

psychological models here. But perception seems only causally 

related to action by way of the chain of segments they propose. 

294

This is moral perception only as precursor to the selection among 

competing value which itself is precursor to executive action. Following 

Blum, I think that this is an attenuated account of action, 

in general, and moral perception in particular: 

So the role of moral perception here in tuning into a morally 

significant feature of the situation is not to help the 

agent select a relèvent rule (or construct an appropriate 

maxim) and then to (test it and apply it).Rather the morally 

charged description of the situation salient for that moral 

agent (...)already contains her reason for action, a reason 

that draws her to offer to help without mediation by 

principle 20 . 

The point Blum is specifically addressing here is the notion 

that moral judgement cannot simply be the bridge between principle 

and action. This is precisely the role that psychologists have tended 

to adopt whether they are of a Kohlbergian persuasion or not. 

The point is reinforced in the shape Bredemeier and Shields give 

to the virtue of compassion. 

There is a sense in which Bredemeier and Shields display the 

need to buttress the notion of "compassion" but this serves only 

to underscore their own latent cognitivist prejudices. Compassion 

s needed they argue, but it must not proceed untutored by justice: 

Compassion engages one fully in a situation, but the virtue 

of fairness is needed to ensure that compassion is not 

overly influenced by our natural affinity with those who are 

similar to us, those whom we particularly like, or those 

simply closer to us. Fairness is the virtue most closely 

connected to the second process of the moral action 

model - constructing a moral action model - constructing a 

moral ideal. 21 

They assert that justice is the primary virtue of all sport. In 

the first instance I am simply not sure what this, should be 

taken, mean. Where I can see one clear application is in the 

language of the sporting institutions. Officials of the Olympic Games 

ought to carry out their offices fairly; neither teams, nor performers 

or coaches ought to receive unfair advantages; members of the 

IOA ought to treat all bids from host cities with fairness as indeed 

they should receive bids from would-be Olympic sports; referees 

295

ought to treat both teams in a football match with fairness. Whether 

it is also true of sports persons and practices is a matter requiring 

much greater attention and sophisticated moral argument. Think 

about the kinds of factors that properly weigh with teachers and 

coaches when selecting teams. Is the fairness always the first 

virtue they turn to? Ought other considerations not come in to 

play? But let me return to the more strictly psychological point. 

First, I want to repeat my strong conviction that Bredemeier and 

Shields are moving in absolutely the right direction. They accede 

the need for harmony within the various passions of the person 

but their specific picture or moral action carries with it too many 

hangovers from eclectic moral pasts... 

What seems the most contrived segment of the model is the 

notion that sportspersonship is the virtue that most closely chimes 

with process III: the selection of moral from competing values. 

In the first instance, it is clear to me that "sportspersonship" is 

no simple virtue but a complex amalgam of a range of virtues. 

It is much more closely aligned to broader notions of personhood 

than the psychological accounts of processes and a processor 

behind them. To be "sporting", the verb or adverb behind the 

would - be virtue, might require one to be empathetic (not to 

inflict damage fairly against a vulnerable opponent), alert to the 

needs of others (to kick the ball out of play when an opponent 

is down and seriously injured), to be tenacious (to give the opponent 

as good as s/he does to make the boxing match a proper contest), 

to be gracious (when one has just lost by a narrow margin), to 

be generous (in one's praise of an opponent's fine exhibition of 

skill) and so forth. The list is indefinitely long. It is not at all 

clear what kind of work the authors are trying to make the concept 

of "sportspersonship" perform here. I have a fancy that the engine 

is either idling or overheating; doing too much or nothing at all. 

The final virtue Bredemeier and Shields offer is that of "integrity". 

They argue that without integrity we fail to act on our intentions. 

This may be true, but not for the reasons they espouse. They 

appear to assign to "integrity" almost magical executive powers. 

It appears to be the fix-it virtue that is designed to overcome the 

296

weakness of will in its many forms. They also assert that it "rests" 

on two other qualities "self - esteem" and "moral self - efficacy" 

but fail to articulate what is meant by those thorny terms, what 

work the word "rest" is performing and also why it is those two 

notions that are basic within the notion of "integrity". 

My feeling again is that there are here many problems that 

require careful dissection in a way that is characteristic of philosophical 

but not psychological analyses. This is something of a 

hollow charge. It is not, of course, the job of psychologists to be 

philosophers. Yet all scientists, social or natural, must first perform 

their conceptual work before their empirical enquiry and to fail 

to do so is to defers difficulties rather than eradicating them. 

A few points must suffice here, where many really are needed. 

In the first instance, courage is the classic executive virtue and 

seems to be doing a lot of the work Bredemeier and Shields want 

done. But then it too is merely a token; there are other executive 

(or if you want to broaden the class: "instrumental") virtues that 

might as easily do the job; tenacity or steadfastness to name just 

two. We should note here that the real vice here, as above, is 

the reductivism or their project. Likewise, and consistent with 

the above criticism (this is by no means unique to Bredemeier 

and Shields 22 ) the notion of integrity is much more complex than 

is first assumed and is not merely an issue of resoluteness in 

the face of adversity. As Solomon notes: 

It is because of (...) internal conflicts and the clash of loyalties 

that the word "integrity" is so important (...). Integrity is not 

so much a virtue itself as it is a complex of virtues, the 

virtues working together to form a coherent character, an 

oo 

identifiable and trustworthy personality. 

What I have tried to do here is to commend the picture that 

Bredemeier and Shields offer of moral action because it is richer 

than the overly - cognitivist one that is inherited from Kohlberg 

via Kant and Piaget. But in adopting an approach analogous to 

the classical virtue-theory, they have failed to pay sufficient attention 

to its philosophical heritage, and their scientifically reductivist 

attitude has not served them well in this respect. Moving 

297

towards a conclusion I want to say just a few words about Physical 

Education and its potential in respect of character development. 

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT IN AND THROUGH PHYSICAL 

EDUCATION; SOME BRIEF REMARKS 

Too often in the nature of morality, in keeping with the value 

of sports and games, academics have resorted to the idea of rule 

- governed behaviour. Of course there are rules and there are 

rules, so to speak. While I do not wish to dwell on this issue 

here 24 a point ought to be made to note, contra Kohlberg that 

rules or principles and character traits are not so clearly to be 

distinguished as he thought. Some virtues act can act as principles. 

To distinguish which can, where and when requires some conceptual 

geography. Peters with admirable and characteristic clarity 

writes: 

In his account of moral development a principled morality is 

contrasted with a morality of character-traits. This is strange 

contrast. Surely, being just or fair are paradigm cases of character 

- traits. They are as much character - traits as being 

honest, which is the virtue with which justice is often contrasted 

in Kohlberg's work. To call something a trait of character is 

simply to suggest that someone has made a rule - for example, 

of honesty or of justice - his own. Whether a rule, which can 

also be regarded as a trait of character if internalised, is a 

principle depends on the function which the rule or consideration, 

which is personalised in the trait, performs. (...) The 

contrast, therefore, between traits of character and principles 

rest on no clear view of how the term "principle" functions. 

In their move away from the dichotomising of principles and 

character traits, I want to stress again, that Bredemeier and Shields 

are heading absolutely in the right direction with their model of 

moral action. And, by way of counter-balancing the enormous 

influence of Kohlberg, this is why we need to focus on character. 

As Rorty puts it: 

In the domain of practice there is no royal road, no purely 

formal characterization of a robust substantive rationality ca- 

298

pable of constructive a well as consistent or universalized 

practical intelligence. (...) determining whether a procedural 

rule is substantively rational and fair already presupposes 

substantive value judgements against which consistency or 

equity is measured. But even more significantly, it requires 

that these valued judgements become realised in the details 

of practice. It is character - the vast range of perceptual, 

categorial, behavioural habits - that carries principled value 

judgements to their realization in practice. 

The full realization of morality requires not only a sound set 

of principles but also a robustly formed character, that is, a 

configuration of the minute dispositions that affect the ways 

in which a person acts. Morality is in the details. 26 

A psychology that issues from Kant's purely formal moral system 

or one that reduces motives to the Greatest happiness Principle 

is likely to treat moral agents as ghosts. A more robust consideration 

of the types of persons we want, and those that we think especially 

we can help to develop in and through Physical Education is 

required. 

Of course the characterisation of virtues and character - traits 

re various 27 . What we need to focus our attention toward, and hat 

is probably the wisdom of the ages for most sports coaches, is 

hose aspects of character required by and reproduced in forms of 

porting practices and how best to achieve them within an 

educational framework. 

Elsewhere, I will have to elaborate upon the kinds of character 

traits which sport paradoxically requires and produces with proper 

educational guidance. A proper list would of course have to separate 

those characteristics which might develop inherently within the 

activities (ceteris paribus) from those which they could be made 

the vehicle. The former list would include such valued human 

characteristics as co-operativeness, courage, determination, honesty, 

loyalty, mdesty, truthfulness. In addition to these, and doubtless 

more, the activities characteristic of Physical Education might 

profitably be used to foster virtues such as altruism, conscientiousness, 

dependability, gracefulness and trustworthiness. And 

299

eyond the list of virtues there are doubtless a further range of 

attitudes and characteristics such as independence, respect for 

authority, punctuality and other features of a person that could 

be developed in appropriate patterns and measures. 

The key point in all of this, of course, is the clause which 

underwrites such notions as "the proper use of sports and games" 

or "educationally orientated games and practices' or "balanced 

programme of sports and physical activities". There are many 

characteristics of persons that sports and games could develop, 

some of which we would praise and some of which we would 

abhor. Pretty much everything depends upon how the activity is 

presented to young children through to their adolescence and 

adulthood. 28 

One of the underlying assumptions of all stage-related theorising 

seems to me undeniably right. Moral development and moral education 

cannot but be developmental. What is an appropriate model 

for infants is unlikely to be efficacious with young children or 

teenagers. To think this would be to fly in the face of all psychological 

research. But accepting such need not drive us to the kind of 

stage theory beloved of Kohlbergians. Much more felicitous is 

Richard Peters philosophical remarks on the appropriateness of 

social scientific projects in this area. 29 One thing seems certain 

to me. Without a proper discourse on the nature of ethical theory 

and of human agents our psychological efforts are likely, at best 

to be ill-directed. Peters brings out this point with clarity while 

reminding us of on of the explicit failings of the Kohlbergian 

conception of ethics and of agents. 

But allow me, at the point of boorish repetition to pusch the 

central points again; over emphasis on cognition, and the other-side 

ofthat distorted coin, under - emphasis on a proper characterisation 

of feeling is incompatible with the moral maturing of human agents. 

Constructing a moral theory that is not in principle a mode of 

life that humans may lead is not helpful however scientific it 

appears. Moral theory, whatever it is, cannot be a theory of that 

sort. And concomitantly, a better theory will have to pay considerably 

greater attention to those features of character we call 

300

virtues whose development is properly related to folk-psychological 

ones of emulation, habituation, imagination, imitation; of the power 

of example. 

Thus Peters: 

Does not the encouragement and example of adults and older 

children play any part in their development? Without them 

a child's understanding of justice would be very external. He 

might know what justice is, but might not care about it overmuch. 

To apply the principle seriously, the child has to develop 

not only an abhorrence for the arbitrary, but also a more 

positive concern for considerations that determine relevance. 

How do children come to care? This seems to me to be the 

most important question in moral education; but no clear 

answer can be found in Kohlberg's writings. 30 

The notion of coming to care, coming to have a rang of what 

Peters calls rational passions but which the lay person might call 

a proper set of attitudes, dispositions and values (perhaps even 

less formally a "good character") it strikes me is the age-old wisdom 

of the moral value of sports and games. Did we not know this 

in advance of all our academic psychological explanations and 

enquiries. Has the accumulated wisdom of the ages not shaped, 

refined nor refined these exhortations and expectations of sport. 

On a more anecdotal note we find the notions of habit, practice 

and tradition being undermined at sports highest level. In a notorious 

Nike advertisement the renowned basketball player Charles 

Barklay "I am not a role model... I am not paid to be a role 

model... Parents should be role models" But he is partly wrong 

and partly right. Parents are indeed important as role models 

perhaps the most important of role models. Yet for icons of world 

- wide sports, role - modelling is not like fashion modelling on 

the cat - walk. The Victorian's moralising of sport means that 

role - modelling is an apparent clothing (not just a uniform) that 

Barklay wears each time he takes to the court. It is not a question 

of whether he wants to be a role model. The educational traditions 

of sports and games renders his choice redundant. It is not a 

question of whether he will or will not, but of his relative success 

301

and failure in exemplifying all the best in sports and in humanity. 

This is precisely why we must focus our efforts upon sports and 

games as educational experiences shaped always with moral ends 

in view. 

In conclusion I wish to go against my explicit guidance (doubtless 

yours too) to all undergraduates to the effect that they should 

summarise their own thoughts in conclusion and not introduce 

someone else's. Yet the points made by Pincoffs on the moral 

educational task capture pretty well all that I want to say regarding 

our present them and are considerably more felicitous than I 

could hope for: 

Moral education is at once the most complex and the simplest, 

the most frustrating and the most rewarding, the most challenging 

and the easiest task of the teacher. It is complex 

because of the number of conceptions (and misconceptions) 

of its purpose and because of the number of means to achieve 

"the" purpose that are in the field; it is simples because there 

are straightforward and obvious things that the teacher can 

do to aid moral development. It is frustrating because the 

teacher is not, even in his own school, the only, or necessarily 

the most important, influence on the child's development of 

character; it is rewarding because nothing can seem more 

important than the revelation of admirable qualities in a child 

that are teacher inspired. It is challenging because the task 

is obviously centrally important and endlessly difficult; it is 

easy because the most effective procedure is to serve as a 

model of the sort of person the teacher would hope that the 

child should become. 

References 

1. Piaget, J. (1932) The Moral Judgement of the Child, p.l. 

2. It should be noted, however, that neither stage theory nor the idea of moral 

development will be Kohlbergian nor, less specifically, cognitive. For a staged 

•account of moral development, sympathetic with the broadly Aristotelian po 

sition set out later, see Tobin, B. (1989) "An Aristotelian Account of Moral 

Education", Journal of Philosophy of Education, 23. 

3. Nagel, T. (1986) The View From Nowhere, Cambridge; Cambridge University 

Press. 

302

4. Rawls, J. (1972) A Theory of Justice, Oxford; Oxford University Press. 

5. Gilligan, C. (1982) In a Different Voice; Psychological Theory and Women's 

Development, Cambridge; Harvard University Press. 

6. Noddings, N. (1984) Caring; A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education, 

Berkeley; University of California Press. 

7. Baier, A. (1994) Moral Prejudices, Cambridge; Harvard University Press. 

8. Held, V. (1993) Feminist Morality; Transforming Culture, Society and Politics, 

London; University of Chicago Press 

9. Forty, A. (1988) Mind in Action, Boston; Beacon Press. 

10. By "disparate" I am referring to the fact that these writers work in different 

academic disciplines. It is clear that they all share feminist sympathies. Yet 

there are other authors who share a concern for partiality as a prominent 

ethical notion worthy of attention. See, for example, Blum, L.A. (1980) Friendship, 

Altruism and Morality, London; Routledge and Kegan Paul; Blum, L.A. (1994) 

Moral Perception and Particularity, Cambridge; Cambridge University Press. 

11. In a note of sweet irony, Friendman remarks "Ordinary people, fortunately, 

have held this view for quite some time." Friedman, M. (1993) What are 

Friends For? Feminist Perspectives on Personal Relationships and Moral Theory, 

London; Cornell University Press, p. 35. 

12. Bernard Williams refers to these relationships, and other commitments as 

"ground projects". See his essay "Persons Character and Morality" in his col 

lection Moral Luck, Cambridge; Cambridge University Press. 

13. Even when they are as excellent in their construction as Warren Fraleigh's 

(1984) Right Actions in Sport; ethics for contestants, Champaing; Illinois, Human 

Kinetics. 

14. For a review of three of the most recent books in the literature see McNamee, 

M.J. (1996) "Ethics. Sport and Education; state of the art and science "Sport, 

Education and Society, 1,3. 

15. See for example Lumpkin, A. Beller, K and Stoll, S (1994) Sport Ethics; Ap 

plications for "Ethics, Spori Fair Play, California; Mosby. For a devastating 

critique of which see Gough, R. in McNamee, M. J. and Parry, S.J. (eds.) 

(1997) Ethics and Spori, London; Chapman and Hall. 

16.Bredemeier, B.J. and Shields, D.L. (1994) Character Development and Physical 

Activity, Leeds; Human Kinetics. 

17. Op. cit. pp. 192-3. 

18. Op. cit. p. 193 

19.Ockham's Razor is a working philosophical principle attributed to William of 

Ockham; "entities ought not to be multiplied beyond necessity". 

20. Blum. L. (1994) Moral Perception and Particularity, Cambridge; Cambridge 

University Press, p. 43. In support of this point, though using an aural metaphor, 

Pieper notes: "Goethe has written: "In our doing and acting" everything depends 

in this: that we perceive objects clearly and treat them according to their 

nature". (...) What is demanded from us is exactly this: to bring our interest 

to that kind of silence which for its part is simply a pre-requisite for hearing". 

Peiper, J. (1974) "The Timelessness and the Timeliness of the Cardinal Virtues" 

paper presented to the conference Lasting Values and Modem Man, Netherhall 

House, London, 24.11.1974, pp. 14-15. 

303

21. Op. cit. p. 193. To be fair they go on to say that the two notions need to 

work harmoniously thus eschewing the traditional cognitivist move of characterising 

feelings as blind and in need of the tutelage of reason. Their own 

ambivalenée, is expressed by the point that the two need to be harmonised 

as much as is possible. Yet having asserted that justice is the first virtue of 

sport they also assert that "To completely sacrifice one for the other exhibits 

a lack of character". The ambivalence is important but I cannot explore its 

ramifications further here. 

22.Precisely the same manoeuvre is to be found in Drowatzky, J.N. (1996) Ethical 

Decision Making in Physical Activity Research, Champaing, III; Human Kinetics 

and Lumpkin, et al op. cit. 

23.Op.cit. p. 165. 

24. Though I have commented on rule - based theories and then application 

elsewhere. See McNamee, M.J. (1997) "Virtues and Rules in the Ethical Conduct 

of Sports Coaches; celebrating trust" in McNamee, M. J. and Parry, S.J. (eds.) 

op cit. 

25. Peters, R.S. (1981) Moral Development and Moral Education, London; Unwin, 

p. 93. 

26.Rorty, A.O. (1993) "What It Takes To Be Good" in Noam, G. and Wren, T. 

(eds). The Moral Self Massachusetts; MIT Press, p. 36, emphasis added. 

27. See for example, Peters, R.S. (1981) "Moral Development; a plea for pluralism"in 

Moral Development and Moral Education op. cit., Pincoffs, E. (1986) Quandaries 

and Virtues; against reductivism in ethics, Lawrence; University of Kansas 

Press and Rorty, A.O. (1992) "The Advantages of Moral Diversity", Social Phi 

losophy and Policy, 9, 2, pp. 38-62. Of course, as Rorty notes, the idea of 

differential virtue or character requirements, has rather older roots: Those 

who are careful, fair and conservative - those of a moderate temperament - 

are not keen; they lack a certain sort of quick, active, boldness. The courageous 

on the other hand are far less just and cautious, but they are excellent at 

getting things done. A community can never function well (...) unless both 

are present and active (...) woven together by the ruler. Plato, The Statesman, 

311 B.C., in Rorty op. cit. p. 38. 

28. The logic of the argument alluded to here is brought out with clarity by Carr, 

D. (1997) "What Moral Educational Significance and Physical Education; a 

question in need of disambiguation" in McNamee, M. J. and Parry, S.J. (1997) 

op. cit. 

29. Ibid. 

30. Op. cit. p. 110. 

31. Pincoffs op. cit. p. 150. 

304

SPORTS MANAGEMENT STRESSING THE VALUES 

by Dr. Marc MAES (BEL) 

As times goes on the sports world is increasingly rocked by 

conflicts of an essentially ethical nature, far beyond the normal 

confines of the law. 

It seems too that these ethical problems are now a regular 

feature of the business world. And that the worlds of politics, 

culture and economics are no more able to break the mould. 

The sports world is increasingly dogged by a number of ethicaly 

sensitive social issues, making the need for untainted, consistent 

and incorruptible sports managers more urgent than ever before. 

Sport, itself a breeding ground for values, can no longer tolerate 

management that makes a mockery of our most fundamental 

standards. 

Certain deceptive factors, already ingrained within our society, 

such as star status, drugs, the violence in and around sport, 

exaggerated chauvinism and nationalism, over-commercialisation, 

financial gain, corruption and fraud, cheap media exposure, discrimination, 

and the need for achievement within sport itself,... 

are chipping away at even the most basic values, such as honesty, 

tolerance, and respect for others... The need for results at the 

managerial level tramples more and more of these values underfoot. 

As self-interest gathers momentum, it takes its toll on sports the 

very general sense, and on the unsuspecting spotsman in particular. 

Very often the ends are a blessing of the means. 

Here and there a cautious revival is underay. Answers are 

being sought in a variety of directions. 

The family, as a generator of values, has been neglected over 

the decades. People are trying to restore it to its former glory - 

as the most immediate guardian of our values. 

The more the values are seen to slide from sport and sports 

305

management, the more the common man will have his doubts 

about sport. 

The broad base of sports fans has already begun to doubt its 

sporting heroes. Their staggering salaries are accepted only grudgingly, 

and though we still tolerate the whims and fancies of our 

spots stars, the authenticity of sporting achievements and sports 

organisations must always be preserved. Were these values ever 

to be shattered, the sports fans would turn their backs. 

Any sports manager who is aware of the mechanisms of the 

sports market, and wants to continue as an honest business 

manager, will know that this could mean the end of sports, since 

it is the fans who fuel the whole of the sports economy. Should 

sport become valueless, or worthless in other words, i t could 

spell the nd of what might have been the greatest movement ever. 

This is particularly alarming since it is diametrically opposed 

to the fundamental values we normally associate with sports, and 

on which the modern Olympic Movement is based. 

Management and ethics 

Since management is based on human action whereby techniques 

and strategies are used which have been designed by 

people, it is encompassed by a legal and ethical framework. With 

each management act this framework should be taken into consideration, 

the ethical aspect being much more comprehensive 

than the legal one, of course. The latter is exclusively based on 

rules and laws which are very narrowly circumscribed and are 

constantly subject to strong evolution, on the one hand under 

the influence of the empirically established development progressing 

within that legal framework, on the other hand due to changes 

or new provisions that are geared to the future evolution of the 

socio-economic order. The ethical prevails over the legal to the 

extent that it is not merely based on fixed laws and explicit provisions, 

but also on implicit agreements, on empathy within the 

social context, orientational principles and generally accepted 

standards and values. 

306 

Contrary to animals, man is not purely bound by instinct when

performing actions, which consequently presupposes a certain 

orientation or criteria. Very often it is possible to perceive an 

orientation deficiency or an orientation need in man's behaviour. 

Plato already discussed the fact than man has a natural need 

for orientation, for building up conventions and standards of value. 

Considering that man is not constricted by a rigid and inescapable 

determination, he can distinguish himself from the other living 

creatures through freedom, consideration, intelligence and understanding. 

The acting human being, including the manager, is capable of 

searching for and finding himself and the orientation for his own 

acts in the world surrounding him within every cultural act. Thus 

he can bring about his positive self - realisation. Ethics can be 

understood as a reflection on man's behavioural orientation, considering 

that the norm for his acts needs to be found as a standard 

of exchange between himself and the environment. Therefore it 

is overriding importance that he should find such a norm or that 

he should be attributed one, as man is a creature who has alternative 

options. He has to rely on the orientation of his actions. 

Ethics actually means fence, enclosure, domicile or residence 

and has to do with existing habits and customs within which 

man is born and which surround him as a demarcation of borderlines 

not to be crossed. The orientation which managers have 

appropriated is put under pressure increasingly and is threatened 

ever more by the harmful excrescences of our fast-evolving, socalled 

civilised society. Money and power in many cases devalue 

the behavioural profile of executives. Personal honour and selfrespect 

often come off worst. Management is roughly similar to 

war and can therefore become subject to the same extremely 

negative degradation. The game of sports, however, has also developed 

to waging war, while it is the (war) booty which has 

become the target rather than the sport itself. It stands to reason 

that this involves a completely different concept and different 

strategies. When the booty (the money) becomes the main pursuit, 

the temptation to reach the targeted end by less honourable means 

grows stronger. Managers put up money as a reward for a victory, 

307

which appears to pass muster, up until the moment when certain 

managers also start promising money to bring about a defeat, 

and that gives rise to an ethical revival. However, for the actors 

in this play the distinction has turned fuzzy and blurred when 

making money has become the principal objective. It is obvious 

that in the latter case the most fundamental values of sports are 

violated. 

Since sports are increasingly threatened by factors such as 

the star cult, doping, violence on and off the pitch, exaggerated 

nationalism and chauvinism, excessive commercialisation, lucre, 

corruption and fraud, cheap médiatisation, discrimination and 

the evolution of achievement within the sports themselves, it is 

quite clear that the manager who must help run the sport business 

has to dispose of a sound ethical profile in order to cope with 

these threats. 

Factors threatening sport 

On the one hand, sport proves to gain increasing importance 

as a leisure time vehicle, as a remedy, as a training component, 

etc. Yet we find that this is definitely not converted into increased 

support on the part of the State; in addition, the media pay 

attention especially to the negative excrescences of sports. The 

media appear to create a lot of scope particularly to exaggerate 

anything that goes wrong in sports events. Frank Taylor (President 

of the International Sportpress Association) rightly states "too often 

the bad news of sports gets bigger headlines than the good news". 

We know that we are experiencing a cultural development which 

we deserve - or is it a cultural degeneration which we deserve. 

Sport being one of the various items of cultural value which come 

under the authority of the Minister for Culture cannot escape 

that fact. Culture, which reflects the society in which it comes 

into being, in most forms of expression clearly indicates what is 

cherished in that society and in particular what the situation is 

of the social and individual sense of values. If we accept sport 

as a form of expression of the social cultural process, as a kind 

of mirror of society, we can indeed establish that sport, because 

308

of its simple universality, functions as a kind of convex mirror, 

which especially shows an intensified reflection of pernicious social 

excrescences. '· 

Taking the foregoing into consideration, one can argue that 

factors threatening sport are not specific to sport but are social 

phenomena which are blown up via sport. Let us have a closer 

look at some of them. 

Star cult 

Star cults have always existed in the most widely varying forms 

of human activity, both in politics, in business and the universities, 

in the art world, in religion, the media, etc. It is quite normal 

for us to respect other people's abilities, the virtuosity and sublime 

realisation of talent, "I' Excellence" of which de Coubertin liked 

to speak. Of course it is wrong to idolise persons for what they 

are, either for their titles or social position. It is essential to show 

respect for the way in which people flesh out this status. In this 

sense a first awakening can gradually be perceived in the business 

world, in universities and politics. 

The development of talent is a very broad concept. People used 

to applaud, for instance when a pilot landed his plane safely. 

One could also applaud the housewife happily busy preparing 

her little ones for a far from simple future or for the tramdriver 

who takes thousands of people to their destination safely every 

day. The development of talent which lacks an ethical dimension 

has no value. Today, talent represents our most valuable human 

asset. A masterly football trainer who crushes an almost invincible 

opponent thanks to a well-considered strategy and stesses this 

victory before a TV reporter by showing the well-known finger 

and elbow gesture is completely worthless. However, the television 

producer who makes and broadcasts these pictures is also worthless, 

literally and figuratively. 

Here, too, the sport manager has an important task. The sport 

manager is co-responsible for the conduct of his sporting actors. 

309

The doping issue 

The press reports that tens of thousands of youngsters use 

steroids simply to look better. Tens of thousands more use caféine 

to improve their performance, hundreds of thousands take stimulants 

and painkillers. 

In the sports world dope tests were already begun twenty-five 

years ago. Even outside matches, during practices, dope tests 

are carried out, and in various branches of sport, such as golf 

and shooting. In these branches it is especially tranquillisers that 

are used, like beta-blockers, agents that are also used by managers, 

parliamentarians, musicians and others, but there are no tests 

for these professions just yet. This is another field where the 

sport manager can play an essential role, for if there are any 

lapses in this respect, the whole management structure will collapse, 

which will result in irreparable loss of face and devaluation 

of sport. 

Excessive commercialisation 

There is quite a large number of matches or sports events in 

which it has become almost impossible to distinguish the players 

among all kinds of publicity in and round the sports field, on 

shirts, shorts, shoes, socks, seats, boarding and other publicity 

carriers. Only the Olympic stadiums and Wimbledon have so far 

managed to remain free from any form of publicity, although 

there was publicity in the stadium during the Olympic Games of 

Paris in 1924 - the first and let us hope the last time. Sponsoring 

is a phenomenon of all times. Even at the time of the Games in 

Greek Antiquity, athletes were supported and protected by wealthy 

benefactors, or by the village or the city where they lived. When 

the first Olympic Games of the Modern Age were organised, private 

donations constituted two thirds of the income. Without benefactor 

George Averoff, who paid for the alteration of the Olympic stadium 

in Athens among other things, this first event would not have 

been possible at all. In fact, these private donations were a form 

of patronage. The adage prevailing almost exclusively today is: 

"scratch my back and ΙΊ1 scratch yours" - "donnant - donnant", 

"win-win actions" etc... which means: sponsoring. 

310

Companies are still willing to invest, but they want something 

in return. This may be the increase of brand awareness or the 

promotion of image building. To associate oneself with sport and 

all the values it advocates, such as: winning, freshness, speed, 

force, endurance, etc. Unfortunately there are a lot of factors 

threatening sports, such as violence, hooliganism, doping - companies 

are not particularly keen on being associated with those. 

Hence the exceptional importance to the sport manager of keeping 

his sport clean and impeccable. On the other hand, he must be 

able to shield his sport from such desires or demands of his 

sponsor as could jeopardise or harm his sport and the integrity 

of the sportsman. The overload of the sports calendar is just an 

example. Athletes in many branches of sport complain about programmes 

that are too crowded or too heavy. The sport manager 

must dare to give priority to the physical and mental well-being 

of his athletes and his sport and must thus dare to decline even 

the most attractive of offers. It is particularly young sportspeople 

who must be protected by the sport manager from the grabbing 

arms of the economy. As stated before, the sporting careers of 

too many young sports stars are ended prematurely because they 

cannot cope with the early glory and the overwhelming interest 

from the masses and the media, but also because they cannot 

physically and mentally satisfy the demands made upon them. 

In order to check the influence of sponsors properly, it is advisable 

to limit their number. A brief analysis of the sponsoring for the 

different Olympic Summer Games may clarify this. Since the Olympics 

of Los Angeles (1932) the number of sponsors increased 

considerably, reaching a maximum of as many as 628 sponsors 

in Montreal (1976). Today, Montreal is still trying to recover from 

the financial hangover after the Games. Los Angeles (1984) became 

a turning point in Olympic funding. The strongly limited number 

of sponsors, suppliers and licensees as well as the agreements 

were circumscribed narrowly. As of Seoul (1988) and Calgary the 

TOP (The Olympic Programme) was started up. For the Olympiad 

1985-1988 the agency I.S.L. acquired the support of nine multinationals 

for a total amount of 95 million dollars. The Olympic 

311

marketing strategy acquires a global dimension. For Lillehammer 

and Atlanta, Top III will acquire approximately 300 million dollars. 

Coca-cola, whose annual turnover for 1995 is estimated at 15 

billion dollars (profit: $ 2.5 billion) coughed up ah amount of $44 

million for Atlanta. 

Since no publicity action whatsoever is allowed in the stadiums, 

the oldest sponsor of the Games (since 1928) delivers another 

67 million dollars for publicity spots and approximately 100 million 

dollars for world - wide actions to advertise its Olympic sponsoring. 

It is clear that such astronomical sums oblige the marketeers 

devise all kinds of cunning systems and strategies to generate 

bigger returns, which is sometimes at the expense of the sport 

and the sportspeople. A comprehensive and flawless contract 

drafted by the sport manager can prevent a lot of mischief. Apart 

from the purely commercial agreements, a code of conduct for 

the sponsor must be included in the exclusivity contract. Some 

products are incompatible with the healthy practice of sports to 

such an extent that they had better be kept out. 

Several branches of sport are still identified too often with 

alcoholic drinks and cigarette brands. Half of the cover of the 

programme of the Olympic Games of Antwerp (1920) was occupied 

by an ad for cigarettes. "Olympias" became the official cigarette 

of the Games of Tokyo (1964) and raised more than 1 million 

dollars. Fortunately, tobacco firms were later kept out of the sponsoring 

programme. However, there is nothing new here. The introduction 

of boxes or business seats in modern stadiums, which 

emphasises the difference between the classes and segregation, 

cannot be called new. Hundreds of years ago loges were found 

in churches, where the brass attended religious ceremonies, and 

there were business seats, too. These were heavily upholstered 

chairs provided with gilded nameplates and purchased by the 

wealthiest people of the village or the parish. Nor is merchandising 

a novel phenomenon. Just think of the sale of medals, candles, 

scapulars, relics, devotional pictures and even pardons. Today 

these have been replaced by pins, T-shirts, stickers, successful 

keyrings,... 

312

Médiatisation 

That television in particular has a great impact on commercial 

events centred around the Olympic Games is evident from the 

astronomical amounts that are counted out to acquire television 

rights. For the Games of Nagano and Sydney (2000) an amount 

of more than 1.2 billion dollars is mentioned. It is obvious that 

those who pay such amounts want to achieve the highest possible 

ratings and the greatest possible show value. In itself, it is positive 

that sport and television are functioning more and more as inseparable 

partners, provided sports can preserve their own character 

and provided there is no adaptive swerve which puts the 

integrity and the health of sportspeople at risk. 

It must be possible for certain sport organisations to change 

their rules in order to make their sport more telegenic, at least 

if this process of change is exclusively led within the spot organisation 

and does not harm the image of the play or the sportspeople. 

That the time when a match must be played is sometimes fixed 

with a view to the ratings rather than to conditions being favourable 

for the athletes is quite reprehensible. Some matches for the 

World Cup in Orlando had to be played just after noon, at temperatures 

between 35° and 40°C and when humidity was extremely 

high. Organising an Olympic marathon under such circumstances 

would simply be murder. 

Sport and violence 

This is a particularly unfortunate phenomenon, which we think 

is neither typical of sport nor new. Surely there is nothing wimpish 

about wrestling and fistfights to the death at the time of the 

ancient Greeks, or the regular casualties at an Anglo-Saxon footbal 

game which was played in the late Middle Ages by teams of hundreds 

of people on a pitch of a few square kilometres. Today an unfortunate 

tackle in the heat of the game is repeated several times by television 

- makers, from all possible angles and preferably in slow motion. 

As far as I know, acts of violence, particularly moral ones s perpetrated 

in other parts of society are not televised to that extent, 

313

especially not from all possible angles and certainly not in slow 

motion. The aggressiveness in competitive sports cannnot meet 

with our approval at all. Some journalists explain away misconduct 

and violent play, saying that players are under stress and that 

there is a lot of money involved. Bernard Destreman, Chairman 

of the Racing - Club de France, states: "For the very reason that 

they are professional athletes, who are well-paid and rich, they 

should behave better than anyone else." Better conduct definitely 

not only concerns losing situations, but winning ones as well. 

The incredibly provocative behaviour of players and trainers when 

a goal is scored often causes the supporters to go out of their 

minds. 

Excessive lucre 

Some top-class sportspeople make loads of money. That is 

another item to which the media like to pay more attention than 

to the millions gained in other sectors of culture. There does not 

appear to be any need for film, music, the theatre world and 

such to publish a top thirty of the best-paid actors among them. 

Some top-class sportspeople oppose this extravagant profit, others, 

over whose backs the media and the organisers trade billions, 

want their share of the cake. That, too, is as old as the hills. 

Even in 590 B.C. the law obliged Solon to pay out a huge amount 

(500 drachmas) to the victors of the Olympic Games (which is 

almost equal to a workman's annual wages). The excessive lucre 

has, among other things, led to the downfall of the Classic Games. 

This should give today's sport managers food for thought. 

The foregoing elements indicate that mediatised sport in particular 

turns out to be the carrier of various social evils. These 

evils are not specific to sport, but they do jeopardise sport. This 

social shortcoming, which has been illustrated through sports in 

this contribution, has a great deal to do with some kind of incompatibility 

there is said to be between human freedom and 

responsibility. All of this goes to show that direct interference of 

the business world with the sports world must be avoided as 

much as possible. That becomes very difficult, however, when we 

314

see how the decisions in a large number of sporting clubs, as 

far as the management is concerned, are made by the businesses 

themselves. 

The results of this can be sufficiently witnessed through the 

coverage of the downfall of sporting clubs, bicycle racing teams 

and such, due to the collapse of financial constructions. 

The sport manager as an ethical beacon 

He does not have to be more Catholic than the Pope, but as 

a representative and even signboard of the sport and all the values 

which advocate this concept, the sport manager must certainly 

adhere to ethical limits in his actions. His policy must be characterised 

by a passionate internal leadership. Above we have already 

alluded to some of the social factors threatening sport which he 

has to cope with. In addition, the sport manager functions not 

only as a beacon, as an example for the employees collaborating 

with him, but also for all sportspeople, trainers, club managers 

and other well-meaning persons included in his organisation. 

He must develop a long-term vision and strive for a multidisciplinary 

approach within the several teams which have to substantiate 

the picture. Thereby he must act as a super facilitator, 

an initiator of change, a taker of calculated risks. He needs to 

dispose of a whole range of personality traits such as: quality 

awareness, flexibility, openness, creativity, motivation, sense of 

synthesis and analysis, social skills such as stimulating people 

to co-operate, dynamise (and not dynamite) his associates, great 

power of persuasion and a charismatic touch as well as problem 

- solving capacities. The leader must turn into a coach, must 

foster favourable conditions; his actions must primarily show his 

commitment. He knows that excellent achievements follow especially 

from an excellent way of dealing with people. In the selection 

of managers, people sometimes use the 5-factor model of MCrae 

& Costa. Upon further inspection, nearly all factors relate to affective 

and dynamic properties rather than to expertise and know-how, 

namely: extroversion, kindness, conscientiousness, vulnerability 

(emotional stability) and openness/intellect. The future changes 

315

and clearly requires other basic managerial skills. Global efficacy 

has become more important than traditional productivity. In the 

last one hundred years, sport has evolved from a social practice 

into an economic activity. This is translated into: de la gestion 

pratique sportive à la pratique de la gestion du sport. 

The manager and the stress policy - an ethical dimension 

Management and stress 

It is generally accepted that managers have to be able to deal 

with stress without letting their health and power of achievement 

suffer. There are several known means and methods for dealing 

with stress. The problem does not become ethical until stress is 

consciously delegated to one's inferiors. Managers sometimes say 

to each other: "You must be able to delegate everything, even 

your heart attack" - speaking of ethics! One delegates stress by 

withholding information, by failing to award people or pat them 

on the back (enforcement). Everybody, not only children, like to 

experience success sometimes. By continuously putting employees 

under pressure, such as pressure of time. By making other peole 

pay for the mistakes one has made oneself. By taking an unstable 

mood out on them. By making false promises, for instance by 

promising promotion or employment and failing to keep such 

promises. By constantly changing instructions ("order, counterorder 

...disorder!"). 

Distrust does not only generate stress and reduce output, but 

in many cases it is even humiliating. Not all employees have the 

same frustration or stress treshold. Getting rid of the employees 

who are the most susceptible to stress means shifting the problem 

to a higher level while at once losing body, insight and empathy 

with these employees. Being aware of pressure is extremely important, 

however, for it usually has a warning function which 

can inform us in time about matters which threaten to go wrong. 

Employees who are susceptible to stress must be regarded as a 

kind of danger detectors. The comparison has been made with 

the canaries which miners used to take along down into the 

mines in order to get a timely warning for mine gas. Not everybody 

316

possesses the quality of empathy in respect of the ergonomical 

and mental comfort of employees. Nevertheless this is an essential 

personality factor which can bring about unity in a team and 

can make people's work lighter. Intellectual qualities alone usually 

produce good solo performers. A good conductor needs to have 

more strings to his bow. 

A good manager can "liberate" the thinking of his associates, 

give new impulses and generate creativity. Positive thinking and 

a sense of humour are indispensable tools for good stress management. 

Rest and recovery are important for dealing with stress. 

So in physical activity. There are many sport managers who lose 

it by not going in for sport sufficiently themselves. 

Sport management and drop-out: an ethical problem 

A large number of youngsters quit sport prematurely because 

they do not fit into the system in one way or another. A youth 

sports policy which is founded on early and unadapted competition, 

which does not consider the degree of maturity or the biological 

age, which cannot work in a child - oriented way, which has no 

representation in the management... is the cause of the elimination 

of young people from sport. The Anglo-Saxon literature speaks 

of cut-out. Sport managers who set up projects to conscript youngsters 

for their sport merely with the intention to select the best 

among them as soon as possible and to drop the rest irrevocably 

are making a serious mistake. 

These were just a few examples of the issues that may face 

the sport manager. All in all, the sport manager's task does not 

appear to be that simple. Apart from all the traditional management 

techniques he must be able to cope with all the factors which 

threaten sport, for if sport becomes value-less it can only be 

termed a spectacle unworthy of sport. 

317

OUTLINE 

THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF SPORTS ETHICS 

AND THE PROTECTION OF FAIR PLAY 

by Dimitrios Panagiotopoulos 

Introduction 

1. The nature of the institution of athletic competition 

2. Rules of law and fair play 

2.1 The ethics of Greek competitive sport 

2.2 Athlete and amateur status 

3. The protection of the ethics of athletic competition 

3.1 National legislation 

3.2 Sports Ethics Code 

Conclusion 

INTRODUCTION 

The content of athletic competition as an institution with its 

own special character, is or should be framed by ethics, i.e. that 

distinct feature which shows up in athletic contests. This form 

of applied ethics delineates and defines sports, the athletic and 

competitive activity, as an institution of a special nature within 

the human society. 

Beyond its moral content which commands a particular conduct 

in sports and competition Ethics, this framework of the 

athletic institution, is made up from legal rules, abidance to 

which guarantees a show of sportsmanship and fair play in athletics. 

1. The nature of the institution of athletic competition 

Physical education and sport are essential to each human being 

for the perfect development of its personality and their free practice 

is recognised as a fundamental human right 1 . This right implies 

318

that sport and physical education should be fully integrated in 

the educational system and all the other aspects of social life, 

as a means for individuals to develop their physical, intellectual 

and moral qualities. 

Securing the right to participate in sport practice is also related 

to the protection of sport as such, which as an institution under 

national legislation as well as of the organised international sport 

movement, is governed by rules which refer to the content of 

ethics and of sports morals. The latter give sport its special character 

as a cultural institution and a means of social education 2 . 

The rules of law contribute to the evolution of sport and physical 

activity into a world of relations with a moral, aesthetic, educational 

and social content 3 . The legal provisions impose the prospect of 

fair competition, of fair and square game, as a form of culture. 

Under these conditions, sport can express and promote, through 

competition, values which have constituted fountains of culture 

for the citizen such as integrity, propriety, purity and fair judgement; 

the same fountains as the Greek classical ones of beauty 

and virtue shaped in the context of the common love of sport. 4 

These values give sport its special character and build a world 

with moral principles, what we call sports ethics, which have to 

be respected during the practice of sport. 

2. Rules of law and fair play 

2.1. The ethics of Greek athletic competition 

The idea of fair and honest contest was born in Greece laying 

the foundations for the development and consolidation of Greek, 

European and world sport . Gymnastics, competition and games 

in classical ancient Greece acquire a symbolic significance, where 

competition and emulation, trial and outcome, are fully integrated 

in the spirit of peace, friendship, co-operation, mutual respect 

and celebration. The nobility of sport and the games do not only 

stem from their morphological elements, but also from their lofty 

spirit. Greek competitive sport has developed as a moral concept 

which rests on values such as "modesty", an awareness of the 

319

law, which would induce a reaction, a resistance against any 

form of infringement, any unfair decision, any impudence, any 

violence which are aspects of "hybris" 6 . Within this moral context 

of Competition, athletes are rewarded with a wild olive branch, 

the kotinos, for their modesty and spirit of fair play which receive 

public recognition 7 . The moral content which is presently attributed 

to the concept of "amateur sport", as it emanates from the Olympic 

Charter, defines the nature of a specific sporting behaviour. Namely, 

it is a standard by which respect of the rules is measured and 

any deviation or derogation from this ideal principle of sport is 

condemned. The meaning of these concepts which constitute sports 

ethics, is expressed in the terms, "amateurism, amateur sport, 

sports fan, love for sport, fair play, as part of the content of the 

general term, Olympism. In the Olympic Charter, these notions 

are conveyed with the expressions, "respect for one another", "mutual 

understanding", "Friendship", "a better and more peaceful 

world", "friendly effort and fair competition" and "equal treatment" 8 . 

2.2. Athlete and amateur status 

Thus, a framework of moral principles and rules is created 

which is binding for all those who wish to take part in sports 

activities. In this sense, 

a) the sportsman enjoys athlete's status, that is he has the 

right to develop his physical skills and achieve optimum perform 

ances 9 . 

b) The other persons who are involved in sports (coaches, refe 

rees, administrators and spectators) enjoy amateur status which 

gives them the right to participate in sports activities thanks to 

the existence of sport either as a factual situation, or as a fabrication 

of law. 

Any deviation or abuse, such as doping, violence, bribery, 

attempts win using any means and commercialisation which has 

become standardised today, are in conflict with the moral principles 

and the institutionalised ethical rules of sport. Such acts are not 

compatible with sport and may lead to a revocation of athlete or 

amateur status and the possibility of participating in sports competitions 

through temporary or lifelong exclusion 10. 

320

Under Greek sports law, to maintain their athlete's status, 

sportsmen should also have amateur status, i.e. show proper 

"sporting conduct", in conformity with the spirit of sport. 

In accordance with sports law, amateur athletes are eligible 

by definition, unless of course their actions are not compatible 

with sports ethics 11 . 

However, the same does not apply to professional or remunerated 

athletes as they do not take part in sports activities, in 

accordance with the spirit and the letter of eligibility provisions, 

i.e. "sincere love for sport" and may be driven by other considerations. 

It is also taken that their interest in sport does not 

arise solely from a wish to promote competition and physical 

activity, since their involvement in sport and competition is primarily 

aimed at material benefits and the improvement of their 

financial situation through sport, whilst supporting competition 

between companies and their fans. 

The nature of professional sport is in direct opposition to the 

spirit of amateurism and its rules 12 . As a result, we have to 

accept that professional athletes acquire athlete status only as 

an exception to the law. 

To acquire amateur status, which means to be able to actively 

become involved in sport, an individual should not derive "any 

economic benefits". Should this be the case, the athlete will lose 

his amateur status. An exception is made for the coaches of 

amateur sports associations, because they work in a professional 

capacity, not for financial benefits, but for the promotion of sport. 

The coach of an amateur association is automatically considered 

as an amateur, because his professional activity is by nature 

aimed at the development, improvement and propagation of sport 

and its ideals. In contrast, the coach of a sports company would 

be granted amateur status only as a legal fiction, since he offers 

his services not for the benefit of sport, but for his own benefit 

and that of his employer 13 . The reason for which the legislator 

has allowed these legally fictitious amateurs is to make it possible 

for them to work in the field of sport which would be impracticable 

otherwise. 

321

3. The protection of the ethics of athletic competition 

3.1. National legislation 

The question that is put and which represents a problem for 

sports law is whether rules for the moral protection of sport and 

competition could be enacted today at national and international 

level, in particular after the emergence of professionalism and 

commercialisation in the domain of competitive sport and the 

parallel appearance of such negative phenomena as doping, violence 

and bribery. The consequence is or should be that the athlete 

who fails to comply with these principles of competitive sport 

should be deprived of the possibility to take part in such activities. 

These athletes should be found guilty of conduct unbecoming, in 

violation of sports and competition ethics 14 . The question is though: 

is there an institutional structure, both at national and international 

level, based on the international principles of sport ethics, 

so that special organs could enforce sanctions in cases of unsparing 

behaviour? 

In order to see abidance to the principles of the Olympic Movement 

and fair play 15 , as defined in the Olympic Charter and the 

relevant international rules, the International Olympic Committee 

(I.O.E) has delegated some of its jurisdictional authority for the 

resolution of such cases 16 . 

On the basis of this IOC delegation of powers the NOCs can 

establish a competent body with jurisdiction to deal with all cases 

having to do with sports conduct and Olympic principles as laid 

down in the Olympic Charter. In certain cases, the NOC may 

also step in as a second instance jurisdiction, whilst there could 

also be a third level of appeal, depending on the applicable law. 

In Greece, within the organisation of the Hellenic Olympic Committee 

there has been constituted an Eligibility Commission, a 

first instance jurisdiction responsible for the protection of the 

ethics and traditions of sport 17 . The EC will examine cases of 

infringement relating to amateur status, the principles of fair play 

and sporting traditions, linked to the sports activity of natural 

or legal persons who wish to be part of the Olympic Movement, 

322

of the Olympic Family 18 . The EC is solely responsible for determining 

whether natural or legal persons have violated the rules and traditions 

of sport, as in the case of bribery, corruption and general 

non-sporting conduct 19 . The penally will be withdrawal of amateur 

status 20 for a minimum of six (6) months or for life 21 . 

This provision is mandatory as to the minimum length of the 

sanction, meaning that the EC cannot impose a sanction of less 

than six months, whilst it is left to the discretion of the Commission 

to impose a longer sanction, even a life-long one, beyond the sixmonth 

limit. 

The scope of its powers gives to the EC the character of a first 

instance sports tribunal whose competence is limited to cases 

involving the non respect of sports ethics and traditions in the 

daily practice of sport 22 . 

The E.C's decisions can be of decisive importance for the 

promotion of sports ethics and fair play in Greece and abroad 23 . 

An appeal can be lodged against the E.C's decisions 24 before 

the Hellenic Olympic Committee, which is the only competent 

body to rule on such appeals 25 , as an appellate tribunal 26 , in 

cases involving the non respect of the rules of fair play and sports 

principles and traditions as defined in law 27 , the rules of the 

Olympic Charter and the EU's code of sports conduct and competition 

ethics. 

The law acts as a shield in cases where fair play and the spirit 

of sport are not respected, i.e. 

a) non-sporting behaviour in general and conduct incompatible 

with sports principles and traditions, 

b) doping, 

c) bribery, 

d) violence and hooliganism in sports venues and during com 

petitions, 

e) any behaviour which is incompatible with fair play and com 

petition ethics, under the threat of losing amateur status (tem 

porarily or for life), the result being that the person concerned 

can no longer be actively involved in sports activity. 

323

3.2 Code of Sports Ethics 

The European Sports Charter and its Code of Sports Ethics 

complete the ethical principles and recommendations contained 

in the European Convention on violence and non-sporting behaviour 

of spectators, in particular during football matches and the 

Oft 

Convention on Doping . 

The Code of Ethics for sport is founded on the fundamental 

principle that its contents are binding for sport as a whole, including 

the administration of sport, recreational sport and competition 

sport. The contents of the Code provide a solid moral framework 

for the struggle against all the negative phenomena of modern 

society which undermine the foundations of sport which are built 

on fair play 29 , the sporting spirit and free individual participation 

in sports activities 30 . 

In conformity with the Code, the responsibility for promoting 

and consolidating the principles of fair play lies with: governments, 

sports associations, physical education institutions, coaching centres, 

medical and pharmacological circles, the mass media, as 

well as any commercial organisations that are connected with 

sport. As regards natural persons parents, teachers, coaches, sports 

officials and administrators, journalists, medical doctors, pharmacists 

and top athletes, all have their own responsibility for the 

promotion of fair play. 

Under the Code, governments have an obligation to encourage 

the adoption of high moral standards and to motivate and support 

individuals and organisations to apply such high moral standards 

in the course of their sports-related activities. 

In the area of physical and general education, governments 

should encourage the integration of sport and fair play as a basic 

element of the curricula and support initiatives which aim at 

their promotion. They should also encourage research projects at 

national and international level to improve existing knowledge on 

complex issues related to the participation of young people in 

sport 31 . 

Sports organisations are responsible for a) establishing a general 

framework of fair play, with clear instructions on sporting conduct, 

324

associated with appropriate sanctions, for their individual sport, 

in conformity with the Code of Ethics. 

They should introduce systems which will reward success in 

the competition but also fair play and ensure that examples of 

proper conduct are promoted by the mass media. 

In cooperation with young people, sports organisations should 

establish rules that meet the requirements with special emphasis 

on fair play rather than competitive success and prevent the exploitation 

of children, especially those who show special skills 32 . 

Individuals should act as role models for children and young 

people and not encourage or reward unfair competition which 

would incur the sanctions that should be imposed in such cases. 

The health, safety and good living conditions of the children 

and young athletes with a strong element of recreation and no 

undue pressure which would violate the children's rights, should 

be important priorities for those who plan sports activities for 

the young 33 . 

The Code of Ethics in this respect may raises for the first time 

the issue of the protection of children and young athletes in sport 

training and competition 34 . 

For the first time, the European Code of Ethics establishes 

the principles of fair play as binding principles for European states, 

aimed at promoting victory during competition in accordance with 

ethical rules and not at any cost or sacrifice 35 . 

Conclusion 

The rules of law provide the essence of sports ethics and define 

the status and eligibility of those who are involved in sport and 

competition. 

The infringement of these legally binding ethical rules which 

govern sport and competition will cast doubts on the athlete and 

amateur status of an individual, which allow him to participate 

in sports activities. 

As a result, it is imperative to adopt rules of law to safeguard 

the spirit of fair play and sports ethics and satisfy the sense of 

justice of the friends of sport by depriving the transgressors of 

325

their right to participate in sport and competition for the length 

of their punishment. 

Such a legislative approach is deemed necessary in order to 

punish deviant behaviour that violates sports and competition 

law, which is aimed at the protection of the contents and ethics 

of sport, competition and fair play. 

Notes 

1. Panagiotopoulos D. (1997). International Code of Sports Law, Ant. Sakkoulas: 

Athens 

2. Naskou-Perraki P, Panagiotopoulos D. (1993). Physical Education and Sport, 

Vol. 8, Ant . Sakkoulas : Athens, pp. 158-179, see also, Council of Europe, 

"7th International Conference" Pandektis:International Sports Law Review 

(I.S.L.R), Vol. I, pp. 333-335. see also Panagiotopoulos D.(1993). Sports Code, 

Ant.Sakkoulas : Athens, pp.306-347. 

3. Greek Constitusion, Art. 1,9 & 28. see also. Panagiotopoulos D.(1990). Theory 

of Sports Law", Ant. Sakkoulas: Athens pp.21-50, Venizelos E.(1993). "Con 

stitution and Sport" In: Proceedings of International Conference: The Institution 

of the Olympic Games, Olympia, 3-7 September 1991, EKEAD, Athens, p. 269 

following. 

4. Panagiotopoulos D. (1990). Sportsman Eligibility, Ant. Sakkoulas: Athens, pp. 

11-15. 

5. "In favour of mutual friendship", Irene, Lysias, Olympikus. XXX III. 2, Plutarch, 

Lycourgos, see also Nisiotis N.(1985) "The contribution of the Olympic Movement 

to Peace", IOA 25th Session,4th-5th July, Anc. Olympia, 1985,p.3. This idea 

prevailed during the ancient games and athletes did not compete for money 

or other material rewards but for virtue (Pausanias, Philostratos). These sacred 

moral rules of the Olympic Games did not apply only to sport but to all 

citizens and cities in their relations to one another, as victors received the 

crown of victory in the name of their father and homeland, see also Kitriniaris 

K. Philostratu Gymnastikos, Athens, p.73., Vernardakis A., "The Stadium and 

Panheuenic Games". These were also the great values on which Greek competitive 

sport was founded and which became sources of education, promoting friend 

ship, Democracy and Peace for a better and happier life. "Olympic victors live 

the happiest life" (Plato Rep. E,H, 465 d). 

6. Panagiotopoulos D. (1991). "Olympia's moral horizon and the victory's wild 

olive branch in law theory". International Journal of Physical Education (UPE), 

pp.29-33, ibid, (1991). The law of the Olympic Games, Ant. Sakkoulas : Athens, 

pp 50-119. 

7. Panagiotopoulos D. (1991). "Olympia's... " op.cit. p.33. Ibid, (1991). "The Olympic 

Games and classical Hellenic law", In: Proceedings of 13th HISPA Congress, 

Olympia, Greece, May 22-28, Hellenic Sports Research: Athens, pp 35-53. 

Panagiotopoulos D. (1991)."The law.......", Ant.Sakkoulas op. cit. Panagiotopou 

los D. (1994). "Sports ethics and fair play from the view point of sports law", 

326

Olympia 24-31 July 1993, In: Sports Law Review, pp.156—162, Panagiotopoulos 

D. (1991). "Olympia's... " Op.cit, Ibid, "The Olympic Games and classical ..... " 

Op.cit, pp.34-44., Id. "The Olympic armistice as a legal institution within the 

framework oí Interstate relations in ancient Greece", In: International Journal 

of Physical Education (UPE), 2/1992, pp. 18-23, see also Panagiotopoulos D. 

The law of the Olympic Games, Op. cit pp.65-192, Id. "Theory of...... Op.cit., 

pp 41-5, Id. Sportsman Eligibility, Op.cit. pp.15-177. see also Despotopoulos 

K.( 1993). "Education and sport in ancient Greece", In: Proceedings of 1st 

Joint Int. Session for educationists and Directors of Higher Institutes of Physical 

Education, Olympia, July 24-31, see also Panagiotopoulos D.(1991). The Olympic 

Games and Op. cit., pp.35-43. Ibid. "Olympia's moral.., Op. cit. pp.29-32. 

Id." The Olympic armistice Op.cit. pp. 18-23. Id. "A scientific approach to the 

Olympic games and the teaching of Olympism in Higher Institutes of Physical 

Education", In: International Joumal of Physical Education (IJPE), 2/1992, pp.33- 

36, Ibid. (1993). "Sports ethics and the amateur spirit from the viewpoint of 

sports law", Report of the 1st Joint Int. Session, Olympia, see Royal Decree 

on Eligibility", 2/9/1955, OJ 27/7.10.1955, vol. A in: (Panagiotopoulos D. 

ed). (1993). "Sports Code", Ant. Sakkoulas : Athens. H. Andrecs (1993), "Fair 

play as a moral concept", Report of 1st Joint Int. Session, Olympia, 12-14 

July. M. Messing (1993), "Honesty and dishonesty: an interpretation of the 

exchange theory", Report of 1st Joint Int. Session, Olympia, July. J. Parry 

(1993). "Fair play in sport and education", Report of 1st Joint Int. Session, 

Olympia, 12-14 July. R. Gessman (1993), "The concept of fair play in Oympic 

education and its application in schools", Report of 1st Joint Int. Session, 

Olympia, 12-14 July. Ming Chung Tsai (1993). "Fair play in the Asian cultural 

tradition and its possible contribution to the Olympic Movement", Report of 

1 st Joint Int. Session, Olympia, 12-14 July. R. Pringarte. (1993). "The International 

Fair Play Committee, its role and operation in the context of Olympic 

education", Report of 1st Joint Int. Session, Olympia, 12-14 July. 

8. see Panagiotopoulos D. (1991) "The law of the Olympic......", Op.cit. Panagio 

topoulos D., Naskou-Perraki P. (1993), Op.cit., p. 16. Panagiotopoulos D. (1993), 

"Sports ethics and fair play from the viewpoint of sports law", Olympia, 12-14 

July, Op.cit.,pp. 156-162, see Kostakos S. (1993), "Disciplinary control of the 

infringement of the ethical principles and rules of sports competition in football", 

In: Proceedings, 1st LASL Congress on Sport Law, EKEAD, Athens, pp.460-465, 

Christodoulatos Ch., "Eligibility Commission and Disciplinary Sports law", 

Op.cit., pp.448-459. 

9. see Greek law 1351/1983 and 1771/1987, sse also Panagiotopoulos D. (1993), 

"Sports Code" Op.cit. pp.603-617. 

10. see R.D.2.9.1955 (OJ 273), 6.10.1955, vol.A, art. 4 of Sports Code, p.337 

and Panagiotopoulos D. (1990), Eligibility, Op.cit., pp.37-42. 

11. see Panagiotopoulos D., Eligibility, (1990), Op.cit., pp. 32-37. see art. 5 R.D. 

26.9.1955 and art. 5 of law 75/75. 

12.R.D.1955/7.10 (JO 27) art.l, par.2 and art. 2 & 3, Sports Code, pp.230-231.. 

The Eligibility Commission has had a lengthy discussion, during one if its 

meetings, on the participation of amateur and professional players in basketball 

teams and concluded that such participation would not be compatible with 

327

existing legal provisions, see HOC Bulletin, no 9, p.30. 

13. see Panagiotopoulos D. (1997), Sports Jurisdiction, Sakkoulas: Athens , as in 

Review of Sports Law III, ADV, 1997. 

14. Eligibility conditions for athletes who have obtained their athlete's card from 

the relevant federation: legalization of the athlete, see. art. 5, par. 1, combined 

with art. 16, par.9. see Decision of Council of State 4914/1988, published in 

periodical PANDEKTIS, 1:1, 1992, p.96. see also decision 3190/1986 of the 

Council of State annulling a decision of the Sports Tribunal which quashed 

a decision of the Central Regulations Committee of the Greek Football Federation 

which had been ratified by the Federation's Management Board and rejected 

an aplication of a football club to issue an amateur athlete's card to a football 

player. The Council of State justified its annulment on the grounds that the 

applicant club was bound to the federation to which it was affiliated by a 

private law relationship and, therefore, the competent courts were the civil 

courts and not the Council of State. In accordance with the legislation (art. 

25 of law 423/76 and decision 22516/5.9.1980 ), the case that was tried by 

the Sports Tribunal is considered as coming under the contractual relation 

and dealing with the execution of contractual terms coming under the juris 

diction of civil courts. see Panagiotopoulos D. (1990), "Issuing of an athlete's 

card for a new sport by a federation governing another sport", STADION, 1:1, 

pp.95-97 and Sports Code, Op.cit., p.63. 

* Formal conditions under the legislation, list of athletes, participation of 

athletes in competitions. 

* Amateur status is interwoven with athlete status which is ascertained on 

the basis of an athlete's actions and behaviour (R.D. 26.9.1955, no 445 N75/75). 

* Remunerated, professional athletes acquire athlete status under the legislation, 

however the criterion for practising sport is the financial benefit, in contrast 

to amateur athletes. The proper term would b "sports performer". 

15. see "Provisions on Fair Play", as formulated by the International Plysical Edu 

cation and Sports Council in cooperation with the IOA under the auspices 

of UNESCO, see Panagiotopoulos D., Naskou-Perraki P., (1993), Op.cit., p. 165. 

16. see Olympic Charter, International Olympic Committee, 1987, art.244 and 

by-law C.16. see Law 3148/1955 "The Hellenic Olympic Committee's aim is 

to promote and disseminate the Olympic Ideal and fair play..." art. 2, Sports 

Code, 1988 ed. p. 152. 

17. "A special Commission will be created within the HOC, called the Eligibility 

Commission (E.C.), whose aim will be to monitor all those who are involved 

in sport, gymnastics or athletic competitions, whether natural or legal persons, 

in Greece and abroad, in respect of their compliance with the ethics and 

traditions of sport. (Law 3148/55, at. 4, par.l). EC, NOC and IOA were retained 

in force as they have by Ministerial Decision No C3 E/F 100/47, OJ 

433/24.6.1982, v B following. See Royal Decree 26.9.1955 OJ 272, Art. 1. 

FIRST INSTANCE COMPETENT BODY: 

The Eligibility Commission is the only competent body (it consists of 

five members designated by the HOC) CASES: Infringements of amateur 

rules a)non-sporting behaviour and conduct incompatible with sports 

principles 

328

and traditions 

b) doping 

c)giving or accepting bribes 

d)violence and hooliganism in sports venues 

e)any conduct incompatible with athlete 

status. 

SANCTION: Deprivation of amateur status (temporarily or for life) 

APPEAL BODY: HOC (when an appeal is made execution of the 

E.C.'s decision is suspended.) 

FINAL APPEAL: Council of State which will only rule on the legality of the 

HOC's action as a legal entity under public law. 

Table: EC, NOC (L3148/1955, DR708/1976, RD 26.9.1955, OJ 273/6.10.1955, 

OJ 274/ 7.10.1955, MD 15732/75). 

In accordance with the opinion of the Supreme Court Prosecutor Fafoutis 

K., (2/1983), the E.C. is not a preliminary investigation authority, it only 

performs informal enquiries in order to achieve its objectives. Persons invited 

to appear as witnesses are not liable under the penal code and are not subject 

to the sanctions for false or incomplete testimony, but may violate art.225, 

par.2 of the Penal Code. In adition, the E.C. is not authorized to audit the 

tax statements of companies or traders. The appeal to the HOC by a person 

sanctioned by the E.C. can only be made on grounds that he was not given 

the possibility to present his case. The Council of State will accept that this 

constitutional requirement has been met, if the person concerned has appealed 

to the HOC which will allow him to defend his case and, as a result, any 

such reason invoked will be deemed inadmissible (CoS 3417 /1978 as well 

as the relevant decisions of the CoS 3148/1987). 

IS.Panagiotopoulos D. (1990), The law of the Olympic ...., Legal framework in 

ancient and modern times, Op.cit., p.333. The Supreme Court of Greece recognised 

in an opinion the E.C's role as defined by the law. 

19. See art. 4 par.l, law 3148/1955, as replaced by art.45 par 6 of law 75/75, 

R.D.26.9.1955 (OJ 273), art. 3 85 4 and Min. Dec. 15752//23.8.1975 (OJ 

913/30.8.1975). 

20. See art.45 par.2 of law 75/75 as added to par.7 of law 3148/1955. 

21. See art. 45 par.6 of law 75/75. 

22. See Leontidis D.(1977), "Scope and objectives of the E.C", Hellenic Olympic 

Committee Buletin, April-June, p.26. 

23. See Tzartzanos A.(1985). "The law governing participation in the Olympic Games, 

in accordance with rule 26 and Greek legislastion", IOA Report, 1st Joint 

Session, Olympia. 

24. See law 3148/55, art.4 par 3, Sports Code, 1988 ed. p. 160. 

25.Ibid with the addition of par. 7 of art. 45 of law 75/75. 

26. Following the appeal before the HOC, the execution of the E.C.'s decision will 

be suspended within one month (Law 75/75, art. 45 par. 7, art. 5 par. 3 of 

law 1070/1980, Sports Code, op. cit., pp. 314-315). 

27. See art. 20 par. 2 of the Const, and Council of State 2033-34/1977 which 

provides that the person concerned may present his views, following his appeal, 

before the HOC and therefore the application to annuii the HOC's decision 

329

on the grounds that he was not invited to present his case before the E.C. 

is unfounded and inadmissible. The appeal to the HOC would cover the possible 

absence of a hearing by the first instance body as stipulated by the Greek 

Constitution. 

28. European Sports Charter, Code of Sports Ethics, art. 2. Ethics on Sports, 

Right and obligations in the sports process, Proceedings 2nd Int. Congress 

on Sports Law, Olympia, Oct.29-31 1991. ADV group, Athens 1997. see also 

Panagiotopoulos D., (1994). The law of international sports relations and in 

stitutions, Sakkoulas: Athens, pp.186-189. see law 75/75, art.13 par.4. see 

Panagiotopoulos D., Sports Code, Op.cit. p. 63. 

29. see Panagiotopoulos D., Naskou-Perraki P., Op.cit. p. 165 , and fair play pro 

visions, UNESCO, Paris. 

SO.Eur.Sports Charter, Code of Sports Ethics, art.6, PANDEKTIS, International 

Sports Law Review, Vol. I, Issue 2, p.33. The rules governing competition 

sport and relating to the spirit of friendship, mutual respect, fair contest, in 

conformity with the spirit of sport, without use of drugs and violence, physical 

or verbal, constitute the essence of fair play. 

31. European Code of Ethics, art.7-10, PAND., ISLR. see Panagiotopoulos D.(1994), 

The law of international sports relations ......... Op.cit. pp. 186-189. 

32. Ibid. art. p.34. see Panagiotopoulos D., Mihakinos N. (1996), The legal protection 

of young sportsmen", In: Sports Law Symposium, EKEAD, Athens, 5 July, in 

Sports Law Review III, ADV Group: Athens 1997, see also Panagiotopoulos 

D. (Ed) (1977), "Sport in regional area and scientific support", 1st Symposium, 

ADV Group:Lamia, pp. 13-123. One of the conclusions of the symposium was 

that a Code of Coaching Practice should be drawn up by a state agency for 

the protection of young athletes. 

33. Code of Ethics, art. 12. 

34. see J.P.Galasso (1984), The rights of children in organized sport, Windsor 

Ontario Op.cit. pp. 1-92. see Panagiotopoulos D. (1995).The institutional prob 

lems of Greek sports federations, Marquette Sports Law Journal, Vol. 5, No 

2, pp.243.250. 

35.Eur. Code of Ethics, art 13. 

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332

A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL 

ASPIRATION OF FAIR PLAY WITHIN OLYMPISM 

INDRODUCTION 

by Deborah P. McDONALD, M.A. (CAN) 

Definitions of Olympism 

* Definitions of Olympism are intended to represent the core structure 

or essence of the philosophy of Olympism. However, it is my opinion 

that all the currently existing definitions of Olympism are vague. 

Vague definitions serve only to identify general ideas underlying 

Olympism and thus do not make clear the core structure or essence 

of the philosophy. 

* In the search for clarìty, many scholars have reduced definitions 

of Olympism into identifiable aspirations. As an example, consider 

the aspirations of Olympism offered by Jeffery Segrave (1988)... 

Aspirations of Olympism 

* Education 

• Peace and International 

Understanding 

• The Independence of Sport 

• Excellence 

• Cultural Expression 

• Equal Opportunity 

• Fair play 

*It is expected that an understanding of the aspirations will clarífy 

the definitions of Olympism as well as illuminate its core structure. 

However, it is my opinion that the meanings of each of these 

aspirations are less than apparent. Aspiration identification will 

not be helpful in clarìfying Olympism until such a time that the 

meanings of each are clarified. Furthermore, if Olympism is to fulfil 

its aspiration of education, the clanfication of each of the additional 

aspirations becomes crucial. 

* My purpose is twofold. First, to clarífy the essential meaning of fair 

play both as an aspiration contributing to the essence of Olympism 

333

and as an objecttive guiding the design, implementation and 

evaluation of Olympic education programs. Second, to identify one 

specific problem that may be associated with the inclusion of fair 

play as such. 

THE NATURE AND EVALUATION OF SPORT ACTIONS 

The Necessary And Sufficient Condition Of Fair Play The action 

complies with the regulative rules of the sport in which it 

occurs 

Regulative Rules 

- Those rules that "specify the type and severity of penalties 

to be applied when particular constitutive rules have been violated" 

(Klaus Meier, 1992, p. 7) 

- Rules that are added to the constitutive rules of a sport so 

that sport may be practiced 

Constitutive Rules 

- Those rules that provide a "descriptive, defining framework 

which specifies the fundamental aspects of, and determines exactly 

what it entails to engage in a particular... sport" (Klaus Meier, 

1992, p. 6). 

- Those rules that specifically permit and proscribe certain 

means of attainment of the prelusory goal of any given sport 

Two Ways To "Comply With" The Regulative Rules 

- Accidentally yet knowingly violate a constitutive rule and 

accept the penalty for that action 

- Intentionally violate a constitutive rule and accept the penalty 

for that action. 

Three Subcategories Of Fair Play 

- Actions characterized as fair play alone 

- Actions characterized as fair play and good sportspersonship 

- Actions characterized as fair play and bad sportspersonship 

The Interrlationship Of Fair Play, Good Sportspersonship, Bad 

Sportspersonship And Cheating Within Sport 

Moral Judgements Associated With Classifications of Sport 

Actions 

- Fair Play Bad Sportspersonship 

334

- Fair Moraly wrong 

- Morally required Not prohibited 

QUESTIONNING FAIR PLAY AS AN EDUCATIONAL 

ASPIRATION OF OLYMPISM 

Fair Play As An Aspiration of Olympism 

One Problem With The Inclusion of Fair Play As An Aspiraton 

of Olympism 

- It may be implied that some morally wrong and undesirable 

actions (characterized as both fair play and bad sportspersonship) 

are acceptable both as part of the essence of the philosophy of 

Olympism and as an objective of Olympic education 

335

OLYMPIC GAMES AND EPIPHANY 

by ANNA HOGENOVA (CZE) 

Existences have lost their "background", their being. Statement 

has stopped predicting the "sacredness of being", and has become 

a part of the technology of logistics. Heidegger would add to this: 

"The act of stating, i.e. the basic act of thinking, and thus also 

thinking itself, has now become a judicial instance above being. 

The teaching of logos, logic, has become an evident or hidden 

basis of metaphysics". (Heideger, M.: Europe and German Philosophy. 

Lecture in Philosophy. Lecture in Rome, 8/4 1936. In: 

Filosoficky casopis, Vol. XLIV, 1996, No.l, p. 81). 

"Pthonos Theon", or envying gods, is the initial stage in the 

development of the Olympian philosophy, to approximate divine 

perfection (Epiphany) is the goal of the Olympian athlete. Approximation 

to divine perfection is analogical to coming near to 

the flame which is good itself in that it makes possible truth (by 

giving light in darkness), and provides justice and proportion - 

fair play (since fire consumes everything indiscriminately); fire 

emits heat, and therefore is a home, and ultimately, fire is very 

beautiful, impossible to grasp, no one can hoard it, etc. etc. 

The Olympic flame is sacred, it is one of the last symbols of 

sacredness and nobility. To worship Zeus by cleansing flame can 

be done only by those who are clean themselves, i.e. only by 

those who take care of their soul (Epimeleia) and of their body 

(Technai). Arete-virtue, excellence, perfection is the result of the 

best possible proportion - harmony between care of the soul and 

care of the body. In this connection, we can speak of Kalokagathia, 

of harmony, of proportion realized in Arete. Impairment of this 

harmony causes ILLNESS, deficiency, desire for consummation, 

need to realize oneself, to affirm oneself existentially. The Czech 

philosopher Jan Patocka reflects on care of the soul and body in 

336

this way; (Evropa a doba poevropská [Europe and the Post-European 

Time]. Prague 1992). 

Arete understood as excellence arising from harmony of both 

modes of care (i.e. care in the sense of KALOS and care in the 

sense of AGATHOS) is what ensures order (KOSMOS). And KOSMOS 

in the sense of order is the precondition of existence and validity 

of everything that exists. 

To preserve the order of the world by creating order in one's 

own person is thus the task and mission of life honestly lived; 

it is that mode of conduct that we call FAIR PLAY. The ethical 

character of Olympian philosophy thus arises from the need to 

participate in the order of the world. Thus, the KALOKAGATHIA 

of personality is participation in the KALOKAGATHIA polis, in the 

KALOKAGATHIA of the world - cosmos. Jan Patooka would say 

in a simple way: The real constituent reason would be the whole". 

"(Evropa a doba poevropská. Prague 1992, p. 42). The whole is 

the order through which everything is born and originates again 

and again, the whole is the real constituent reason. The principle 

of FAIR PLAY is thus not only a quality of conduct, fair play 

applied in life is determination of being, is the very root of being, 

is participation in the whole. The philosophy of the Olympic Games 

is thus an expression of the sacred function of man to participate 

in the order of the world by approximating through ARETE divine 

perfection (Epiphany). It is possible to live one's life only in the 

horizontal, i.e. amidst things, or to share in one's life the vertical, 

i.e. relate oneself to the transcendent, i.e to what is sacred. "We 

can see and comprehend the soul only when we take care of it", 

says Patooka (Evropa a doba poevropská. 1992, p. 66). We make 

all wholes present only when they originate, and thus assume 

shape. Care of the body makes present the whole of the body, 

the so-called corporeal scheme, cf. M. Merleau-Ponty: Phänomenologie 

der Wahrnehmung. Berlin 1966, p. 254. The Olympic 

Games together with the Olympian philosophy care of the whole 

- world order - by the organization of the Olympic Games, by 

care for the Olympian philosophy which is contained in the symbolism 

of the flame. 

337

It is the sense of the commonness that constitutes the most 

important background for the arising of existences, meanings of 

this world. If this sense of the commonness is replaced by avidity, 

the projecting capability of the background is diminished, and 

here the fair play principle opens possibility for commonness, 

and therein rests the sacred function of the philosophy of the 

Olympics. Also absolute avidity in the direction of victory becomes 

a temptation for the Olympian athlete that destroys the sacredness 

of the background, the whole, the meaning of the Olympic Games. 

The ethical acme in this case is Epiphany in the sense of approximation 

to ARETE, to divine perfection. To this, Patocka would 

add: "It is right for THYMOS to be rocked to quiescence, without 

getting stuporous or without vanishing. This can be acieved by 

good conjoining of music education and gymnastics, and care of 

the soul falls to great nomothetists, in particular in this sense. 

In such a harmony, a new community has its internal foundation." 

(Ibid., p. 85). The Platonic concept of soul consisting of reason 

(Logistikon), bravery (Thymos) and avidity (Epithymia) finds its 

application here. The balancing of reason and bravery as the 

basis of Fair Play is the essence of Olympian education. This 

balancing taking place through care of the soul and the body is 

a Gadamerian posing of questions that make present background 

in the most general sense, that background that we call existence 

and which is that sacred whole without which our life becomes 

a life in the desert a chunk of lava on the Moon. To resemble 

flame, to be as clean, to be a source of truthful light, to be 

equitable like fire in which everything is consumed, to be a proportion 

- all that is guaranteed, developed by the Olympian philosophy. 

In brief, it is only the Olympian idea today that is taking 

care of relationship to the sacredness, the other sports activities 

are guided more by pragmatic goals. 

338

MORALS AND THE SACRED 

PANHELLENIC GAMES 

by Vasilios BOUTAS (GRE) 

The tendency to compete and the effort to outdo the others 

are two of the qualities of the Greeks. The motto "to long for 

power and honour" was an integral part of the Greek classical 

education. 

"Always to excel and surpass the others" was what Hippolochus 

told his son, Glaucus, in Homer's Iliad, while sending 

him off to Troy. According to Hesiod, there are two kinds of 

dispute on the earth, the good one and the bad one. The good 

kind of dispute is what we call competition "which urges even 

the lazy to work" since "the neighbour envies his neighbour, 

who set as his goal to become rich". 

Xenophon in "Cyropaedia" says that people prefer more than anything 

else to practise the things in which they love outdo the others. 

That's the reason why the tendency to display one's personal 

qualities formed the basis of a large number of institutions of 

the various Greek states. The idea of man being destined to excel 

and outdo his peers gave birth to the concept of struggle, ie to 

the concept of competing in order to win a prize. 

Plato in his "Laws" states that the lawmaker educates the 

citizens as though they were "athletes taking part in the greatest 

games, in which there are thousands of competitors". In "Philebus'' 

the discussion about which is better tought, prudence or 

pleasure is compared to a kind of game in which it is not certain 

which one of the three is the actual winner: which one gets the 

first place, which one the second and which one the third. 

Herodotus, Thucydides, Aeschines and others used to compare 

those fighting a war to those competing in a game. Demosthenes 

praises his country time and again since "there people struggle 

to be first in honour and in glory". 

Virtue was an object of competition, the "best" one actually. 

339

What's more, it was considered everyone's duty to outdo the others 

in virtue, or at least not to allow the others to outdo them, thus 

getting the biggest prize, the greatest honour in society. 

Pericles in the epilogue of the "Epitaph", awarding honours 

on the dead and taking charge, on behalf of the state, of the 

rasing of their children as children of the city said: because where 

the prizes of virtue the biggest are, there, too, are the best citizens". 

Cyros, as presented by Xenophon in Cyropaedia, at the time 

of his death asks from his son and heir, Cambyses, only one 

thing: to wish for the performance of difficult deeds, to have a 

care for a lot of things and never to rest, being dominated by a 

passion to compete with, surpass and win his own father in the 

achievement of the great deeds. 

The moral, spiritual, scientific and political greatness of ancient 

Greece is due to this kind of "contention", to this noble emulation. 

We can see that this instinct of man - as observed by the 

ancient Greek philosopher Polybius and developped by the sociologist 

Gumplouicz and the psychologist Adler - moved from a 

state where it was developped in the highest form of competition 

and "contention" for "primacy" to the aristotelian idea of "the 

average" and then, going through "exaggeration", degenerated 

into an endless dispute over the sporting, political, spiritual and 

social life. 

The Education of the Greek was such as to implant in him 

the idea of "the longing for honour" and of a kind of decent 

ambition (whenever the latter did not degenerate into something 

inferior) as well as to inspire in him a longing for distinguishing 

himself and surpassing the others. The Greek's religiousness contributed 

a lot to this end. The panhellenic games were sacred. 

The youth of the Nation had to stand before the Gods in all their 

bodily, moral, spiritual and musical educational armour, summed 

up in the famous notion of "kalokagathia", which constituted 

after all the goal of the entire Greek classical education and training. 

The Greeks took the barbaric games and implanted an element 

of spirituality in them, the so-called "spirit". They contrasted the 

view of the body as matter with that of the body as an "idea". 

When Xerxe's Persians were in Thermopylae watching the 

Greeks, they were surprised not by the fact that the Greeks were 

340

having games before the battle, but by the discovery that the 

only prize one could get in these games was an olive - wreath. 

Herodotus mentions what Tigranes said to Mardonius: "Alas, what 

kind of men did you lead us to fight against; men who fight 

not for money but for virtue" (meaning the fight leading to the 

olive-wreath). The fact that he wreath was being taken fromthe 

God's sacred tree was an indication of the religious nature of the 

games. The honour awarded on the wreathed was his coming 

closer to God as well as his "consecration" through the sacred 

olive-branch. 

During the sacred panhellenic games it was only natural that 

the track would become a school of morals and virute, of that 

virtue, in fact, that the Greeks considered one of the major ones 

and which was no other than wisdom, as the expression of modesty, 

self-restrain and the submission to Reason. To have a high 

opinion of oneself, that is Hybris, or, in other words, one's effort 

to exceed the limits of one's finite nature was considered to be 

the worst of sins. Consequently, the greatest virtue was the recognition 

of these limits, the fear not to and the will to avoid any 

kind of conceit as well as everyone's everlasting effort to keep 

within one's bounds. This becomes obvious in the piety the Greeks 

showed towards their Gods. For the moral and spiritual education, 

as mentioned above, were an integral part of the physical training. 

In other words, they were "symmetric". This helps us have a 

full understanding of the meaning of the panhellenic games, which 

originated in the spirit of competing as well as in the awareness 

of unity. 

Pindar, one of the greatest poets of ancient Greece, was born 

in 518 BC in Cynos Kephalae, Boeotia, and was the offspring of 

the noble family of Aegeus. Through his poems he introduced a 

new and deeper view of the relationship between education and 

natural ability. He was the actual instigator of the high ideal of 

humanism, which appeared during that time in the Greek works 

of sculpture of the classical period of ancient Greece, often to 

become the objects of admiration. The athlete these sculptures 

represented, an example of harmony combined with power as 

well as of nobleness and perfection, lived, felt and spoke through 

Pindar's poetry. In fact, Pindar, through his spiritual strength 

341

and religious seriousness, had a kind of influence which we meet 

again only in the unique and unparallelled achievements of the 

human mind. 

Thanks to Pindar people had the chance to see the greatness 

of divinity incarnated in the body and soul of the human being. 

In the picture of the human - like Gods, in which the artist 

embodied the ideal of perfection, human efforts could find their 

end, which was no other than to inimitate the Divine Model. 

Pindar wrote his odes in order to praise the greatest moment 

in the life of an athlete, i.e. his victory in one of the major games 

in Olympia, Nemea, Delphi or in Isthmia. The athlete's victory 

constituted a prerequisite in order for the poet to write the ode, 

which was sung soon after the winner's triumphant return to his 

birthplace by a chorus consisting his companions. Pindar was 

the first to turn the triumphal hymn into some sort of religious 

poem by lending a moral and religious meaning to the spectacle 

of people fighting against each other with the aim to lead their 

human nature to perfection through their victory. 

The poet believes that victory is the expression of the highest 

human virtue, while the form of his poems is dictated exactly by 

this belief. In his poems he developped this form according to 

the inward inclinations of his soul, despite the fact that he uses 

the element of form as a means to express himself. The form of 

his poetry can be fully appreciated only through the moral example 

this form embodies. Pindar, considering "virtue" as a quality of 

the aristocracy, connects it with the great deeds of past heroes, 

thus creating the model of the winner. Man should have full 

awareness of his weakness. There have to be certain limits to 

the actions of each one of us and we should be careful not to 

go beyond them. Otherwise, we cause nemesis and the envy of 

Gods and men alike. On the contrary, the wise man acts within 

certain limits. His favourite motto was "MODESTY IS A REAL 

VIRTUE". Man has to act. To dare was, for Pindar, something 

very important in life. The idea of acting with prudence forms 

the basis of his moral beliefs. It is also the source of all human 

duties according to the poet. 

342

ETHICS IN SPORT AND OLYMPIC GAMES 

by Dr. Shokouh NAVABINEJAD (IRI) 

The term ethics and morality used synonymously, and have 

to do with decision making where right and wrong should and 

should not help and harm is at stake. Ethics and morality define 

one of the most important area of human responsibility, and in 

essence are value neutral. The issue is not to have ethics but to 

have good ethics or high standard or morality. 

All professions have their own ethics and ethical guidelines 

that guide proper and appropriate practice in dealing with its 

own issues. For example, an ethical guide-lines on competency 

could be that professionals practice only in areas within their 

competency. 

In sport, the goal must be the principle determined of conduct 

and attitudes proper to sport activity since, one of the main goals 

is pleasant and healthy diversion, and the immediate joy to be 

derived in the activity itself, a determined effort is to be made, 

not only, to avoid all unpleasantness and conflict, but to cultivate 

an unselfish and cooperative effort to maximize the joy of moment. 

The essence of sportsmanship as applied to athletics can be 

determined by application of the same principle. Honourable victory 

is the goal of the athlete, as a result, it required that nothing be 

done before, during, or after the contest to cheapen or detract 

from such a victory. 

Achieving the goals of ethics in Sport and Olympic Games, 

involves three processes: 

1) Recoming sensitive to moral issues, searching for and selecting 

moral excellence. 

2) Respecting yourselves and being happy with our choice, and 

3) Doing something with our choice repeatedly throughout our 

sporting life. 

343

MORAL DILEMMA 

by Yuko HATANO and Keiko WADA (JPN) 

INTRODUCTION 

Ladies and gentlemen. My name is Keiko Wada from Japan. I 

am a director of the Japan Olympic Academy. First, I'd like to 

thank President, Vice Presidents, Dean, and all staff of the IOA 

who have kindly organized this meaningful session for us. 

Everyday we see the world "Olympics" on TV, newspapers and 

magazines. It is especially true in Japan because the Winter Olympic 

Games will be held in Nagano next year. Compared to the 

magnitude of the Olympic Games in the media, ethics in sports 

is very little spoken, in spite that we have serious problems. 

The topic of my presentation is "moral dilemma". 

(#1) Before going into my presentation, I'd like to give you a 

short story for 8 - year old children to see their stage of moral 

development. "Ponta, this is a raccoon, has been looking for a 

KAKI fruit for his sick mother and he finally found one. But he 

cannot reach it, so he put his name on the tree and he went 

somewhere to get a stick. Here is Lin Lin, a hungry squirrel. He 

also found this KAKI fruit, and he climbed up the tree and got 

it. Ponta with a long stick has just come back. Now, to which 

does the KAKI belong?" Before responding, children go through 

a moral dilemma. Well, I am not going to discuss any further on 

this at the moment. 

Now back to my theme. You have copies with you of 2 stories 

about Japanese athletes, both of who participated in the Olympic 

Games. 

(#2) With the help of Yuko Hatano, a survey was conducted 

with graduate students, who are mostly teachers with teaching 

experiences for more than 10 years, and undergraduate students 

majoring physical education. I also did a small survey with Ameri- 

344

cans and Japanese living in the U.S. to learn about their feelings 

about the stories just for comparison purposes. Respondents gave 

their free written answers. 

SURVEY FINDINGS AND REVIEW 

Takenaka story 

(#3) Here are the findings on Takenaka story. Respondents 

pointed out 2 issues, sportsmanship/fair play of the athlete and 

responsibility of the media. More than half of the respondents 

are impressed with Takenaka's honesty and courage to tell the 

truth in spite that he must have had much confusion and selfdilemma 

after he was suddenly treated as a star. Many respondents 

showed sympathy toward Takenaka, probably they themselves 

are athletes or major physical education. There was no 

specific difference in their comments between undergraduate and 

graduate students. 

On the other hand, all of the respondents who pointed out the 

responsibility of the media showed displeasure commenting that 

the media tend to make up stories, good or bad, to please readers 

or to go with the current of the times. Or, if the media try to be 

true to the fact, then the coverage becomes excessive infringing 

athletes' privacy. Takenaka story happened some 60 years ago, 

and I have no reliable data how the American journalist came to 

write such a praiseworthy story. Interesting finding about comments 

from Americans and Japanese living in the US is that none 

of them pointed out the media issue. They are more interested 

in the political issue. 

I would like to emphasize here that the media have a great 

responsibility in communicating the fact, what really happens, 

to the general public, who would never know the happenings 

without the media. That is why we want the media of the whole 

world not only to have ethics of their own but practice it, and 

we, the general public, should be a good critic. Because it is us 

and not the media that form pulbic opinion. 

345

. Fujimoto Story 

Fujimoto's action may be evaluated within a cultural context. 

Japanese society is collectivistically - oriented. You sacrifice yourself 

for the good of the whole. 

(#4) From the survey, we can see respondents share the same 

feelings as Fujimoto as you can see from their comments here. 

This shows that athletes are too pleased to sacrifice their health 

to win. Some claim here that Fujimoto performed for himself 

and not for his team or his country, so he will not be sorry about 

the injury. Many respondents feel "if he says it was worth it, it 

was worth it." From these comments younger generation shows 

a more individualistically - oriented tendency. Though small in 

number, some say "one should not sacrifice his health for sports. 

One should have courage to give up". What I am interested is if 

Fujimoto had had gone through the dilemma at the very moment 

he was to perform the rings. It is ethics or moral they have 

established in their mind when they make a decision. When people 

have to choose one solution among others, it should be the 

one based on his sense of ethics. Few decisions are without sense 

of guilty or regret. Then such a decision should be accompanied 

by least sense of regret. 

CONCLUSION 

Olympic Movement / Greek Philosophy 

We gather here to study ethics in sports and the Olympic 

Games. What is important is that we must get back to the Olympic 

Charter that we should not forget the principles. I feel this 

is one of the most universally accepted writing. 

(#5) In Article 2 in the Fundamental Principles, it clearly refers 

to ethical principles. When we speak of ethical principles, we 

cannot go without considering the cultural background of the 

countries in the world. We have a saying "One man's meat is 

another man's poison". Good thing in terms of your moral could 

be wrong in other countries. What I would like to stress here is 

that you should know that there exist totally different ways of 

thinking and try to understand them if not accept them. In this 

346

sense, I feel Japanese athletes should be more sociable with athletes 

from other countries. 

(#6) In the ancient Greek philosophy or the values of Hellenism 

teaches us the importance of "virtue, honesty and beauty" and 

that physical beauty, strength and health are not the only virtues 

necessary to us, but should be combined with mental and moral 

virtues. I do feel a harmonious entity in all circumstances should 

be respected. 

Education 

The last point I want to mention is importance of education. 

Education has tremendous influence on us. Again I believe the 

Olympic Charter should be reviewed and studied in different levels 

of education. There is hardly any person who does not know 

the "Olympic Games". It is a global event that gives us every 

opportunity to make money, to show the power of your country, 

so that we try to take greatest advantage of the Games. In the 

sphere of education, we should teach children and young people 

the Olympic Games are held based on the Olympic Movement/Olympism. 

I believe we should have a moral dilemma. We should face it 

and think about our own conduct and decision. For better decision, 

we absolutely need to go through the dilemma. Why? If you 

have only one truth to believe in and decide without any moral 

dilemma, it is quite dangerous. You will become a totalitarian. 

Education is one of the most effective means to teach children 

and students that there exist many different cultural backgrounds. 

Before closing my presentation, I would like to go back to the 

two stories once again. As you may be aware, there could have 

been two different endings, that is, if Takenaka stepped inside 

instead of outside, and in the case of Fujimoto, if Japan had 

been beaten by the Soviet Union and had lost a gold medal. We 

should also be prepared for these endings as well. One last thing. 

The raccoon and squirrel story. What would you think is the best 

solution for those animals? If you say the raccoon and the squirrel 

should divide the KAKI into two, you are in a higher stage 

of moral development. 

347

Olympic Charter #5 

Fundamental Principles 

1... 

2. Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a 

balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport 

with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life 

based on the joy found in effort, the educational value of good example 

and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles. 

3... 

4... 

Ancient Greek Philosophy 

VIRTUE 

HONESTY 

BEAUTY 

PHYSICAL BEAUTY, 

STRENGTH AND HEALTH 

SHOULD BE COMBINED 

WITH MENTAL AND 

MORAL VIRTUES 

348

SURVEY METHOD 

Area: , Hyogo, Japan 

Respondents: Undergraduate and Graduate students 

majoring in physical education 

Age (average): Undergraduate students - 22 years old 

Graduate students - 32 years old 

Method: 

Free written answers 

Sample Size: Graduate students - 18 

Undergraduate students - 21 

A small survey was conducted in Boston, USA via e-mail 

Respondents: Students 

Age (average): 30 years old 

Method: 

Telephone interview and e-mail 

Sample size: 6 (4 Japanese and 2 Americans) 

TAKENAKA STORY #3 

Issues Graduates (%) Undergraduates (%) 

Sportsmanship/ Fair Play 24% 44% 

Media 57% 50% 

Other 19% 6% 

Comments 

(G) = Graduate students (UG) = Undergraduate students 

(A) = American in USA (J) = Japanese in USA 

Sportsmanship/Fair Play 

- Athletes are often taken advantage by media to make up praise 

worthy stories (G) 

- Fair person because he said it was not a "fair play" (G) 

- Admirable and honest person (G and UG) 

- Maybe a fair play but not good sportsmanship (UG) 

349

- Respect Takenaka for his honesty (J) 

- Appreciate his candor about his efforts to win (A) 

Media 

- Media is responsible for the distorted story (G) 

- Media should report the fact (G) 

- Media tend to report what the public of the time want (UG) 

- We should have not too much information - oriented (UG) 

- Both media and politics take advantage of the Olympic Games 

(UG) 

- Truth is often distorted to suite political interests (J) 

- The Olympic games are not political games with political reper 

cussions (A) 

FUJIMOTO STORY #4 

Issues Graduates (%) 

Undergraduates(%) 

USA respondents 

(%) 

Worth it 55% 67% 17% 

Not worth it 27% 6% 33% 

Do not know 18% 27% 50% 

Comments 

(G) = Graduate students (UG) = Undergraduate students 

(A) = American in USA (J) = Japanese in USA 

Worth it 

- Wonderful (UG) 

- Praiseworthy (UG) 

- If he says worth it, it is worth it (UG, G) 

- Played for himself and not for his country (UG) 

- Worth it, if he does not regret (UG) 

- Well performed as an athlete (G) 

- Has much discipline and passion (J) 

Not worth it 

- Would he think it worthwhile, if Japan lost a gold medal (UG) 

- Situation he had to continue to perform is regrettable (G) 

350

- Not worth it if he injured (G) 

- To retire is another important aspect of sports (G) 

- One should not sacrifice his/her health for sports (J) 

Do not know 

- Cannot say worth or not worth it, because it is Fujimoto's business 

(UG) 

- If he says worth it, it is worth it, but I am not sure (UG, G) 

- The athlete's decision is understandable, but it is a matter of 

degree if he should continue or abandon (A) 

- Might regret if the team could not win a gold medal (J) 

PONT A AND LIN LIN 

To which of these does the KAKI belong? 

35]

EDUCATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, 

OLYMPIC MOVEMENT, AND WELLNESS. 

APPROACHING UNIVERSAL VALUES 

by Dr. Fermando FIERAS (PUR) 

Optimal Wellness Definitions 

Physical Health 

Much broader than physical fitness, this component encompasses 

everything that relates to the optimal functioning of the 

body. 

Emotional Health 

Emotional health relates to feelings and the expression and/or, 

suppression of those feelings and how those feelings effect the 

body. 

Intellectual Health 

Intellectual health includes improving the quality of our lives 

and the lives of others through education, teaching, time management, 

creative / artistic endeavors, and career activities. 

Spiritual Health 

Spiritual health involves discovering and living according to 

one's basic purpose in life, experiencing joy, love, peace, and 

fulfillment, and may include developing a relationship with God 

or some other higher being. 

Environmental Health 

Environmental health is characterized by a positive relationship 

between the earth and its inhabitants. This realtionship is 

one that allows organisms to live, grow, and reproduce. 

352

Social Health 

Social health involves creating a space that other people can 

visit and having adequate support systems. 

Self Responsibility 

At the core of the Optimal Wellness Model is self responsibility. 

It is virtually impossible to be healthy in any or all of the six 

components of optimal wellness if the individual does not accept 

responsibility for his/her own health and well-being. Armed with 

personal accountability and with knowledge of healthy and unhealthy 

lifestyle habits and how these habits ultimately effect 

the body, it is possible to move toward optimal wellness. 

Norms and Rules 

The norms and rules we learn and abide by effect the lifestyle 

decisions we make. When they cause us to make unhealthy 

choices they need to be addressed. 

Values and Ethics 

Our values and ethics are related to our priorities. They help 

us decide what is good and bad what we are for and against. The 

decisions we make are affected, in part, by our values and ethics. 

353

NEW CONCEPT IMPLEMENTED 

by Betsy MEHOLICK 

The new physical education concept for the current decade 

and the 21st century focuses on health promotion with a fitness 

and wellness approach. St. John's Physical Education Program 

and Athletics will adopt and implement these trends which are 

best summarized in the conceptual framework of the wellness 

compass. 

Key concepts which support this program's philosophy are as 

follows: Physical fítness - means "To perform daily activities with 

vigor, to reduce the risk of health problems related to lack of 

exercise. And to establish a fitness base for participation in a 

variety of physical activities. "Wellness - is not merely the absence 

of disease but also optimal health. It emphasizes the individual's 

power to make responsible decisions that not only lead to the 

prevention of disease but also to the promotion of a high level 

of health. It is achieved through proper nutrition, regular exercise, 

effective stress management, and freedom from destructive habits 

(e.g., smoking or drug use) "Holistic health - is an approach to 

health that recognizes the interrelatedness of physical, mental, 

emotional, spiritual, and environmental factors in the attainment 

of health. The holistic philosophy also emphasizes self-reliance 

for health as much as possible". 

Basically, St John's program will not only address the acquisition 

and refinement of motor skills for athletic competition, but also 

the development and maintenance of fitness and optimal health 

and well being, the attainment of knowledge and understanding 

of fitness, the principal of movement, and the importance of exercise 

as preventive medicine. Social skills and attitudes that encourage 

participation and enjoyment of physical activity will also form 

part of the program. 

The accomplishments of wellness are related to behavioral modification, 

so a lot of understanding, positive attitudes, motivation, 

354

and peer support will be key factors in St. John's Physical Education 

Program. Watch for the next Fitness and Wellness column. 

Suggested readings 

Ardell, D. (1986). The New Edition of High Level Wellness - An Alternative to Doctors, 

Drugs, and Disease. Ten Speed Press. Ardell, D. and Langdon, J. (1989). 

Wellness - The Body Mind and Spirit. Kendall / 

Hunt Publishing Co. 

Ardell, D. and Tager, M. (1981). Planning for Wellness. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co. 

Lafferty, J., et. al. (1979, September / October). "A Credo for Wellness", Health 

Education, 10-11. O'Donnel, M.P. (1986). Definition of health promotion. 

American Journal of Health 

Promotion, 1(1), 4-5. Yacenda, J. (1989, November). "Whole Person Fitness", 

Fitness Management, 33-35. 

355

SOME THOUGHTS ON MODERN SPORT 

by Frantisek SEMAN (SVK) 

These days, on a world scale, sport is one of the most important 

mass phenomena. Annually, the number of sports is growing, 

with greater or lesser success in respect to popularity. We are 

presently witnessing the emergence of new sports where physical 

contact between athletes is prevalent. On the other hand, there 

are also new sports which do not involve such contact. The emergence 

of sports lacking physical contact is motivated by the fact 

that the practice of sport is an environment propitious to aggressive 

behaviour and even violence, in spite of the observance of rules. 

It would be impossible to prevent the birth of new sports, of 

any type, since to invent, perfect and introduce something new 

is in the nature of all men, including sportsmen. 

So we should rather focus on the way to eliminate all the 

negative phenomena associated with new sports or established 

sports for that matter. 

All athletes want to win at all costs and this sometimes means 

violating the written or unwritten rules of sport which can only 

lead to the progressive degradation of the athlete as a person. I 

am thinking of doping. Contemporary science is very advanced 

and pharmacological preparations are being replaced by new substances. 

In order to win and on the advice of his coach or physician, 

the athlete will take these substances, heedless of their effects. 

What is important is to win, to win at all times, without caring 

if this means violating the rules. If athletes, as well as coaches 

and doctors can allow morality to prevail over the impure wish 

to win at any price, the desired result will be achieved. All of us 

who are gathered here, must provide the guarantee that the respect 

of ethical rules will be at the top of the athletes' value list and 

that all athletes will be modern knights demanding equal competition 

conditions for themselves and their opponents. 

356

Let us do all we can so that our athletes and students never 

have to regret, in future, having tried to conquer victory by trampling 

on fundamental moral principles. Let us teach them moral rules 

that will allow them not to exceed the limits, beyond which human 

personality is debased and man loses his dignity. 

Let us never forget that it is not just doping, which I used as 

an example, but also violence, foul play, underestimating the opponent, 

etc. that can tarnish the work of coaches and educationists 

and that we are responsible of the athlete's behaviour in the 

sporting field. 

I fully realize that it is not possible to do away with all the 

unethical elements in sport, but I am also convinced that by 

acting on the athletes we may eliminate the negative aspects. 

Let us fight for this, to preserve the purity of sport and the 

Olympic Games, born out of Pierre de Coubertin's romantic dream, 

for the coming generations... So that athletes can run faster, 

jump higher and fight stronger, without disobeying the rules and 

human ethics. 

Now, please allow me to say just a few words on the present 

situation in Slovakia. 

In 1929, the founder of modern Olympism, Pierre de Coubertin, 

urged for the teaching of Olympism at school. His appeal was 

not heeded. Today, however, in the Department of Physical Education 

and Sports of the Komensky University in Bratislava, in 

Slovakia, Olympism is being taught for the last ten years, as a 

compulsory and optional course. 

If among you there are people from other universities where 

Olympism is taught, please let me know. 

357

STAFF AND VOLUNTEER RECRUITMENT 

FOR CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT 

AND THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT. 

THE YMCA MODEL 

by Michael P. GRAVES (USA) 

What is character development?...It is challenging people to 

accept and demonstrate positive values. 

Should those of us in the Olympic Movement network change 

any part of our hiring and volunteer recruitment practices to 

make sure we attract people who are best suited to help us build 

character? How can we make sure we have the right people in 

place to deliver this important component? Who is qualified to 

implement an effective character education program that needs 

careful consideration when making staff and volunteer leadership 

selections? What methods can we use to make sure our human 

resources are selected to deliver the promise in our missions? 

How can we place this effort in the context of colaborative relationships 

such as the Olympic Movement? 

The YMCA of the USA has recently launched its comprehensive 

Character Development Program. I think YMCAs in the USA have 

embarked on what has the potential to be the most transformative 

program thrust in the entire history of the YMCA. More than our 

invention of such sports as basketball, voleyball and racquetball 

and the popularization of dozens of other Olympic sports, character 

development can change our world. 

The Olympic Movement's historical and chartered in the ethical 

conduct of sports is a logical ground for further collaboration. It 

is the positive effort our world community needs. It gives us focus 

for all that we do. It differentiates us from other organizations. 

It ensures we are doing what we say we do. 

358 

The Olympic Movement, and the Olympic Games in particular,

is the crown jewel of sports. The Olympic Movement encompasses 

various sport federations, national governing bodies, organizing 

committees, associations, clubs, coaches and athletes who voluntarily 

come together for the joy of taking part in athletic competition. 

The movement assures that the athletes who are the 

most fit and have demonstrated excellence can celebrate their 

abilities. The movement provides a system of support for hard 

work, persistence, training and talent. Most importantly, the Olympic 

Movement strives to provide this offering in the highest ethical 

context. 

Over and over we see children from a very young age putting 

their goals in an Olympic context. The Games are, for spectators 

and participants, a desperately needed expression of the world 

as a healthy community. Healthy not only in the physical-athletic 

dimension but in the context of a world community of character. 

As an ethicist I've watched and learned as the Olympic Movement 

has publicly struggled with the morality of sports. The Olympic 

Movement has provided a vehicle to distinguish between good 

and evil, between right and wrong human actions, and between 

virtuous and non-virtuous characteristics of people. How the Movement 

has addressed: cheating, rules, arbitration, opportunity, doping, 

violence, wars, boycotts, gender, race, recognition, finance, 

human rights, terrorism, commercialization, amateurism and demonstrations 

has been the avenue of experience, maturity and wisdom 

for the entire world. It's hard to even think about any of 

these dilemmas on a global scale without the countless Olympic 

Movement examples leaping into our minds. The Olympics have 

given us a common ethical experience of character shaping dilemmas. 

The Olympic charter calls for setting the "educational value of 

good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles". 

The founder of the Modern Olympics felt that sport "possessed 

the power to enhance humanity and encourage peace 

among the nations of the world". The goal of Olympism is to 

place everywhere sport at the service of the harmonious development 

of man, with a view to encouraging the establishment of 

a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human dig- 

359

nity". "The goal of the Olympic Movement is to contribute to 

building a peaceful and better world by educating youth through 

sport practiced without discrimination of any kind and in the 

Olympic spirit, which requires mutual understanding with a spirit 

of friendship, solidarity and fair play." What could be more consistent 

with the YMCA's character development initiatives than 

the Olympic goals? 

The charter's call for universal and fundamental ethical principles 

may not be as difficult as first imagined. Among the roles 

of the International Olympic Committee are: "... collaborates with 

the competent public or private organizations and authorities in 

the endeavor to place sport at the service of humanity .... supports 

and ecncourages the promotion of sports ethics". 

YMCAs throughout the United States are embracing our movement's 

recommitment to character development. Institutionalizing 

character development in our organization is a long-term commitment 

and a goal best characterized as an organizational journey 

- a journey of years, not months. We have defined YMCA character 

development as challenging people to accept and demonstrate 

positive values. 

We have selected the universal fundamental core values of 

caring, honesty, respect and responsibility, which we will teach 

intentionally through all our programs. We feel these are universal 

values to which all people and organizations can subscribe. The 

Olympic Charter calls for attention to "universal fundamental ethical 

principles." These four virtues are worthy of consideration for 

this universal test. Character development is not a separate program, 

but a focus that will effect everything we do. 

In July 1992 the Joseph & Edna Josephson Institute of Ethics 

brought together in Aspen, Colorado, USA, an eminent and diverse 

group of educators, youth leaders and ethicists to share ideas 

about character development and to investigate ways of working 

together. Chief among those ways was developing consensus on 

the ethical values that held appeal for individuals and organizations 

with differing beliefs, missions and methodologies. At the end of 

the three - and - a - half days of discourse, participants unanimously 

endorsed the Aspen Declaration on Character Education. About 

360

a year later, the Institute founded the Character Counts Coalition 

to further the goals of the Aspen conference. The YMCA of the 

USA was a founding member of the coalition and an active participant 

in its endeavors. 

The Aspen Declaration 

1. The next generation will be the stewards of our communities, 

nation and planet in extraordinarily critical times. 

2. The present and future well-being of our society requires 

an involved, caring citizency with good moral character. 

3. People do not automatically develop good moral character; 

therefore, conscientious efforts must be made to help young people 

develop the values and abilities necessary for moral decision making 

and conduct. 

4. Effective character education is based on core ethical values 

which form the foundation of democratic society in particular, 

respect, responsibility, trustworthiness, caring, justice and fair 

ness, and civic virtue and citizenship. 

5. These core values trancent cultura, religious and socioeco 

nomic differences. 

6. Character education is, first and foremost, an obligation of 

families; it is also an important obligation of faith communities, 

schools, youth and other human service organizations. 

7. These obligations to develop character are best achieved 

when these groups work in concert. 

8. The character and conduct of our youth reflect the character 

and conduct of society; therefore, every adult has the responsibility 

to teach and model core ethical values and every social institution 

has the responsibility to promote the development of good character. 

The YMCA has spent almost two years of communication, training, 

strategy development, collaboration and commitment to character 

development. 

David Mercer, National Executive Director, YMCA of the USA, 

in December 1996 published the following list of things we have 

learned. The author has added the therefore statements for this 

paper. 

361

To look at character development not as a program but as a 

focus for everything we do. Therefore, the YMCA of the USA's 

relationship to the Olympic Movement should have a character 

development emphasis component. 

To view character development not as a quick fix but as a 

long - term commitment. Therefore, sustainable, collaborative 

relationships with organizations of character such as the Olympic 

Movement need to be established and maintained which can support 

ethical behavior in sport. 

To work to ensure the involvement of veteran staff members 

and volunteers at all levels. This comes about only when they 

participate directly in developing the implementation strategies 

for character development. Therefore, the participation at the International 

Olympic Academy by the Chief Executive Officer of a 

large local YMCA known within our movement as a leader on 

ethical issues affecting the YMCA. 

To appoint character development champions who will spearhead 

the YMCA's institutionalization of character development in 

our sports programs and keep this focus at the forefront of all 

YMCA activities and discussions. To make sure top management 

staff lead the journey by modeling the Y's values and acting as 

enthusiastic, vocal advocates for doing it the right way. 

How can sports leaders challenge participants to accept and 

demonstrate a positive value? 

Sports leaders must in a consistent fashion: 

• Teach the value to participants so they will know what it means. 

• Consistently model it with behavior so participants can see what 

it looks like. 

• Celebrate the value and hold it up to young people as what is right 

in order to help them strengthen their "internal compasses". 

• Ask participants to practice it over and over. 

• Consistently affirm, reinforce, and reward behaviors that support 

this value, and use the specific value word (honesty, respect, 

responsibility, and caring) that is relevant. 

• What participants choose behavior that is inconsistent with the 

362

value, consistently confront that behavior in a productive 

way-that does not devalue the person. 

The YMCA Character Development starter kit states that, "character 

development is not a new initiative, project, or topic of the 

month. In fact, it dates back to the origins of the YMCA. One of 

the best things the YMCA does is develop character. The YMCA 

asserts that the best long term solution is challenging people to 

accept and demonstrate positive values-and that is YMCA Character 

Development". The same can be said about the Olympic Movement. 

How can our staff and volunteer selection help build the organizational 

climate that will intentionally and systematically improve 

society through character development? 

One of the first steps, should be to incorporate specific character 

development language into everyone's job description. This has 

been a successful strategy in increasing awareness and communication 

of other organizational expectations. Every employee and 

volunteer should understand that the primary job at the Y and 

central to the Olympic mission is building character through whatever 

they do. 

As in all good hiring decisions the person doing the hiring 

needs to have a clear sense of the program objectives. Once you 

are clear on that, you can begin to establish a set of standards 

that applicants can be tested against. 

It seems obvious that we want to hire people of character, to 

help build an organization of character, which in turn develops 

character of our program participants. I would assume we have 

always sought to recruit and hire people of high character, although 

we've not always been so conscious of the virtues necessary for 

the task. 

Beyond extensive background and reference checks we need 

to seek to uderstand how the candidate has demonstrated character 

and dealt with character issues in the past. 

I ask candidates to review the four virtues of character that 

the YMCA has identified for focus prior to an interview. Along 

with the job description this can be a powerful communication 

of the importance of this aspect of working at the Y or in the 

Olympic Movement. 

363

During the interview I tell several anecdotal stories about how 

the YMCA has sought to build character for more than 150 years. 

I want to help them feel that they can be part of the YMCA story. 

I invite them to join in being one of the Y heroes who can help 

teach character and play a major role in this aspect of our 

mission. Then I stop and ask how they think they could help 

extend this rich tradition into the future. The details of our history 

and their placing themselves into the desired future can help 

eliminate any vagueness around the subject. 

I ask prospective Y employees and volunteers how they have 

demonstrated honesty, respect, caring and responsibility in the 

past. When has the commitment to these virtues been difficult 

or challenging? How have they demonstrated an ability to choose 

a long term goal concerning character and stuck to it when challenged? 

When has the candidate demonstrated excellence in dealing 

with feelings and actions concerning character? When has the 

applicant had to express strength and commitment to character 

in a setting similar to the YMCA? 

I think with a little advanced planning we can select staff and 

volunteers that are ideal for developing our ability to care (be 

compassionate, forgive, demonstrate generosity and kindness). We 

can help our communities discover the power of honesty (integrity, 

trustworthiness and fairness). The diversity of the Olympic Movement 

beyond just race and gender is an ideal place to practice 

respect (acceptance, empathy, self-respect and tolerance). We can 

develop responsibility (commitment.courage, health and service 

to others). 

• We can make ethics and character development a focus of 

Olympic planning. 

• We can allocate resources to those areas most likely to promote 

character development. 

• We can decide which programs to offer based on their potential 

for developing character. 

• We can ask donors to support our character development efforts. 

• We can recruit governing board members to held us improve our 

world through character development. 

364

• We can send a key message to athletes, coaches, organizations and 

bodies that the Olympic Movement is intentionally and 

systematically improving the world through character development. 

• We can evaluate our effectiveness by how well we help people 

accept and demonstrate positive values. 

Can you imagine coming to work or volunteering for an organization 

or movement that wants to build character? I can't 

imagine not. 

365

DISCUSSION GROUPS 

Each discussion group has been assigned a lecturer, whose 

task is to ensure that the group has a Chair and a Scribe for 

each of its two meetings. The Chair will organise the discussion, 

and the Scribe will take notes and produce a one-page wordprocessed 

report after each meeting. The group should also elect 

a Presenter, who will present the two-page final report to the 

Plenary Session at 08.30 Tuesday. 

Each group has questions relating to both the first and second 

half of the programme. You do not have to answer all of your 

questions - but please do address at least one from each half. 

In addition to the questions below, there is an additional "open" 

question for all groups: 

- Take any ethical issue, and discuss its significance for the 

Olympic Movement today. 

QUESTIONS 

French Group 

• Identify ethical aspects of the Olympic Idea. 

• What functions do higher insitutes of physical education have 

regarding Olympic culture and education? 

How can they carry out those functions? 

• Comment développer dans son propre pays une éthique du sport? 

• Comment un manager de sport peut faire face au différentes 

menaces comme le dopage, la violence, le nationalisme et la 

chauvinisme, la surcommercialisme, la corruption...? 

• How does sport promote and/or inhibit democratization? 

English Group 1 

• Identify ethical aspects of the Olympic Idea. 

• How can a sports manager cope with threats such as doping, 

violence, nationalism and chauvinism, overcommercialisation, 

corruption...? 

366

• How can we in our own country help to develop an ethic of sport? 

• What functions do higher institutes of physical education have 

regarding Olympic culture and education? 

• How can they carry out those functions? 

• Virtues - Which? What virtues should we expect from, and develop 

in: sports performers; coaches; educators; administrators. 

• How does sport promote and/or inhibit démocratisation? 

English Groups 2 & 3 

• Take any evil of your choice, and explain why in Olympism it is evil. 

• Define "character", suggest basic guidelines for faciltating 

character development in sport activities. 

• What is the role of the physical educator and the coach in 

character developmemt? 

• What are the unique cultural and educational values of 

Olympism? Have they changed during 100 years? 

• Virtues - Which? What virtues should we expect from, and develop 

in: sports performers; coaches; educators; administrators. 

• Discuss the view that sport: be of the people (for the participants) 

for the pleasure of the people (participants) run by the people 

(participants) 

English Groups 4 & 5 

• Provide an account of "fair play" and explain why it is a central 

to sports ethics. 

• "Winning isn't the most important thing - it's'the only thing". Is 

it desirable or possible to eradicate this maxim in modern society? 

• Is it possible for Olympism to maintain its educational values 

under current social-economic conditions? 

• Virtues - How? Take any virtue. Now: what are the best ways of 

developing that virtue in each group: sports performers; coaches; 

educators; administrators? 

• What are the systems of stratification in your country that inhibit 

the démocratisation of sport, and how might they be altered or 

accommodated? 

367

ESTABLISHED FACTS 

French speaking group 

chaired by Dr Marc MAES (BEL) 

- There are no National Olympic Academies in all represented 

countries. 

- Within training institutions structures that would further 

consideration of issues related to sports ethics and Olympism 

vary (e.g. Olympic chair, teaching integrated in the history and 

philosophy of sport) or do not exist. 

- Relations between these two institutions are sometimes 

close, sometimes conflicting or inexistent. 

- The ideas of Olympism are not always included in the edu 

cational programmes. 

WISHES 

- Establish or develop the exchange of information on research 

work dealing with sports ethics and Olympism. 

- Make these ideas better known and allow people to live them. 

- Integrate them in training programmes for teachers, sport 

administrators and sport leaders in particular. 

- Spread this awareness to all the target groups concerned (the 

media especially, but also parents and the athletes themselves). 

- The many achievements that were presented are aimed only 

at young school students. They should also involve adolescents 

among whom the development of free, non organized practices, 

could be perceived as a rejection of proposed models. Which are 

the values around which these practices are structured? 

368 

CONCLUSIONS 

The group appreciated the quality of the lectures and noted: 

- the need to update the fundamental values of Olympism;

- the need to test the theoretical models proposed which can 

develop in the sportsmen and the other actors concerned, the 

sense of ethics. 

In future sessions: 

- more time should be provided for interventions by partici 

pants and their discussion, 

- the texts of the lectures should be available in advance, 

- more time should be allocated to the working groups. 

Finally, partnership agreements between two countries could 

be considered (training, information, resources). 

369

English speaking group 1 

chaired by Dr. Ronnie LIDOR (ISR) 

Discussion Group One 

After the group leader introduced the process each member 

introduced themselves and a secretary and facilitator were selected. 

The group reviewed the suggested questions. 

The question of what is ethics was raised and each member 

spent two minutes writing a definition of ethics. Several were 

shared with the group for discussion. 

1. Ethics could use the word moral, human virtues, charac 

teristics of human behaviour, internalised in social community. 

Context is specific, values are universal. 

2. Separate morals and ethics, rules of living written or un 

written. Ethics is the rules, morals is the behaviour. 

3. Moral values are voluntary action of right and wrong action 

values can vary. 

4. There are normal and meta ethics, an explicit set of moral 

rules of human action. 

The group spent the balance of the session exploring and discussing 

a "fundamental and universal set of ethics or virtues".We 

included the following list after brief discussion and examples 

and clarification of each. 

• Fair play - follow and keep the rules 

• Equality - anti-racism 

• Respect - persons, abilities, differences, emancipation, 

environment, ideology, solidarity. 

• Tolerance 

• Always do your best 

• Honesty 

370

Ethics apply every day, they are measured in crisis, extremes, 

and when others don't see your behaviour. 

We had a short discussion of the universality of faith and religion 

in ethics and cultural variances if any, on "fundamental and universal 

ethics". 

Sports are a social group with temporary or special rules. We 

spent a limited time discussing the morality and ethics applied to 

Olympic Boxing. All members contributed and added to the discussion. 

The discussion group recommends that the IOA take steps to 

encourage the formation of committees end ethics education programs 

throughout the Olympic Movement. 

The group discussed the concept of thinking globally and acting 

locally, as a strategy to overcome the feeling of powerlessness to 

improve ethics. The group members will employ the following strategies 

informed by the learning and experiences of the past few days 

when they return home: 

Work in the area of applied ethics workshops with coaches. 

Report proceedings of Academy to various NOC, Federations, 

Associations, Ministries and Institutions 

Seek teachable moments on ethics in sport in the context of 

Olympism. 

Will put together proposals for centers of applied sports ethics. 

Impact the formation of ethics committees throughout sport. 

Introduce Olympism and ethics in the education system. 

Work with team members and students on ethics. 

Become an intentional role model and raise discussions of ethics 

as an athlete. 

Support the education of policy boards and committees on the 

subject of ethics. 

The group discussed the importance of physical education as a 

vehicle for sport ethics education. A majority of the group supported 

a resolution that the IOA encourage physical education in countries 

where it does not exist in the school curriculum. 

Vehicles for sharing, reporting and evaluation of these proceedings 

on the impact on the subject of ethics in the Olympic Movement 

should be encouraged. 

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chaired by Prof. Manfred LAMMER (GER) 

Metaphors in the Making of an Olympian Character 

Olympism knows no evil, for Olympism is pure. By definition, 

Olympism is good. It is what we strive for, what the reasoned 

man seeks. It is a way of life dressed up in sporting clothes that 

suits our very being. If there are evils, then they belong to the 

Olympic Games, ancient and modern, and are the products of the 

corrupting influences of commerce and vain glory. They show us 

up to be deeply flawed creatures with capacities for good and bad. 

The characters shaped by our circumstances and situations do 

not face in only one direction. 

The road to Olympism's Gelestial City, like that of Bunyan's 

pilgrim, takes many twists and turns, with dead-ends and easy 

exists, cross-roads and forks. It is a rocky road, not a golden mile, 

and it takes true courage to find one's way along its path without 

succumbing to the temptations of short-cuts and blind-alleys. 

Courage that is shown by challenging the I.O.C. if necessarily, as 

gatekeepers at the entrance to the Olympic City; courage to be 

true to oneself, not to say one thing but do another. It takes 

courage to find one's own way, because there is not one map but 

many. Let courage, temperance, justice, and prudence be your 

compass. It takes courage to persevere, to folio one's path, and 

the courage not to hide behind the mask of false identity. 

The metaphor of the mask is a useful one here. It is the 

meaning of the word persona: the person, or personality. It is 

superficial perhaps: a covering, a changeable screen that can fool 

us with its charm. Have we only masks to wear? Is there nothing 

beneath the surface? Perhaps it is our character that is more 

deeply buried in the flesh behind the changing cover, a character 

that we might wish to hide away, so horrible are its scars and 

so obvious are our misdeeds that begot them. 

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What is character? 

Aspects of character, as the ancient Greeks believed, were the 

marks of a man. These are not surface smears; painted on so 

easily that they can be washed off. The lines that draw our character 

run deeper. They are tattooed, inscribed, etched, carved, 

chiseled into the formless shape. The chisel requires a heavy hammer, 

but wielded carefully, the marks it makes can create a thing 

of beauty. But, these marks can be deep and mistakes are difficult 

to change. Sport and the Olympics are tools in this endeavour. 

They require steady hands if they are to be guided well. Their 

use gives no guarantees. The physical educator is not chosen by 

the pupils to sculpt them in the image they desire. They must 

trust the sculptor and the sculptor must take responsibility to 

guide the pupils as to the images they can choose. And there 

must be this choice. The sculpture that is copied over and over 

with no thought for the rock's autonomy in no work of art. Let 

our children be children. Let their spirits be lifted by the joys of 

play. The physical educator must not be a preacher in the pulpit, 

but a sage on the sidelines; not a dictator of duty, but the voice 

that praises virtue. The role is to create the opportunities for the 

pupil to choose where the chisel falls, to practise the virtues that 

shape the image: small, deft strokes taken with care, guided by 

the educator's hand, cutting slowly deeper and more indelibly. 

What are the values of Olympism? 

Olympism has no values. Values belong to persons. They are 

held, and holding on to them is often far from easy. Values are not 

found out there in the world. They are created by us through the act 

of choosing. It is free choise, so how do we make it? What quides 

us? What image does the sculptor have that chisels the creases and 

folds of our characters? Olympism is the model, one model, of a world 

that could exist if we choose to uphold the values it exemplifies. Look 

at this world. It is a world worth striving for, a perfect world as a 

mold from which we create our imperfect reality. It is of the kind like 

Plato's Republic or Sir Thomas More's Utopia. It is a modern secular 

myth of dreamtime, of nirvana, of heaven and earth. It is a story 

373

modernity tells of itself, just as all our ancestors of all cultures have 

told their stories of the world from which they came and the world 

to which they aspire. Do you like our story? Do you like the image 

Olympism portrays? It is too easy to dismiss it as merely a story, as 

a fantasy, as an unreal world. We do not hope or want to achieve it. 

Perfection is a dull paradise. To borrow and alter slightly an Olympic 

metaphor: it is not the realisation that matters, it is the taking part 

in the strife. And just as in games, sometimes we win, sometimes we 

lose. So what then of character, of virtues, and of values? The virtues 

our Olympic dream demands are just so. They are the characteristics 

of a hero in the pursuit of the Olympic good life, the moral life, the 

proper and right way of life as portrayed by Olympism. Without this 

story to tell of ourselves the sculptor has no guide to chisel the roughhewn 

stone. 

Have our Olympic values changed? 

Olympism has not changed. Its perfect image is timeless and 

spaceless. The realised models of Olympism have altered a great 

deal and always will. We should not worry about this. We need 

not fear that the ancient games were blighted by professional athletes. 

We need not pretend that they were amateur in order to re-cast 

our ancient model of Olympism in a greater likeness of its ideal. 

We need not anguish over Brundage's decree that the games must 

be always be amateur in the face of their almost complete transition 

to professionalism. The issues that concern us are situated in their 

time and place and tomorrow they well be gone. Olympism is our 

guide to help us through this transition. Citius, altius, fortius needs 

limits. The nature of the human being knows no bounds. Morality, 

here understood through our virtues and values, is the restraint 

that keeps unbounded freedom from roaming too far. How far is 

too far? How are we to know without the complete picture that 

Olympism offers?It is not the only picture. Many images can vie 

for our attention and tempt us in their sight. We have other stories 

to tell. But it does seem that we are telling a story that resonates 

around the world, across all cultures, in all languages, to all people 

than can and want to hear it. 

374

Is this the uniqueness of Olympism? 

Some people abhor the extraneous trapping of the Olympic Games: 

the flags, the ceremonies, the anthems, the flame, the oath, the 

medals. But these things create its unique ethos. It makes them 

special. It creates meaning out of action. Would wars cease for a 

mere race? In ancient times, the Olympic truce brought stillness 

to turbulent waters. The Games did not then and do not now make 

peace. They create space for peace to flourish. They provide an 

opportunity to taste the sweetness of joy and soften the bitterness 

of our squabbles. We can sit down to eat with our enemies and 

by recognising their need and desire for the same foods that nourish 

us, know them as friends. For the majority of Olympians who will 

never be winners of medals, their victories are quietly won battles 

with themselves, to overcome pride and jealousy, to learn to accept 

defeat ana to accept others, to learn to live with oneself through 

learning to live with those who face the same tests. The Olympic 

village is truly a global village. No other institution brings so many 

of us together. Surely we can use this for good? There is no question 

that Olympism is worth fighting for. At the end of the 20th Century 

it is as good a fight as any to pick. We must cherish its joys and 

struggle on against its corruptions. In doing so we are doing nothing 

less than fighting for a better world. Olympism's values are not 

special to Olympism. They simply give our ideals an image of substance 

through which the virtues necessary for their survival can 

be practised. We must do everything to focus on the human glories 

of the Olympics. If we can hold in our memories the individual 

stories that stirred our compassion, helped us see our fellow humans 

as brothers and sisters, and inspired us to try a little harder to 

live up to loftier goals in all our lives, then we will have done much 

to cool our heads and warm aout hearts. In the end this may be 

the best we can hope for. 

375


chaired by Prof. Hai REN (Chn) 

SUBJECT: Define "character", suggest basic guidelines for facilitating 

character development in sports activities. 

We believe a person of "character" would posses certain attributes 

which would include, but not be limited to the following: 

Honesty; respect for self, others and the rules & regulations of 

life and sport; responsibility; fairness; trustworthiness, and positive 

self esteem. 

Some basic guidelines to facilitate character 

development in sports activities: 

Because we believe that people do not automatically develop 

moral character, sustained efforts must be made to develop 

"character: Therefore, our answer is Education, education, and 

more education. 

Education to teach values; practice values; and, enforce, reinforce, 

affirm and reward the practice of good values. 

Education by good examle; education by distribution of written 

materials; education by inspiration; education by involvement 

and real experience. As one of our group members noted: (Old 

British Chinese Proverb): "Tell me, I Forget; Show me, I know; 

Involve me, I understand". 

Subject: Role of physical education and coach in character development 

In order to mixture "moral growth" and character development, 

the teacher or coach must: 

1. Be a good example to imitate: The teacher must be a positive 

role model. 

376

2. Organize, demonstrate, practice, and correct mistakes. 

3. Preach and practice good habits! 

4. Teach the value of following rules and the consequences of 

not doing so. 

5. Emphasize respect for self and others. 

6. Challenge individuals to higher achievement. 

7. Advise students/athletes of the requirement - and what it 

means - that he/she serve as an example to other youth of the 

country should he/she be selected as a member of the Olympic 

Team. 

8. Provide a conducive learning environment in which athletes 

are encouraged not only to ask questions, but also to seek answers 

themselves (with guidance). 

Always remember the Charley Brown and Snoopy story: Charley 

Brown said to his friend: "I just taught Snoopy to whistle. His 

friend watches Snoopy and after a while says: "I don't hear him 

whistling". Charley answers: "I didn't say he could whistle. I just 

taught him to whistle!!!". 

Subject: Take any evil of your choise, and explain wy in Olympism 

it is evil. 

This group decided on inequality/discrimination as a general 

"evil" which we then narrowed down further to inequality of opportunity 

based on class discrimination. We agreed that such 

discrimination is generally based on income, occupation, background 

and education. There is a definite belief that generally 

less afluent, lower class people are discriminated against not only 

in Olympism because it is specifically contrary to the Fundamental 

Principles set forth in the Olympic Charter - particularly on Principles 

#3 and #6, and on Chapter 4, Section 31, paragraphs 2.1 

and 2.5. Additionally, the evil of this kind of discrimination is 

contrary to the universal moral values that the group as a. whole 

believes to be at the heart of Olympism. 

Imput from the group established that inequality of opportunity 

based on class existed for different reasons in different countries: 

1. In one country, there is equality of education (regarding the 

ideas/ideals of Olympism) from the 5th grade onward, but there 

377

is inequality of opportunity to participate in sports based on the 

financial ability of the family to support the cost of any particular 

sport. That is, students with more money had more opportunity; 

students with lesser money had less opportunity. (NOTE: Surprisingly, 

more of the less affluent students/athletes consistently 

excel in sports. The belief is that the poorer athletes have more 

incentive to do well to raise their standing - so they are more 

committed toward the commitment it takes to excel!). 

2. In at least one country, there is a national system of sport 

education which includes the specific principles of Olympism, 

and, the different classes appear to have equal opportunity to 

take advantage of sport. 

3. In at least two countries (one clearly richer and larger than 

the other), there exists equal education and equal opportunity. All 

students/athletes have the same opportunity to participate and 

to compete. It is up to the individual to take advantage of the 

opportunity. No distinctions were noted as to participation by class. 

4. In several countries, in years past, all athletes received equal 

education and had equal sports opportunities - so the best and 

most dedicated could excel. Class distinctions were unimportant. 

However, because of changing political conditions, that situation 

has changed and the future is up in the air... 

5. In other countries, there is sporadic education about Olym 

pism, and it is clear that those with money have greater oppor 

tunities to compete at all levels of sport - and, often class is a 

great advantage. 

All of the above situation amount to "evil" contrary to the 

Olympic Charter and the ideals of Olympism. According to the 

Olympic Charter (Chapter 4) the NOC's are responsible for this 

problem. The IOC should direct NOC's to take action to comply 

with these fundamentals. 

The Significance of the Ethical Issue of Judging tar the 

Olympic Movement 

Many Olympic sports (in fact, most) involve judging systems 

which, by necessity, have roof for human error. For the most 

378

part, they include sport with "non-measurable" results. Other results 

are measurable, but the results can be affected by a judge's 

call. They include both team sports and individual sports - such 

as: basketball, baseball, boxing, soccer, ice hockey, diving, equestrian, 

figure skating, gymnastics, ski jumping, and synchronised 

swimming among others. 

In sport where technique and aesthetics are equally valued 

(for example, figure skating and gymnastics), judging can be compromised 

- or at least questioned. Just as one person loves Rembrandt 

and another Dali - so very different from each other - but 

both recognized as among the greatest ever, so it is with these 

sports. One judge prefers tall thin skaters dressed in long flowing 

dresses, another loves short, bublly skaters in short skirts. There 

is no question that personal preferences can and do affect the 

outcome. This is not necessarily bad. As long as preferential or 

punitive marks are not given to unfairly (!) raise or lower a competitor's 

standing, judges preferences are part of the "game". 

Likewise, a referee in a basketball game, or soccer game can 

affect the outcome by the calls he/she makes during the game. 

It is possible to call a questionable play either fair or foul. The 

ref has the discretion to make the "proper" call. He/she may 

make a mistake. As long as that mistake is not made purposefully 

to give one team an unfair advantage, it is part of the game. 

There are several factors which could cause the existence of 

unfair bias for judges. The most obvious are: 

1. Such things as special antipathy toward a competitor, his 

coach, or even the country he/she represents would certainly 

raise the issue. Any judge in such a position should recognize 

the conflict of interest position it puts him/her in, and disqualify 

himself. At this time, rules governing possible conflicts for judges 

lie in the hands of the various IF's. Some (like soccer) seem to 

have acknowledged the fact that there are time when the judges 

from one country should never be put in the position of judging 

a country they are in great competition with - for example, Norway 

and Denmark. Although the growth of "nationalism" in Olympic 

competition is contrary to the pure ideals of Olympism, it exists... 

and must be recognized as such, and, 

379

2. Special bias in favor of one's own competitor or team is 

grounds for disqualification... Additionally, judges are subject to 

other outside pressures that are not always so readily apparent. 

For example, the sound (of approval or disapproval) from the 

crowd at a figure skating competition, boxing match, or even 

soccer or basketball game. 

It is important to note that there are multiple effects of "unfair 

judging" One effect (more likely to occur in team sports), in the 

example of purposeful biased referring, is that the whole game 

becomes tainted and unfair - to the athletes, coaches, and spectators. 

The sport would be ruined if it is believed that such manipulation 

takes place. Another effect (more likely to occur in 

individual sports such as figure skating, diving, symnastics, ski 

jumping, etc.) occurs when judges send a message to young athletes 

about what is desirable to the judges in order to win - but which 

advice may be destructive to the athlete. For example, judges 

who make it clear to gymnastics or figure skaters that they need 

to be small and/or thin to "look their best". What has happened 

to the Olympic ideas of "fair play" in the first instance, and the 

"harmony" and perfection of mind and body in the second instance? 

The consequences of the first example are obvious to all; the 

consequences of the second example are still being revealed - but 

not corrected. 

There are various ways to guard against "unfair" judging. Education, 

refresher courses, ongoing certification are obviously necessary. 

Accountability of judges within their own sport and peers 

is probably the most effective remedy. 

Individual IFs are responsible for "policing their own." For the 

most part, judges at high levels of sport are very good - but are 

always criticized. Take the example of the outcome of several 

famous soccer games - where many fans really believe the result 

would have been different except for "one bad call". Or, the outcome 

of the 1994 Lillehammer Olympics in figure skating in which 

Oksana Baiul beat Nancy Kerrigan for the gold. Many judges, 

skaters, and fans are still debating that one! 

380 

This discussion discussed Olympic and national amateur sports

versus "professional" sports judging. We concluded that the "problems" 

associated with possible unfair judging are not common to 

"amateur" sport. Professional sport seems to have the same issues. 

It is actually a great credit to all our judges that there is as little 

problem as there is. Hopefully, that speaks well of the moral and 

ethical values of today's judges. 

Overall, we concluded that subjective judging in all sports without 

mechanically measurable results is not bad. In fact, it is 

probably desirable and necessary for a portion of the excitement 

present at today's Games. Isn't "subjective" judging part of the 

game? Part of the thrill of sport? Part of the excitement? As we, 

as spectators or competitors, wait for results of subjective judging, 

aren't we all "taking part" in the competition... Perhaps this kind 

of judging adds to sport and to the Olympic Games!?... 

381


chaired by Prof. Dr. Doris CORBETT (USA) 

Regarding the central role of fair play 

Whilst there are various definitions of fair play we ask are 

they realistic and are they adhered to, is playing fair simply 

obeying the rules of the game, or does this notion of fair play 

encompass less concrete ideals, such as gamesmanship. We know 

for a fact that sport has been very successful to date without 

too much interferring with the ethics of fair play. We are also 

confident that players, coaches and officials interpret rules and 

guidelines to suit their needs. Other than these notions discussion 

led us to a series of questions. 

- By rewarding fair play are we rewarding what should be the norm? 

- Do those players/coaches who transgress the fair play code 

receive appropriate penalties? 

- Should we be examining the cause of the lack of fair play 

and adopt a preventative rather than a cure? 

- Has the success of sport and materialistic rewards encouraged 

the abuse of fair play? 

- Can academics realistically theorize about fair play ethics 

without having inside knowledge gained from participation? 

Regarding the winning isn't the important thing... 

- By taking part in sport we are striving to win, the struggle and 

the journey are very important qualities intrinsically, are these quali 

ties compatible with the materialistic rewards in professional sport? 

- Professional sport leaves a competitor with a dilemma, to 

fulfill his ethical fair play duties whilst truying to remain faithful 

to their contractual obligations. 

- In the highly professionalised and commercialised world of 

sport are the good intentions of educators/philosophers impor 

tant to any but those educators/philosophers? 

- Do we really know what we want from sport in terms of 

ethical and moral conduct... 

382

-Ethics reveals the depth of our beliefs, therefore our actions 

reveal the depth to which we hold on to our beliefs. 

- There is a need for developing recognition of other equally 

important values than those of winning. 

- Why should academics play the role of rule-maker in sport, 

has sport asked for this help? 

- Do we need to educate the spectators both in the nuances 

of the game and also in ethical considerations? 

Considerations on an ethical theme 

Concerning the question of an ethic, any ethic, Equality (nondiscrimination) 

is a fundamental ethic. Discrimination appears 

to exist in many cultures and in many forms. Equality of female 

participants, coaches and officials is an area of concern. The 

Olympic Charter outlines one of the principles of the Olympic 

Movement as follows: "To contribute to building a peaceful and 

better world by educating youth through sport practiced without 

discrimination of any kind and in the Olympic spirit, which requires 

mental understanding..." 

Can we honestly say that every or any of the N.O.C's practice 

this principle? Does this principle work for the I.O.C.? Let us consider 

the many nations who send male-only representation to the 

Olympic Games. Are these countries meeting the principles as outlined, 

and if not, why are they allowed to compete. South Africa 

failed to meet this principle and was excluded from the Olympic 

family. Once the conditions changed in South Africa, they were 

reinstated. They were excluded because they did not play sport in 

such a way that met the Olympic principle. Now then, the I.O.C. 

has a problem. Many countries discriminate against women, which 

is against the Charter. However, to demonstrate tolerance and to 

allow countries to remain in the Olympic family requires that we 

accept their discrimination against women. 

This contradiction provides the I.O.C. with a serious problem. 

They have arrived at a principle which appears not to hold true. 

To suggest that the I.O.C. excludes these countries would be 

failure to acknowledge religious implications and therefore mutual 

respect. The problem facing the I.O.C. is therefore the need 

to find a principle that works every time. 

383


chaired by Prof. Jim PARRY (GBR) 

Provide an account of Fair Play and explain why it is central 

to sports ethics. 

Fair Play is seen as the "ethics of competition". 

It encompasses justice, equality, fairness, honesty, acceptance 

of and respect for individual differences and other moral values. 

To play fair, one must accept and abide by the rules. 

Fair Play is an individual responsibility and it is a personal 

challenge for not only players, but for parents,coaches, teachers, 

administrators, spectators and media also. It involves values and 

ethics for life, not just for sport and should therefore not be 

taught in isolation. Ideally, the principles of fair play should be 

taught in all curriculum areas so that these values become part 

of society and not just of sport. Sport then, can be considered 

as a vehicle for social change through the teaching and learning 

of the values associated with fair play. 

If the principles of fair play are taught and instilled at an early 

age, they are more likely to be maintained through adulthood 

and into elite sport as customary behaviours. 

Fair play and its principles are dependent on culture and interpretaions 

of what can and cannot be taught will vary from one 

country to another. The moral values of individual and team persons 

may also differ and these differences need to be akcnowledged, 

if not accepted. 

"Fair Play" is a useful term to describe the values gained 

through sport at the "grass roots" or base level. However at 

the Olympic level this term should be replaced by another 

one and parameters redefined as there are currently too many 

problems and situations that do not meet with the ethics of 

fair play. This is a strong recommendation from the group. 

If the term fair is used to describe something that is blatantly 

384

not fair, it is difficult to educate about these values. 

"Winning isn't the most important thing - it is the only thing". 

Is it desirable or possible to eradicate this maxim from modern 

society? 

Yes, ideally, it is very desirable but also very difficult. 

In some cultures, winning is very important and the pressures 

to win can be enormous. It is acceptable to want to learn to win 

if it is the right way, the fair way to win. You must also know 

that you may lose and must accept this loss. 

If one of the goals of sport is to promote the spirit of friendship, 

then participation must be more important than winning. 

Is it possible for Olympism to maintain its educational 

values under current social - economic conditions? 

No! 

Current economic and social diferences already undermine many 

of the principles of Olympism. Changing of rules can also undermine 

the maintenance of the Olympic ideals. For example, if only 100 

Triathletes can compete, this rule on reduction of numbers will 

exclude top athletes from some smaller countries and increase 

elitism suggesting that the Olympics are for winners only. Take 

any virtue. What are the best ways of developing that virtue 

in: sports performers, coaches, educators, administrators: 

Honesty 

Honesty is a difficult virtue to define, but can be regarded as 

being truthful or presenting the realistic and true picture. 

To be not honest is to cheat. Honesty is a very important term 

in the Fair Play context. In elite sport negative examples are 

apparent; the importance of role models showing honest behaviour 

is considerable. 

An athlete or player must be able to make decisions that which 

allow him/her to be honest with themselves as well as with the 

coach and others involved in the sport. 

There needs to be a common ground between action and belief 

so that what is seen, reflects the honest beliefs of the person. 

Children need to experience honesty and the consequences of 

being honest or not and discuss these. Children and young sport- 

385

spersons can be educated about the roles of coaches, referees 

and administrators and can experience these roles and appreciate 

and experience the value of honesty from different viewpoints. 

For coaches, honesty also involves making ethical decisions. 

Coaches and educators need to model honesty and combine it 

with equality, consideration and respect. Often coach education 

focuses on the development of skills only. Coach education needs 

to include teaching about honesty and other values. Communication 

skills and interpersonal skills should also be included so 

that coaches are able to be honest in a way that is considerate 

of the feelings of others. 

It needs to be remembered that while spot reflects society, 

sport can provide the opportunity to develop virtues such as honesty. 

However, honesty is more likely to be practised in all aspects 

of life if it is taught in a variety of contexts. In society we can 

see examples of what may be considered acceptable dishonesty, 

such as cheating the tax-man. Does this represent a doublestandard, 

and if so, does this need to be addressed also? 

Positive role models are always important and instances of 

honesty can be highlighted in this way. 

Honesty is important in administration, in the provision of 

funds for example. There is increased pressure on coaches to 

provide desired results and these types of pressures can contribute 

to a lack of honesty. 

Many pressures can affect the ability of the media to be honest. 

It is perceived that the media in a small local paper may not 

present a totally honest report of the "home team" while the large 

urban paper is more free to be critical. 

In some countries, big sports have their own Press Office and 

can generate coverage which may not be totally honest, but busy 

journalists may accept the press release. 

Honesty is not an easy virtue to teach in others, but there is 

certainly no point encouraging players or sportspersons to be 

honest if they are exposed regularly to dishonest practices by 

from their coach or administration. 

386

CONTENTS 

Ephoria of the International Olympic Academy.............................. 3 

I.O.C. Commission for the International Olympic Academy and 

Olympic education........................................................................ 4 

Prologue............................................................................................ 5 

5th INTERNATIONAL POST GRADUATE SEMINAR List 

of participants 

Questions and theories to the origin of the Olympic Games. 

by Mag. Lisa NOGGLER (AUT)...................................................... 15 

Homer - Iliad - Funeral Competitions 

by Despina Rallia VOGIATZI (GRE) ............................................. 19 

Amateurs and professionals at the Ancient Olympics: problems 

and prospects of professionalism today 

by Wondimu TADESSE (ΕΤΗ)....................................................... 22 

A comparative study on physical education between Sparta and 

Ancient Chinese western Zhou dynasty 

by Xue-Ning VAN (CHN) ............................................................... 24 

The Capitolian Games in Ancient Rome. A counterpart to the 

Olympic Games 

by Barbara RIEGER (GER)............................................................ 27 

The Zappies Olympia 

by AZexios LIVERIS (GRE) ............................................................ 29 

The development of the closing ceremonies by the Olympic Games 

1896 - 1936 

by Peter ESTOR (GER)................................................................... 32 

All that is solid in to air. The Swedish gymnastic tradition and 

the Olympic Games in Stockholm 1912 

by Hans BOILING (SWE) ............................................................. 35 

The Olympic Art Competitions of 1936 and the counter - exhibition 

of Amsterdam 

by Alexandra THUMM (GER) ........................................................ 39 

A characteristic Hungarian sportsman and propagandist at the 

end of the last century 

by ndiko PASKA (HUN) ................................................................. 41 

387

Olympic Quest in Cameroon 1960-1996 

Emergence and Growth of an Olympic Culture in black Africa 

by David - Claude KEMO KEIMBOU (CMR)................................... 44 

The social significance of sport in the modern world from the 

Marxist and Figurational perspectives of sport and their ability to 

explain the changing economic fortunes of the IOC over the last 

twenty five years 

by Ian Stuart BRITTAIN (GBR) ..................................................... 49 

The International Olympic Movement. Economic Development 

by Denis KROUJKOV (RUS) ......................................................... 52 

How can Social Exclusion be Overcome in the Olympic Movement? 

by Christopher Robert KENNETT (GBR)........................................ 54 

Making the Olympic Principles work in Practice: Change of 

Basketball rules for women's adequate participation 

by Roberto Malufde MESQUITA (BRA) ....................................... 58 

Influence of Body Image to Establish a Life-style 

by Diana MNARIKOVA (CZE) ...................................................... 60 

Values and conceptions of the Brazilian Olympic Athletes. An 

Introductory approach 

by Otavio Guimaráes Tavares da SILVA (BRA) .......................... 64 

Historical evolution of doping phenomenon 

by Lorella VITTOZZI (ITA).............................................................. 68 

The athlete and the Olympic Idea 

Creating athlete - centered development programs 

by Michelle BROWNRIGG (CAN) .................................................. 72 

Sports and Nationalism. 

The ideological development of Swedish sport 

by Nils - Olof ZETHRIN(SWE) ................................................... 77 

Olympic and the 20th century bodymind 

by Maco YOSHIOKA (JPN) ............................................................ 80 

The main challenges facing the Olympic Movement 

by Mr. Khalid Hassan ELBEELY (SUD) ...................................... 82 

Some ethical aspects of the Olympic Movement 

by Reele REMMELKOOR (EST) .................................................... 86 

Politics in Olympic Games: Boycotts, Conflicts, Protests 

by nkka VIROLAINEN (FIN) .......................................................... 90 

The Olympic Movement in the information society era 

by Berta CEREZUELA (ESP........................................................... 92 

A conceptual analysis of fair play within Olympism 

by Deborah P. McDONALD (CAN) ................................................... 95 

388

The moral aspects of Olympic Movement 

by Hossein MOJTAHEDI (IRI) ...................................................... 101 

Tae kwon do: a focus on the physical and technical training methods 

of the tae kwon do player 

by Kwan In LIM (KOR) .................................................................. 104 

Nikolaos Nissiotis as a great Olympic Philosopher His 

views and intellectual heritage 

by Erwina SIERANT (POL) ........................................................... 107 

Conclusions from the topic of sociology on the Olympic Games . 110 

Conclusions of the philosophical section ..................................... 113 

Conclusions of the History of the modern Olympic Games ......... 115 

Conclusions of the Ancient Greek Olympics cycle ....................... 118 

9th INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR FOR SPORTS JOURNALISTS 

List of participants 

The Olympic Ideal and the I.O.A. 

by Mr. Kostas GEORGIADIS (GRE) ............................................ 129 

The forerunners of Olympism in the 19th century (1839-1889) 

by Mr. Petros LINARDOS (GRE) ................................................. 140 

Media Ethics: The role and the duties of sports journalists 

by Prof. Jae-Won LEE (USA) ........................................................ 148 

Atlanta's mistakes and Sydney's resolutions for a more efficient 

press organization at the Games of the year 2000 

by M. Alain BILLOUIN (FRA)......................................................... 156 

The Olympic Games and the moving image 

by Mr. Adrian METCALFE (GBR) ................................................ 165 

The evolution of journalism at the Olympic Games 

by Mr. Alain LUNZENFICHTER (FRA)........................................... 177 

Conclusions from the discussions by the English speaking par 

ticipants .......................................................................................... 191 

Discussions and conclusions of the French speaking participants 194 

3rd INTERNATIONAL SESSION FOR EDUCATIONISTS AND 

STAFF OF HIGHER INSTITUTES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

List of participants 

Fair Play 

by Dr. Thomas YANNAKIS (GRE) ................................................ 213 

389

Sport ethics in the past and now 

by Yannis ZERVAS (GRE) ............................................................ 223 

Ethical aspects of the Olympic Idea 

by Prof. Jim PARRY (GBR) ........................................................... 233 

Culturalism and educational values of Olympism 

by Prof. Hai REN (CHN) ............................................................... 249 

Sport, moral education and development of character 

by Dr. Ronnie LIDOR (ISR) ............................................................ 259 

Democracy, education and sport 

by Dr. Dons R. CORBETT (USA) ................................................. 271 

Ethics and Physical Education; eschewing Kohlberg, embracing 

character 

by Dr. Mike McNAMEE (GBR) ...................................................... 286 

Sports management stressing the values 

by Dr. Mark MAES (BEL) ............................................................. 305 

The legal aspects of sports ethics and the protection of Fair Play 

by Dr. Dimitrìs PANAGIOTOPOULOS (GRE) ................................ 318 

A conceptual analysis of the Educational Aspiration of Fair Play 

within Olympism 

by Deborah P. McDONALD (CAN) ................................................. 333 

Olympic Games and epiphany 

by Anna HOGENOVA (CZE) ......................................................... 336 

Ethics and the Sacred Panhellenic Games 

by Vassilis BOUTAS (GRE) .......................................................... 339 

Ethics in sport and Olympic Games 

by Dr. Shokouh NAVABINEJAD (IRI) ........................................... 343 

Moral dilemma 

by Yuko HATANO and Keiko WADA (JPN) .................................. 344 

Education, Physical Education, Olympic Movement, and 

Welmess - Approaching Universal Values 

by Fernando FIERAS (PUR)........................................................... 352 

New concept implemented 

by Betsy MEHOLICK..................................................................... 354 

Some thoughts on modern sports 

by Frantisek SEMAN (SVK) .......................................................... 356 

Staff and Volunteer. Recruitment for Character Development and 

the Olympic Movement 

by MichaelP. GRAVES (USA) ....................................................... 358 

Discussion groups ........................................................................... 366 

390

French speaking group 

by Marc Maes............................................................................. 368 


by Ronnie LIDOR........................................................................ 370 


by Manfred LAMMER.................................................................. 372 


by Hai REN ................................................................................ 376 


by Doris CORBETT..................................................................... 382 


by Jim PARRY ............................................................................ 384 

391

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