Volume 4 Issue 1 (February 2012) - Ozean Publications

European 

Journal 

Educational 

of 

Studies 

VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1 

FEBRUARY 2012 

THE PROMOTION OF CARDIOVASCULAR WELLNESS THROUGH PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES 

AMONG BANK WORKERS IN BENIN CITY, EDO STATE, NIGERIA. 

O. H. OBASUYI and E. O. AGWUBIKE 

JOB SATISFACTION STATUS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN OTA, NIGERIA 

ABIODUN .M. GESINDE and GBADEBO .O. ADEJUMO 

ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN RESEARCH CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF 

UNIVERSITY BOTSWANA (UB) GRADUATE EDUCATION PROGRAMME 

H. JOHNSON NENTY 

FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF GRADUATES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION PROGRAM IN PRINCESS 

RAHMEH COLLEGE 

HIAM JAMEEL KATANANI 

HIV AND AIDS STIGMA IN BOTSWANA: VOICES OF SCHOOL STUDENTS AND IMPLICATIONS 

FOR MORAL EDUCATION 

SANA KOKETSO MMOLAI 

ICT ADOPTION AND EFFECTIVE SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN EKITI-STATE 

ABIODUN-OYEBANJI OLAYEMI and K. OMOTAYO 

A CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN WAEC AND NECO 

MATHEMATICS IN OSUN STATE, NIGERIA 

AJAO, I.O. and 

AWOGBEMI , C.A. 

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF INTERNET-BASED INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 

ASSISTANCE FOR PRINT-BASED SELF-LEARNING MATERIALS 

OMAR MAJID, ZURAIDAH A. RAHMAN, HANAFI ATAN, AHMAD H. MOHAMAD 

IMPACT OF SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICES ON KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE & PRACTICE OF 

HEALTH AMONG STUDENTS TOWARDS STRENGTHENING NATIONAL HEALTH STATUS 

IN DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY ABRAKA 

JOSEPH O. OGBE 

ADULT EDUCATION: THE HOPE OF THE MARGINALIZED 

ADEDOKUN MARY OLUFUNKE and OJELEYE JONATHAN ADEMOLA 

VISUAL ACUITY AND MOTOR PERFORMANCE CORRELATES IN BASIC EDUCATION 

SCHOOL CHILDREN OF EDO STATE, NIGERIA 

F.U.OKAFOR and E.O.AGWUBIKE 

DESIGNING AND VALIDATING A SOCIAL CAPITAL SCALE WITHIN A GRADE SPECIFIC 

CONTEXT 

EBRAHIM KHODADADY and FARNAZ FAROKH ALAEE 

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES OF DEMOCRACY IN NIGERIA 

AYENI, M. A. and ADELEYE, J. O. 

THE NEMESIS OF SOCIAL STUDIES IN BOTSWANA PRIMARY SCHOOLS 

MAVIS B. MHLAULI 

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT VARIABLES AND 

STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN EGOR LOCAL 

GOVERNMENT AREA, EDO STATE, NIGERIA. 

DR. ROSELINE O. OSAGIE and CHUKUJINDU J. OKAFOR 

GENDER DIFFERENCES AND STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND RETENTION 

IN SOCIAL STUDIES AMONG JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN EKITI STATE 

B.O. ABDU-RAHEEM

A PEER REVIEVED INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 

European Journal of Educational Science 

A Peer Revieved International Journal 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Volume 4, Issue 1, February 2012 

ISSN 1946-6331 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 

Managing Editor 

Ali Ozel, Dumlupinar University 

Publication Coordinator 

Taskin Inan, Dumlupinar University 

Editorial Board 

Gerald S. Greenberg, Ohio State University, USA 

Hakki Yazici, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey 

Hayati Akyol, Gazi University, Turkey 

Hayati Doganay, Ataturk University, Turkey 

Laurie Katz, Ohio State University, USA 

Lisandra Pedraza, University of Puerto Rico in 

Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico 

Lutfi Ozav, Usak University, Turkey 

Mihai Maxim, Bucharest University, Romania 

Ibrahim Atalay, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey 

Ibrahim S. Rahim, National Research Center, Egypt 

Janet Rivera, NOVA University, USA 

Ramazan Ozey, Marmara University, Turkey 

Samara Madrid, Northern Illinois University, USA 

Samia Abdel Aziz-Ahmed Sayed, National Research 

Center, Egypt 

Web: http://www.ozelacademy.com E-mail: editorejes@gmail.com 

Copyright © 2008 Ozean Publication, 2141 Baneberry Ct. 43235, Columbus, Ohio, USA

European Journal of Educational Science 

A Peer Revieved International Journal 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Volume 4, Issue 1, February 2012 

ISSN 1946-6331 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

THE PROMOTION OF CARDIOVASCULAR WELLNESS THROUGH 

PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES AMONG BANK WORKERS IN BENIN CITY, EDO 

STATE, NIGERIA. 

O. H. OBASUYI and E. O. AGWUBIKE 

JOB SATISFACTION STATUS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN OTA, 

NIGERIA 

ABIODUN .M. GESINDE and GBADEBO .O. ADEJUMO 

ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN RESEARCH CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: 

THE CASE OF UNIVERSITY BOTSWANA (UB) GRADUATE EDUCATION 

PROGRAMME 


FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF GRADUATES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION PROGRAM 

IN PRINCESS RAHMEH COLLEGE 


HIV AND AIDS STIGMA IN BOTSWANA: VOICES OF SCHOOL STUDENTS 

AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MORAL EDUCATION 


ICT ADOPTION AND EFFECTIVE SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

IN EKITI-STATE 

ABIODUN-OYEBANJI OLAYEMI and K. OMOTAYO 

A CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN WAEC 

AND NECO MATHEMATICS IN OSUN STATE, NIGERIA 

AJAO, I.O. and AWOGBEMI , C.A. 

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF INTERNET-BASED INSTRUCTIONAL 

DESIGN ASSISTANCE FOR PRINT-BASED SELF-LEARNING MATERIALS 

OMAR MAJID, ZURAIDAH A. RAHMAN, HANAFI ATAN, AHMAD H. MOHAMAD 

IMPACT OF SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICES ON KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE & 

PRACTICE OF HEALTH AMONG STUDENTS TOWARDS STRENGTHENING 

NATIONAL HEALTH STATUS IN DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY ABRAKA 



ADEDOKUN MARY OLUFUNKE and OJELEYE JONATHAN ADEMOLA 

VISUAL ACUITY AND MOTOR PERFORMANCE CORRELATES IN BASIC 

EDUCATION SCHOOL CHILDREN OF EDO STATE, NIGERIA 

F.U.OKAFOR and E.O.AGWUBIKE 

DESIGNING AND VALIDATING A SOCIAL CAPITAL SCALE WITHIN A 

GRADE SPECIFIC CONTEXT 


PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES OF DEMOCRACY 

IN NIGERIA 

AYENI, M. A. and ADELEYE, J. O. 



RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 

VARIABLES AND STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS IN EGOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, EDO STATE, NIGERIA. 

DR. ROSELINE O. OSAGIE and CHUKUJINDU J. OKAFOR 

GENDER DIFFERENCES AND STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND 

RETENTION IN SOCIAL STUDIES AMONG JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

IN EKITI STATE 

B.O. ABDU-RAHEEM 

Web: http://www.ozelacademy.com E-mail: editorejes@gmail.com 

Copyright © 2008 Ozean Publication, 2141 Baneberry Ct. 43235, Columbus, Ohio, USA

http://ozelacademy.com/ejes.htm

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012 


© 2012 Ozean Publication 

THE PROMOTION OF CARDIOVASCULAR WELLNESS THROUGH PHYSICAL 

ACTIVITIES AMONG BANK WORKERS IN BENIN CITY, EDO STATE, NIGERIA 

O. H. OBASUYI*, E. O. AGWUBIKE** 

*Department of Health, Environmental Education and Human Kinetics, 

Faculty of Education, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. 

**Department of Health, Environmental Education and Human Kinetics, 

Faculty of Education, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. 

**E-mail address for correspondence : agwueo@yahoo.com. 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: Physical inactivity portends a great risk factor of many Cardiovascular Diseases ( CVDs), resulting in 

increased morbidity and mortality rates of individuals who maintain relatively sedentary lifestyle. The influence of 

physical inactivity has assumed a worrisome dimension in the scientific arena , health, society and the economy of 

Nigeria. The banking sector is one of the main workplaces for sedentary works in contemporary times. To increase 

the proportion of bank workers who engage in moderate -vigorous physical activities that promote cardiovascular 

wellness in Benin City, Nigeria. Only bank workers in Benin City, Edo State of Nigeria were used for the study. 

Four research questions were raised to guide the study and four hypotheses were generated to verify the results. A 

pre-tested questionnaire was utilized to gather data from a sample of 139 participants in five banks in Benin City 

using the simple random sampling technique. Data were analysed using frequency counts, percentages and Chi- 

Square (X 2 ) statistics. Results showed, amongst others, that the level of knowledge of the benefits of physical 

activities significantly promoted cardiovascular wellness of the bank workers df of 8 (x 2 =32.58; p < 0.05), though 

the types of physical activities which they engaged in, did not significantly enhance their cardiovascular wellness, df 

of 8(x 2 =10.35; p < 0.05). It is, however, recommended that bank workers should engage in moderate- to-vigorous 

physical activity of 30-60 minutes duration. Individual guidelines for continuous training are of paramount 

significance. 

Keywords: Cardiovascular wellness, Physical activities, Bank workers, Promotion 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

Cardiovascular wellness is a major health - related fitness that determines an individual’s overall well-being. 

Cardiovascular wellness, simply, means optimal health and vitality, encompassing healthy heart and blood 

circulatory wellness. However, this essential scientific and health- related fitness component tends to be undermined 

by chronic diseases. Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) happen to be one such diseases that have been firmly rooted 

and their magnitude is approaching that of an epidemic in Nigeria. Insel and Roth (2004), noted that the major forms 

1


of CVDs are hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart disease and heart attack, stroke, congestive heart failure, congenital 

heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, and heart valve problems. 

In Nigeria and many other developing countries, CVDs have high mortality than in developed countries (Reddy & 

Yusuf, 1998). The World Health Organisation – WHO emphasized in the 2011 World Heart Day that, CVDs are the 

world’s largest killers, claiming 17.1 million lives a year; and one of the risk factors for heart disease and stroke 

include physical inactivity. The Nigeria’s health minister reiterated at the 2009 World Heart Day in Abuja that, one 

third of global deaths are caused by CVDs with over 80% of them occurring in low and middle income countries, 

including Nigeria. The deaths resulting from CVDs are attributable to four common behavioural risk factors: 

inadequate physical activity, tobacco use, the harmful use of alcohol and poor diet (WHO, 2009). 

Physical inactivity is a major risk factor of CVDs. According to Vaillant and Mukamal (2001); Gary and David 

(2001); Steyn, Fourie and Bradshaw (1992), drug abuse, tobacco smoking, and alcohol drinking as well as lack of 

exercise may also increase the risk of developing certain diseases, such as CVDs, especially later in life. Too many 

Nigerians eat an unhealthy diet, are overweight and sedentary, smoke, manage stress ineffectively, have 

uncontrolled blood pressure or high cholesterol levels, are physically inactive, and above all, do not know the signs 

of CVDs (WHO, 2009). WHO (2011), published a report on chronic and non-chronic conditions that, approximately 

3.2 million die each year due to insufficient physical activity and people who do not take enough exercise have a 20 

to 30 percent increased risk of dying prematurely (Chidi, 2011). 

The nature of CVDs and associated risk factors arising from physical inactivity of an individual greatly influence 

cardiovascular wellness. The U.S Healthy People 2000, National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention 

Objectives stated that the development and maintenance of cardiovascular wellness entails that at least 20% of 

people age 18 and older and at least 75% of children and adolescents age 6 to17 engage in vigorous physical activity 

3 or more days per week, for 20 minutes or more per session (Prentice, 1997). The proportion of people who ought 

to meet this standard in Nigeria, appears to be small. Hence, the threat of CVDs, as evident by inadequate physical 

activity, and urgent need of cardiovascular wellness continues to raise two big questions in contemporary society: 

how do we make physical activities a priority in our busy daily or weekly schedules and how do we attain health and 

cardiovascular wellness irrespective of our tight schedule 

Statement of the Problem 

The WHO reported in the World Health Report (2002) that, CVDs accounted for 9.2% of total deaths in Africa in 

2001 and hypertension, stroke, cardiomyopathies, rheumatic heart disease were the most prevalent causes. It also 

emphasized that, life years lost rose from 5.3 million for men, 6.3 million for women in 1990 to 6.5 million and 6.9 

million respectively in 2006, and could rise to 8.1 million and 7.9 million in 2010. A current report by “The 

Nigerian Voice” of Friday April 29, 2011stated that the Global Status Report on Non-communicable Diseases ( 

NCD) warned that, without action, the NCD epidemic is projected to kill 52 million people annually by 2030. The 

question that may agitate one’s mind is: How prepared are Nigerians to avert this intending calamity 

The risk factors of CVDs, ranging from personal lifestyle (with lack of physical activity), through health habits or 

behaviours to inherited attributes, portend increased death rate of the individual. These death rates arise from people 

who lead a relatively sedentary lifestyle than those who maintain active lifestyle (Prentice, 1997). Despite the 

benefits of physical activity which include reduction in the risk of developing heart disease, colon cancer, diabetes, 

and high blood pressure, Lee, Blair and Jackson (1999) opined that, on the average, people who are physically active 

outlive those who are inactive. 

Physical inactivity has substantial economic consequences for the health care system. The Assistant Secretary for 

Planning and Evaluation-ASPE(2002), noted that the prevalence of CVDs related to physical inactivity are 

associated with two types of costs- health care costs for prevention, diagnosis and treatment and costs arising from 

lost wages by people unable to work because of CVDs. In effect, a physically inactive person is at both medical and 

financial risks for many chronic diseases and conditions. 

Therefore, the impact of physical inactivity is an impending disaster for the scientific world, health, society and the 

economy of any nation. The banking sector appears to be greatly influenced by most sedentary works. Thus, the 

need for cardiovascular wellness of bank workers is of contemporary concern in the broad field of science vis-à-vis 

2


health-related fields. The above forms the basis upon which the following research questions were raised for 

investigation. 

Research Questions 

1. What extent does medical history of bank workers influence their engagement in physical 

activities 

2. What extent do awareness and level of knowledge of the benefits of physical activities 

promote cardiovascular wellness of bank workers 

3. What extent do the types of physical activities of bank workers enhance their 

cardiovascular wellness 

4. Would engagement in physical activity requirement preference promote cardiovascular 

wellness of bank workers 

Research Hypotheses 

The following hypotheses were formulated and tested. 

1. There is no significant relationship between medical history of bank workers and their 

engagement in physical activities; Ho : fo=fe or H 1 : fo≠fe 

2. Awareness and level of knowledge of the benefits of physical activities do not 

significantly promote cardiovascular wellness of bank workers; Ho : fo=fe or H 1 : fo≠fe 

3. The types of physical activities of bank workers do not significantly enhance their 

cardiovascular wellness; Ho : fo=fe or H 1 : fo≠fe 

4. Engagement in physical activity requirement preference of bank workers does not 

significantly promote their cardiovascular wellness; Ho : fo=fe or H 1 : fo≠fe 

Objectives of the Study 

The broad goals of the study are to: achieve basic overall health and wellness of Nigerian bank workers; reduce 

health disparities between medical fields and allied health fields vis-à-vis health educating bank workers and to 

achieve access to preventative services rather than curative services for all Nigerian bank workers. Based on these 

goals, the main objective of this study is to increase the proportion of bank workers who engage in moderate -tovigorous 

physical activities that promote their cardiovascular wellness in Benin City, Nigeria. Other purposes of the 

study were to: increase the proportion of bank workers offering employer – sponsored physical activity programmes; 

increase the proportion of primary care providers who routinely access and counsel bank workers regarding the 

frequency, duration and intensity of each type of physical activity practices; increase the proportion of Nigerian 

bank workers who are overweight in order to adopt regular physical activity for appropriate body weight; reduce the 

proportion of bank workers who engage in no leisure-time physical activity and finally to reduce CVD deaths. 

Research Materials and Methods 

The investigation was conducted in Edo state of Nigeria, between April and June 2011. Edo state is located in a way 

that it forms the nucleus of Niger Delta region of Nigeria. With Benin City as the capital, the population of the state 

is 3,218,332: (1,624,461 males and 1,557,871 females) (Eguavoen, 2010). Its notable financial institutions include 

24 licensed banks of Nigeria – First Bank Plc, United Bank of Africa Plc (UBA), Union Bank, Afribank, Skye Bank 

Plc, Wema Bank Plc, Sterling Bank, Oceanic Bank Int., Fidelity Bank Plc, Intercontinental Bank Plc, Standard 

chartered Bank Ltd, Bank PHB, Unity Bank Plc, Diamond Bank Plc, NIB/CTI Bank , Spring Bank Plc, Zenith Bank 

Plc, First City Monument Bank Plc, Guarantee Trust Bank (GT) Plc, Fin Bank Plc, Access Bank Plc, StanbicIBTC 

Bank, Devocom/ETB and EcoBank Plc. 

3


With the simple random sampling, the names of the banks were written on pieces of papers and were picked in turn 

until 5 banks were randomly selected. These were First Bank, UBA, Union Bank, Zenith and Intercontinental Bank. 

Also, with the simple random technique, all the named bank branches in Benin City were listed on pieces of papers 

and First Bank Ugbowo, Union Bank Kings Square, UBA Sapele Road, Zenith Bank Sapele Road and 

Intercontinental bank Ugbowo campus branches were selected. From each branch’s record, First Bank Ugbowo has 

a staff strength of 35, Union 34, UBA 38, Zenith 43 and Intercontinental 30.Thus, the sample size of the study 

comprising 30, 21, 32, 36, 20 subjects respectively were randomly selected from the five branches giving a total of 

139 subjects. Of the 139 subjects, 56 were males and 83 were females. The subjects are officers who are responsible 

for most of the bank operations and Customer Services. Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the 

informed consent of the bank managers. 

A validated and pre-tested questionnaire designed to determine the extent to which physical activities enhance 

cardiovascular wellness of these bank workers was administered by the researcher and collected immediately, given 

a reliability coefficient (r) of 0.73. This meant a high reliability of the study. The extent to which the medical history 

of the bank workers could limit their engagement in physical activities was assessed by their agreement or 

disagreement to the items. Adequate knowledge of the benefits of physical activities in promoting cardiovascular 

wellness was determined by a good definition of (5-7) items plus two types of physical activities each of moderate 

and hard types. Inadequate knowledge was assessed by fair definition of (2-4 items) plus 1 type of moderate or mild 

type of physical activity, while poor knowledge was assessed by poor definition of (1 item) with no type of physical 

activity at all. Physical activity engagement requirement preference was assessed by best preference [Intensity: hard 

(76-95%), duration (minutes per day): 20 and frequency (per week): 3-5 times], good preference [Intensity: 

moderate (40-75%), duration (minutes per day): 20-60 and frequency (per week): > 5 times] and poor preference 

[Intensity: mild < 40%, duration (minutes per day): < 20 and frequency (per week): < 3 times]. Data were analysed 

using Chi-square ( X 2 ) frequency counts and percentages The significant level was set at 0.05. The differences 

between the proportions were carefully analysed. 

RESULTS 

From the study, the participants, age ranges (15 to 30 years, 31 to 46 years and 47 to 62 years) of the bank workers 

responded. 56 (40.3%) were males while 83 (59.7%) were females giving a response rate of 100%.More of the bank 

workers 101/139 (72.7%) were B.Sc holders, 38/139 (27.3%) M.Sc holders and none was a Ph.D holder. 

Medical History and Engagement in Physical Activities 

Majority of the overall bank workers 119/139 (85.6%) did not have medical history (that is, coronary heart disease, 

irregular heartbeats, family history of heart disease, high blood pressure, and so on) that could hinder their 

cardiovascular wellness. However, (14.4%) had medical history of irregular heartbeats that required the use of 

prescription drugs. There was a significant relationship in the proportions of those with medical history and 

engagement in physical activities between different banks, df of 4 (x 2 =22.13; p < 0.05). The proportion of those with 

medical history in First bank and Intercontinental bank was not significantly different (10.0%). However, the 

proportion of those with medical history in UBA (31.2%) was significantly higher than their counterparts in Union 

(14.3%) and Zenith (05.6%) banks [Table 1]. 

Awareness and Level of Knowledge of the Benefits of Physical activities in Promoting Cardiovascular wellness 

Majority of bank workers 123 (88.5%) were aware of the benefits of physical activities in promoting cardiovascular 

wellness while 16 (11.5%) were not. There was no statistical difference in the proportions of those who were aware 

of the benefits of physical activities in promoting cardiovascular wellness among the banker workers, df of 4 

(x 2 =7.46; p < 0.05). The proportions of participants with adequate knowledge of the benefits of physical activities 

4


from UBA, Zenith and Intercontinental banks were not significantly different (25.0%) each and 15.8% overall, but 

out rightly outweighed those of the First bank and Union bank workers who had inadequate knowledge. The overall 

proportion of those with inadequate knowledge (40.3%) and poor knowledge (43.9%) were not significantly 

different. However, the overall proportions of those with adequate knowledge (15.8%), inadequate knowledge 

(40.3%) and poor knowledge (43.9%) showed that, the level of knowledge of the benefits of physical activities 

significantly promoted cardiovascular wellness of the bank workers. That tended to hold stronger for those in First 

bank, Union bank and UBA, df of 8 (x 2 =32.58; p < 0.05) [Table 2]. 

Types of Physical Activities which enhance Cardiovascular wellness of Bank workers 

Of the 139 (100%), bank workers, 72 (51.8%) of bank workers have participated in mild type of physical activities 

(cycling, gardening, etc), 42 (30.2%) in moderate type (slow running or jogging for 60 minutes , and tennis or 

volley ball for 45 minutes) while 25 (28.0%) in hard type (soccer, competitive handball). The proportion of 

participants who participated in the various types of physical activity was not significantly different from among all 

the bank workers. Thus, the types of physical activities do not significantly enhance cardiovascular wellness of bank 

workers, df of 8(x 2 =10.35; p < 0.05) [Table 3]. 

Physical activity Requirement Preference 

From the total of 139 (100%), majority of the bank workers preferred good physical activity requirement preference 

100 (71.9%), whereas the proportions of best and poor physical activity preference were significantly different 08 

(05.8%) and 31 (22.3%) respectively. Thus, engagement in physical activity requirement preference significantly 

promotes cardiovascular wellness of the bank workers though that tended to hold stronger for good preference in 

First bank, UBA and Zenith banks, df of 8 (x 2 =19.38; p < 0.05) [Table 4]. 

DISCUSSION 

Regular and adequate physical activity leads to cardiovascular wellness which decreases the risk of CVD mortality 

in general and coronary artery disease in particular. By physical activity, it relates to any bodily movement produced 

by skeletal muscles and such movement brings about the expenditure of energy. The term exercise is usually a 

subset of physical activity involving planned, structured, repetitive movement of the body designed especially to 

improve or maintain physical fitness. Thus, exercise and physical activity had been used interchangeably in this 

context. A large number of studies have been concluded to show the relationship between physical activities and 

overall well-being (Rowland, 2001and Drygas, Kostka, Jegier, Kunski, 2000) and that an inverse relationship exists 

between physical activity and occurrence of CVDs (Prentice, 1997). Thus, as physical activity levels increased, 

deaths decreased. 

The data of this study revealed that the level of knowledge of the benefits of physical activity significantly promotes 

cardiovascular wellness of the bank workers. This is in agreement with the National Center for Chronic Disease 

Prevention and Health Promotion and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 1996) which pointed out 

that regular physical activity can improve health by: reducing the risk of death from heart disease; helping to control 

weight; reducing the risk of developing high blood pressure and diabetes, to mention a few. The economic 

mainstream and health care status of any individual depends on the eating healthy diets, receiving rest and above all, 

on the level of physical activity of the person (Prentice, 1997). The need to promote cardiovascular wellness among 

sedentary workers, especially bank workers, has been poorly considered. 

The tendency to develop cardiovascular-related conditions (CVDs), seems to be inherited in some individuals. The 

inherited attributes amount to medical history of varying degrees of an individual. For instance, the tendencies to 

have coronary heart disease, irregular heartbeats, high blood pressure, smoking, alcohol drinking which 

automatically result in the use of prescription drugs, constitute medical history of an individual. An individual’s 

medical history determines his/her level of participation in varying amounts of physical activities. If one of a 

5


person’s parents has had heart disease, he/she has a greater risk of developing CVD (Prentice, 1997) and such 

prompts the medical personnel to advice and prescribe an appropriate physical activity to suit the individual, if need 

be. Insel and Roth (2004), opined that such could occur between the age of 55-60. It is observed that medical history 

and physical activity are not independent of each other to which bank workers on agreement attracted 14.4% and 

disagreement had 85.6%. The findings of this study, that medical history and engagement in physical activities are 

not independent of each other, is directly in line with those of Rowland (2001), Drygas et al (2000) and Prentice 

(1997). 

Again, the study showed that, bank workers’ awareness of the benefits of physical activities in promoting 

cardiovascular wellness was relatively high in which 88.5% of all the bank workers were aware of such a 

relationship. However, only 11.5% were unaware that the benefits of physical activities could promote their 

cardiovascular wellness. Conversely, the level of knowledge of the benefits of physical activities in promoting 

cardiovascular wellness of bank workers was poor. Only 15.8% had adequate knowledge, 40.3% inadequate 

knowledge and 43.9% poor knowledge of the benefits of physical activities. 

The types of physical activities which the bank workers participated in showed that majority of them (51.85%), 

participated in mild type; 30.2% in moderate type and 18.0% in hard type. The recommendation for physical activity 

from the CDC/ACSM (American College of Sports Medicine) (1996) asserted that, moderate activities such as 

briskly walking at about 3 to 4 kilometres per hour, may promote cardiovascular wellness. Wide variety of 

occupational or recreational activities, including yard work, house hold tasks, cycling and swimming are other 

beneficial activities. From this finding, only 30.2% participated in moderate physical activities entailing a poor 

standard of participating in cardiovascular enhancing wellness activities. Thus, the type of physical activities which 

the bank workers participated in is usually mild and hence, did not enhance their cardiovascular wellness. This is 

contrary to the recommendations of CDC/ACSM (1996). 

The study also showed that physical activity requirement preference of the bank workers was good. Majority of 

them opted for good preference amounting to 71.9% while 22.3% was for poor preference and only 05.8% opted for 

best preference. Thus, their preference categories meant that their cardiovascular wellness could be promoted by 

their choices. However, a number of studies show varying degrees of standard of measuring how much physical 

activity adults need for cardiovascular wellness, in terms of intensity (how hard), duration (how long) and 

frequency (how often). The standard used for this study is shown on the key of Table 4. Prentice (1997), stipulated 

that an exercise period of 30 to 60 minutes duration at an intensity of 60% to 90% of maximum heart rate performed 

three or more times per week for years was recommended for health promotion and disease prevention. The CDC 

(1996), recommended that for effective health benefits, adults should engage in moderate-intensity physical activity 

for at least 30 minutes on five or more days of the week or they engage in vigorous-intensity physical activity for at 

least 20 minutes on three or more days of the week. This is good preference in support of the findings of this study. 

The benefit accruable to this is that everyone should endeavour to attain a threshold of recommended physical 

activity by CDC. The Wikipedia (2011), Free Encyclopedia also noted that beneficial effects of physical activity on 

CVD mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity of between 40% to 60% maximal oxygen uptake 

(VO 2 ) depending on one’s age. A study by Wislett, Ellingsen and Kemi (2009), showed that vigorous exercise of 

90% to 95% of VO 2 max is more beneficial than moderate exercise of 40% to 70% of VO 2 max. Intensity can be 

measured either in minutes of physical activity performed or in the number of calories expended. On this basis, 

Prentice (1997), indicated that about 200 calories would be expended during 30 minutes of exercise performed 

periodically. However, CDC/ACSM (1996) maintained that 30 minutes of moderate activity performed daily 

equates 600 to 1200 calories of energy expended per week. It is glad to note that the intensity, frequency and 

duration of the present study conformed with these recommended requirements. 

Improving cardiovascular wellness involves exercising in one’s fat burning zone in keeping with one’s heart rate at 

the correct percentage of its maximum during exercise as well as checking one’s breathing to monitor the perceived 

exertion. To calculate one’s maximum heart rate, there is need to use: Max : HR =220 – age, where HR is heart 

rate. Low wellness level of VO 2 max < 35 and Max HR of 60% to 75%. Medium wellness VO 2 max equals 35-45 

and Max HR becomes 70% to 85%. High wellness VO 2 max > 45 and Max HR is 75% to 90% (www.physicalfitness-exercise.com 

, 2011). 

For most sedentary work, especially the banking sector, it is often difficult to find time for physical activities which 

conforms to Prentice’s (1997) assertion that, most individuals do not want to engage in physical activities based on a 

variety of reasons. Thus, overall observation shows that the correlation between bank workers’ medical history and 

engagement in physical activities is dependent upon their lack of physical activities because individuals with 

6


medical history have greater risk of developing CVDs and so have to be much more active than other people in 

preventing CVDs (Prentice, 1997).Thus far although, the level of knowledge of the benefits of physical activities by 

the bank workers was high, the level of their engagement in physical activity was low which negates the appropriate 

requirement preference to promote cardiovascular wellness. The health implication is that, the type of physical 

activity, which is mild in nature, engaged in by majority of the bank workers does not enhance maximum 

cardiovascular wellness. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. Well-organised employer-sponsored physical activity schedule for bank workers should be instituted to last 

between 30 to 60 minutes. 

2. Individual guidelines for continous training should follow the under-tabulated: 

Training Level 

Frequency (sessions per 

week) 

Duration (minutes) 

Intensity (VO 2 max or 

HR) 

Beginner 

3 

20 

40%-50% 

Intermediate 

4-5 

30-45 

50%-75% 

Advanced 

5-6 

45-60 

75%-85% 

REFERENCES 

Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE) (2002). Physical Activity Fundamental To Preventing 

Disease. Retrieved 3 rd June, 2011 from http://aspe.hhs.gov/health/reports/physicalactivity/ 

June 2011 from www.physical-fitness- 

Cardiovascular fitness and Fat Burning defined.Retrieved 3 rd 

exercises.com/cardiovascular-Fitness.html 

Chidi, O. R. (2011): News WHO Reports: Tobacco Alcohol And Fat Have Huge Health Impact. Retrieved 4 th June 

2011 from http://chidioperareports.blogspot’com/2011/04/news-report-who-says-tobacco- alcohol.html 

Drygas, W.; Kostka, T.; Jegier, A. & Kunski, H. (2000).Long-term effects of different Physical activity levels on 

coronary heart disease risk factors in middle-aged men Int J Sports Med. 21: 235-41 [PubMed]. 

Eguavoen, O. E.(2010). Nigeria at 50. Evans Current Affairs. ( 2010 ed). Zivans Books Ventures Benin City. 

Gary, E. F. & David, J. S. (2001). Ten Years of Life: Is It a Matter of choice Arch Intern Med. 161:1645- 

1652.PMID:11434797. 

Insel, P. M.& Roth, W. T. (2004).Selected Chapters from Core Concepts in health. 

McGraw-Hill Custom Publisher. 9 th ed. P.363-375, 427-433, 437-453. 

Lee, C.D.; Blair, S.N.& Jackson, A.S. (1999).Cardiorespiratory fitnes, body composition and all-cause 

cardiovascular disease mortality in men. Am J clin Nutr 69(3). 373-80 

7


National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion and Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention (1996). Physical Activity Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Retrieved 4 th June 2011 

from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphpsgr/sgr.ht 

Prentice, W. E. (1997). Fitness for College and Life. Mosby. 

Reddy, K. S. & Yusuf, S. (1998). Emerging epidemic of Cardiovascular disease in developing Countries. 97: 

596601 

Rowland, T. W. (2001). The role of physical activity and fitness in children: The prevention of adult cardiovascular 

disease. Prog Pediatr cardio: 12: 199-203 [PubMed]. 

Steyn, K.; Fourie, J.& Bradshaw, D. (1992). The impact of chronic diseases of lifestyle and their major risk factors 

on mortality in South Africa. S Afr Med J.82: 4,227-31. PMID: 1411817. 

The Nigerian Voice (2011). Nigeria, Others Worst Hit by Non-communicable Diseases’ Deaths-WHO- 

Thenigerianvoice.com. Retrieved 4 th June 2011 from http://m.thenigerianvoice.com/mobile/50743/1/1.html 

Vaillant, G. E. & Mukamal, K. (2001). Successful Aging. Am J Psychiatry. June 1; 158(6): 839-847. 

PMID:11384887. 

WHO (2011). WHO/World Heart Day. Retrieved 6 th June 2011 from 

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/events/annual/world-heart-day/en/index.html 

WHO (2009). WHO/World Heart Day. Retrieved 6 th June 2011 from 

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/events/annual/world-heart-day/en/index.html 

Wikipedia (2011), Free Encyclopedia. Physical exercise. Retrieved 4 th June 2011 from 

http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/physical-exercise. 

Wislett, U.; Ellingsen, O.& Kemi, O. (2009). High Intensity Interval Training to Maximize Cardiac Benefit of 

Exercise Training. Exercise and Sports Science Reviews 37 (3): 139-146. 

World Health Organisation, World Health Report (2002). Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva 

:WHO,2002. Retrieved online on 26 sep. 2011 from http://www.who.int/whr/2002/en/index.html 

8


APPENDICES 

List of Tables 

Medical 

history 

and 

physical 

activity 

Yes 

No 

Table 1: Medical History and Engagement in Physical Activities 

in the Banks (First Bank, Union Bank, UBA, Zenith and Intercontinental Banks) 

First Bank Union UBA Zenith Intercontinental Total (%) X 2 P 

N=30(%) Bank N=32(%) N=36(%) N=20(%) 

value 

N=21(%) 

03(10.0) 

27(90.0) 

03(14.3) 

18(85.7) 

10(31.2) 

22(68.8) 

02(05.6) 

34(94.4) 

02(10.0) 

18(90.0) 

20(14.4) 

119(85.6) 

Total 30(100.0) 21(100.0) 32(100.0) 36(100.0) 20(100.0) 139(100.0) 22.13 0.05 

Awareness of 

Benefits of Physical 

activities 

Yes 

No 

Table 2: Bank workers’ Awareness and Level of Knowledge of the Benefits of Physical 

activities in Promoting Cardiovascular wellness 

First Bank Union UBA Zenith Intercontinental Total 

N=30(%) Bank N=32(%) N=36(%) N=20(%) (%) 

N=21(%) 

30(100.0) 

- 

21(100.0) 

- 

24(75.0) 

08(25.0) 

30(83.3) 

06(16.7) 

18(90.0) 

02(10.0) 

123(88.5) 

16(11.5) 

Total 30(100.0) 21(100.0) 32(100.0) 36(100.0) 20(100.0) 139(100.0) 7.46 0.05 

Level of knowledge 

Adequate(good) 

Inadequate(fair) 

Poor 

- 

22(73.3) 

08(26.7) 

- 

15(71.4) 

06(28.6) 

08(25.0) 

- 

24(75.00 

09(25.0) 

09(25.00 

18(50.0) 

05(25.0) 

10(50.0) 

05(25.0) 

22(15.8) 

56(40.3) 

61(43.9) 

Total 30(100.0) 21(100.0) 32(100.0) 36(100.0) 20(100.0) 139(100.0) 32.58 0.05 

X 2 

P 

value 

Types of 

Physical 

Activities 

Mild 

Moderate 

Hard 

Table 3:Types of Physical activities which enhance Cardiovascular of Bank workers. 

First Bank Union UBA Zenith Intercontinental Total 

N=30(%) Bank N=32(%) N=36(%) N=20(%) (%) 

N=21(%) 

22(73.3) 

05(16.7) 

03(10.0) 

11(52.40 

07(33.3) 

03(14.3) 

11(34.4) 

11(34.4) 

10(31.2) 

19(52.8) 

12(33.3) 

05(13.9) 

09(45.0) 

07(35.0) 

04(20.0) 

72(51.8) 

42(30.2) 

25(18.0) 

Total 30(100.0) 21(100.00 32(100.0) 36(100.0) 20(100.0) 139(100.0) 10.35 0.05 

X 2 

P 

value 

9


Requirement 

Preference 

02(06.7) 

Best preference a 

Poor preference c 06(20.0) 

Good preference b 22(73.3) 

Table 4: Physical Activity Requirement Preference of Bank workers 

First Union UBA Zenith Intercontinental 

Bank Bank N=32(%) N=36(%) N=20(%) 

N=30(%) N=21(%) 

04(19.0) 

11(52.4) 

06(28.6) 

01(03.1) 

28(87.5) 

03(09.4) 

- 

27(75.0) 

09(25.0) 

01(05.0) 

12(60.0) 

07(35.0) 

Total 

(%) 

08(05.8) 

100(71.9) 

31(22.3) 

Total 30(100) 21(100) 32(100) 36(100) 20(100) 139(100) 19.38 0.05 

X 2 

P 

value 

Footnotes (Table 4): Best Preference a –[ Intensity: hard (76-95) %, duration( minutes per day): 

20 and frequency( per week): 3-5 times] 

Good Preference b – [Intensity: moderate ( 40-75) %, duration (minutes per day):20-60 and 

frequency ( per week):>5 times] 

Poor Preference c -[Intensity: mild




JOB SATISFACTION STATUS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN OTA, 

NIGERIA 

ABIODUN .M. GESINDE* and GBADEBO .O. ADEJUMO 

Department of Psychology, Covenant University, Ota 

Ogun State, Nigeria. 

*E-mail address for correspondence: abigeshontop@gmail.com 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: This descriptive survey study investigated the current job satisfaction level of primary school teachers. 

Two hundred and thirty-eight teachers (males 95 and females 143) randomly selected from twenty primary schools 

from public and private schools in Ota, Ogun State participated in the survey. An adapted version of Job Satisfaction 

Survey by Bellingham (2004) was employed for data generation. Data collected were analyzed using simple 

percentage, one way analysis of variance, and t-test-statistic. The results of the two research questions and two 

research hypotheses indicated that greater percentage of teachers (52.9%) were very satisfied with their job while it 

is also evident that female teachers were very happy with their job than male teachers. Further analysis showed that 

no significant difference existed on gender basis while there were significant differences on educational 

qualification and age groups. Consequent upon these findings it is imperative for proprietors of schools to ensure 

that teachers are not dissatisfied with their job through their inability to consistently provide enabling environment. 

Key Words: Job, Satisfaction, Primary School teachers, Nigeria 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

The term „satisfaction‟ is a term commonly employed to describe condition an individual found him/her self after a 

particular occurrence. It describes state of inner feelings that follows interaction with people or object. It has also 

been directly substituted with other feeling words such as gratification, happiness, compensation, fulfillment, joy, 

excitement, self-actualization. For instance, The Microsoft Encounter Dictionary (2009) perceives satisfaction to 

have four diverse interpretations. These are: the feeling of pleasure that comes when a need or desire is fulfilled 

(gratification); happiness with the way that something has been arranged or done; compensation for an injury or 

loss; and the fulfilment of a need, claim, desires. In a similar vein, The Cambridge International Dictionary of 

English (1995) portrays satisfaction as the form of pleasant feeling you get when you receive something you wanted 

or when you have done or doing something you wanted to do. Consequently, it could therefore be said that 

satisfaction is positively viewed as a pleasant feeling and a reward for an activity carried out (reinforcement). 

Satisfaction is also attainable when an individual do what he/she loves or desires to do such as working in place 

he/she desire to work. 

11


There are countless engagements in life that an individual could derive satisfaction from. However, the primary 

scope of this paper is the satisfaction derivable from working in an institution or establishment. The importance of 

job to an employee existence is exemplified in this quotation by Szmanski & Parker (1996): 

“Work determines a person‟s worth and place in society and it influences one‟s 

psychological identity and sense of well-being. Work establishes one in 

the community of human kind. It links a person to others, advances the goals 

of culture, and gives purpose to one‟s very existence” (p1) 

In this same vein did Smith (2007) asserts that work does not only occupies a large part of each worker‟s day but 

also the main source of social standing capable of defining who a person is physically and mentally. Consequently, 

workers‟ satisfaction is an important component in overall well-being. Job satisfaction can be viewed in three 

dimensional ways according to Essien (2002). It is viewed as an emotional response to a job situation and often 

determined by how outcome meets or exceed expectation. It also revealed some job characteristics that represent 

effective response of people such as: the work itself, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision/leadership and coworkers. 

An attempt to categorically state an all inclusive and conclusive definition of job satisfaction is a most difficult task. 

This is simply because Gurbuz (2007) points out that there is a range of conceptualizations of the construct in the 

literature which makes a conclusive interpretation difficult. These include the fact that some theorists viewed it as a 

broad positive emotional reactions and attitudes that an individual has towards his/her job brought about by a 

comparison between actual and desired or anticipated outcomes while others viewed it as two dimensions of a 

dissatisfaction/lack of satisfaction dimension or intrinsic/extrinsic satisfaction dimension. 

The above diverse conceptualizations notwithstanding, scholars from varied orientations have suggested operational 

definition of job satisfaction. A case in reference is Misener et al definition as cited in Mosadeghrad, Ferlie, & 

Rosenberg (2008) which describes job satisfaction as the type of attitude that people have about their jobs and the 

organizations in which they perform these jobs. It is the extent to which people like or dislike their jobs. Similarly, 

Khaanna (2010) conceives job satisfaction as a positive attitude by an employee towards his job as well as his 

personal life. These definitions clearly show that job satisfaction covers activities within and outside the workplace. 

Hence, work settings have direct and indirect impacts on how an individual live and associate in the environment. 

Erdogan (1994) reports that job satisfaction affect employees‟ physical and mental health, the working environment 

and efficiency of the organization, comfort, economic development, disposal and social dissipation of the society. 

Absence of job satisfaction in organizational setting leads to worker lethargy and reduced organization commitment 

(Moser, 1997). 

The attainment of satisfaction with job and organizational structure, it must be noted, is not restricted to certain 

professions. It is also evident that job satisfaction is not evenly distributed across occupations or workers (Smith, 

2007). This assertion is correct when consideration is given to Bryner (2007) report of 2006 General Social Survey 

of 27,000 randomly selected Americans who expressed their satisfaction level with their jobs. The finding of the 

survey indicated that the top ten most gratifying jobs are: 

Clergy 87% 

Fire-fighters 80% 

Physical therapists 7 8% 

Authors 74% 

Special Education teachers 70% 

Teachers 69% 

Education Administrators 68% 

Painters and Sculptors 67% 

Psychologists 67% 

Security and Financial services salesperson 65% 

12


Operating Engineers 64% 

Office Supervisors 61% 

It is gladdening, from the above report, to note that teaching profession is one of the helping professions wherein 

satisfaction could be attained. Teachers are arguably the most important professional in nations‟ development 

(Bishay, 1996). Consequently, their satisfaction at work is paramount to educational development of the nation. The 

importance of teachers‟ satisfaction with their job is made more poignant when Best (2010) affirms that it is a 

predictor of overall student academic success in schools as well as capable of transmitting positive effects on the 

affective, moral, cultural, and spiritual lives of their students. 

Quite a number of studies exist to support the fact that teachers in various cadres of educational levels are happy and 

unhappy with their job at various levels. For instance, a study conducted among 108 university‟s academic staff of 

Buea, Cameroon by Fon (2007) showed the extent to which academic staff in the university is satisfied with their 

teaching job: 16 (14.81%) not at all satisfied; 37 (34.26%) not too satisfied; 42 (38.88%) somewhat satisfied; 13 

(12.05%) very satisfied. 

Research evidences did support the aspects of teaching profession that teachers are satisfied or dissatisfied with. A 

case in reference is a study conducted by Jewl, Beavers, Kirby, Fllowers (1990) among 375 vocational agriculture 

teachers in North Carolina. The study aimed at determining the level of job satisfaction, relationship that existed 

between their level of satisfaction and their perceptions toward various portions of the teaching professions. The 

results showed, among others, that the participants appeared to be satisfied with professional acceptance by 

members of the North Carolina Vocational Agriculture Teachers Association, school faculty, principals, community 

support, and type of teaching department. Others include number of different class participation required daily, 

administrative support by the principal, vocational agricultural facilities, discipline of the enrolled students, having 

to work long hours and having evening responsibilities. They are however dissatisfied with academic ability of the 

enrolled students and adequacy of financial support for local salary supplement for the teacher. 

There are also studies which exposed the impact of a number of variables on the job satisfaction level of teachers 

(Wu & Wu, 2001; Adetayo, 2008). Wu & Wu (20010) conducted a study among 960 elementary school teachers 

from Taipei Municipality and Taitung county. The study aimed at developing causal model to describe elementary 

school teachers‟ job satisfaction and how it is affected by social network and job characteristics. It was found, 

among others, that higher levels of satisfaction are generally found in female teachers, homeroom teachers, teachers 

who assumed directorship in schools, teachers with lower educational attainment and teachers with higher income. 

On the other hand, Adetayo (2008) study of the job satisfaction level of 400 randomly selected secondary schools 

teachers in IJEBU North and Ijebu-Ode Local Government Areas of Ogun State in Nigeria showed that majority of 

the participants are presently satisfied with their job though they significantly differed on the basis of gender, age 

group, and qualifications. 


The concern of most organizations, in the submission of Amoda, Odunaike, & Oluwasina (2007) is the attitude of 

their workers towards work. Workers are expected to be dedicated and committed to their work. Adeyemo (2001), 

however, observes that it is not uncommon to hear people remark that the present day teachers are not as good or 

committed as their yester-years counterparts. When teachers are truly not committed to their work it is an indication 

of dissatisfaction with the job. Studies from diverse nations of the world indicated that teachers have one time or the 

other enjoyed or dissatisfied with their job. Job satisfaction at work is pliable. This means that it might not be a 

continuous experience. Hence, an employee who is satisfied with his/her work today might be dissatisfied with it 

tomorrow or vice versa. This implies that consistent research is required to ascertain the job satisfaction status of 

employees at a particular period of time. 

Primary school teachers in Nigeria, as evident from the review of the literature, have been found to enjoy their 

teaching profession (Adetayo, 2008; Gesinde & Adejumo, 2010). A closer examination of studies on job satisfaction 

of primary schools teacher in Nigeria, however, showed that there is still gap to be filled, most especially in Ota, in 

terms of the extent to which primary school teachers are satisfied or dissatisfied with their job. There is also the need 

to establish whether: Male teachers are more satisfied or dissatisfied with their job than their female counterparts 

13


Will long years of service or experience at work contribute to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction Will possession of 

educational qualification higher than what is required to teach in primary schools cause dissatisfaction with teaching 

job 

Significance of the Study 

It is anticipated that this study would bring to fore probable underlying influence of job satisfaction on some 

unethical behaviours of teachers in primary schools. It is also anticipated too that the outcome of the study would 

assist government and proprietors of schools in taking decisions on motivational measures require for maximum 

performance of primary schools teachers in Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. 

Research Question 

(1) To what extent would teachers in primary schools be satisfied with their job 

(2) To what extent would differences in age influence job satisfaction level of primary school teachers 

Research Hypothesis 

(1) There is no significance difference between the job satisfaction level of male and female primary school 

teachers. 

(2) There is no significance difference between the job satisfaction level of primary school teachers with bachelors‟ 

Degree and National Certificate in Education. 

Research Design 

Descriptive survey design was employed for the study. 

Participants 

The population of this study consists of all primary school teachers in private and public schools in Ota. The sample, 

however, consists of two hundred and thirty-eight primary school teachers randomly selected from twenty primary 

schools (10 pubic and 10 private schools) derived from systematic sampling technique. The summary of 

demographic information of the participants showed that males 95 (39%) and females 143 (60.1%); Single 123 

(51.7%) and married 115 (48.3%); Degree holders 89 (37.4%) and NCE holders 146 (61.3%). 

Instrument 

The instrument employed to gather data was adapted version of Job Satisfaction Survey by Bellingham (2004). It is 

two sections inventory with the section A requesting the respondents to provide demographic information on their 

gender, age, marital status, religion, educational qualification, years of working experience, position at workplace, 

profession, and name address of workplace. The second section consists of 30 positively worded items that deals 

with intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of job satisfaction. A 4 point likert type scale of 4= very much like me; 3 = like 

me; 2 = somewhat like me; 1 = unlike me. A typical item on the scale reads „‟I feel positive and up most of the time 

I am working.‟‟ The minimum score obtainable by a respondent is 30 while the maximum is 120. The higher the 

score the more satisfied the respondent. The reliability co-efficient of the instrument was .96 using Spearman Brown 

formula. The questionnaire was administered to the participants in their various schools by the researchers with the 

assistance of three research assistants. The return rate was about 95% for it was collected on the day of 

administration. 

14


Data Analysis 

Data generated from the instrument were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS 11 for 

Window, „V‟ 11(SPSS, Inc). Descriptive statistics of simple percent was employed to analyse the two research 

questions while analysis of variance and t-test statistic were utililzed in testing the research questions. 

RESULTS 

Table 1: Cross-tabulation Ratings of Primary School Teachers‟ Level of Job Satisfaction 

S/N Variable Job Satisfaction Rating Total 

Very Satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied 

1. Primary School 

Teachers 

2. Gender 

(i) Male 

(ii) Female 

Total 

3. Work Exp. 

(i) Less5 years 

(ii)Above 5 years 

Total 

4. Age 

(i) Less 25yrs 

(ii) 25-30 years 

(ii) 31-36years 

(iv)36yrs above 

Total 

126 (52.9%) 111 (46.6%) 1(.6%) 238100% 

39 (41.05%) 

87 (60.84) 

126 

62 (44.93) 

64 (64%) 

126 

4 (21.05) 

48 (40.34) 

54 (72.00) 

20 (80.00) 

120 

56 (58.95) 

55 (38.46) 

111 

75 (54.35) 

36 (36%) 

111 

14 (73.69) 

71 (59.66) 

21 (28.00) 

5 (20.00) 

111 

0 (0.00) 

1 (0.70) 

1 

1 (0.72) 

0 (0.00) 

1 

1 5.26) 

0 (0.00) 

0 (0.00) 

0 (0.00) 

1 

95 (100%) 

143 (100%) 

238 

138 (100%) 

100 (100%) 

238 

19 (100%) 

119 (100%) 

75 (100%) 

25 (100%) 

238 

The display from Table 1 above revealed that greater percentage of teachers (52.9%) are very satisfied with their job 

while it is also evident that female teachers are very happy with their job than male teachers. Further analysis 

indicated that teachers with more than five years of working experience and those within the age range of 31-36 are 

very satisfied with their job. 

Table 2: Analysis of Primary School Teachers Job Satisfaction based on Differences in Age 

Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. 

Between Groups 10631.229 3 3543.743 17.040 .000 

Within Groups 48664.843 234 207.969 

Total 59296.071 237 

*sig. @ 0.05 level 

15


Table 2 above presents the outcome of the second research question which sought to find out the extent to which age 

differences would affect the job satisfaction level of primary school teachers. The result of the one way analysis of 

variance revealed that the calculated F value compared to the table value of F implies considerable significance (F= 

17.04> 4.01). Hence, a significance difference existed in between and within age groups. The calculated F value of 

17.04 is a clear pointed to the fact that ages do influence job satisfaction of primary school teachers. 

Table 3: t-test analysis of Gender and Educational Qualification of Primary School 

Teachers‟ Job Satisfaction Status 

S/N Variable N Mean SD Df t-Cal. t-obs. P RMK 

1 Gender 

(i) Male 

(ii) Female 

Total 

95 

143 

238 

91.66 

99.24 

15.60 

15.28 

236 3.71 1.96 .000 NS 

2 Educ. Qual. 

(i) Degree 

(ii) NCE 

Total 

*Significant @ 0.05 alpha level 

91 

147 

238 

95.76 

96.50 

15.82 

15.86 

236 -349 1.96 .727 S 

Table 3 presents the effect of gender and educational qualification on job satisfaction of primary school teachers in 

Ota, Nigeria. While no significant difference existed on gender basis (t = -3.71 df = 236, P = > 0.05) there was a 

significant difference on the basis of educational qualification (t= -349, df = 236, P = < 0.05). 

DISCUSSION 

This study was set out not only to determine the level of job satisfaction of primary school teachers in Ota, Nigeria 

but also to determine the impacts of gender, age, working experience, educational qualification on their job 

satisfaction. The outcomes of the analysis of data are quite revealing. First of all, this study revealed that all the 

participants except one was dissatisfied with their job. The percentage (52%) of those who are very satisfied with 

their job outnumbered those who are just satisfied with their job (46.6%). This finding gives credence to the study of 

Bryner, 2007; Fon, 2007; Wu & Wu, 2001; & Adetayo, 2008) which had earlier reported that teachers are generally 

satisfied with their job. However, further analysis indicated that female teachers are more satisfied than their male 

counterparts. This is also in consonance with Wu & Wu, 2001; Ladebo, 2005; Olulobe, 2007 who had earlier 

reported that female teachers enjoyed higher level of satisfaction than males. 

It is also palpable from the analysis that greater percentage of teachers (54.35%) with less than six years of service 

are just satisfied with their job as against (44.93%) who are very satisfied. On the other hand, greater percentage of 

teachers (64%) with more than five years working experience is very satisfied with their job as against (36%) who is 

just satisfied. It, therefore, implies that the more years in service the more satisfied with teaching profession. This is 

quite true and not unanticipated because increase number of years in service is closely tied with promotion, salary 

increase, job stability (in terms of confirmation of appointment), fringe benefits, study leave with pay, qualification 

to obtain loan, appointment into headship position among others. Hence, when teachers have access to these they 

tend to be happier with their job. 

It is also interesting to note that almost all the participants (80%) who are above 36 years of age are very satisfied 

with their job. This coincides with Olulobe (2007) finding which revealed that teachers‟ whose ages fall between 30 

and 51 showed greater job satisfaction. This probably might be because they have benefited more from the job or 

and it is pretty difficult to engage in a new professional training for another occupation hence, they are left with no 

other options than to love and be happy with what they are doing. This difference on age group basis is supported 

16


by research question II which also lend credence to Adetayo (2008) earlier finding of significant difference on age 

group basis. 

The outcome of test of significant differences on the basis of gender (hypothesis I) and educational qualification 

(hypothesis II) showed no significance difference for gender and significance difference for educational 

qualification. It is apparent from the result that female teachers at mean rating of 99. 24 were more satisfied with 

their job than male teachers mean rating of 91.66. The mean difference could not, however, bring about significant 

difference. Consequently, no significant difference existed between the job satisfaction level of male and female 

teachers. This contradicts Adetayo (2008) report of significant difference on gender basis. Conversely, the mean 

difference was strong enough to bring about significance difference between teachers with bachelor degree (x = 95. 

76) and NCE holder (x = 96.50). This finding support Adetayo (2008) study which reported significant difference on 

educational qualification and negates Wu & Wu (2001) study which found higher level of satisfaction with teachers 

with lower educational attainment. This result did not come as a surprise because the minimum qualification for 

teaching in primary schools in Nigeria is Nigerian Certificate in Education which implies that primary school 

teachers with Bachelor of Education degree are underemployed which has greater capability of reducing their job 

satisfaction level when compared with their counterpart with NCE. 

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 

This study had amply revealed that primary schools teachers in Ota, Ogun State were satisfied with their job. 

Therefore, if there is any noticeable unethical practices such cannot be directly linked with lack of satisfaction with 

their job. Consequent upon this finding, it is imperative for proprietors of schools to ensure that teachers are not 

dissatisfied with their job through their inability to provide enabling environment and adequate incentives. It is also 

necessary that study on job satisfaction be carried out on periodical basis since satisfaction with job is flexible. 

REFERENCES 

Adeyemo, D.A. (2001) Teacher job satisfaction, job involvement, career and organization commitments as 

correlates of student academic performance. Nigerian Journal of Applied Psychology, 6 (2), 126-135. 

Amoda, M.B., Odunaike, K.O., & Oluwasina, B.R (2007). Impact of job motivation on job satisfaction in a 

stressful working environment. African Journal for the Study of educational Issues 1 (1), 36-41. 

Adetayo, J. O (2008). Level of teachers‟ job satisfaction in Ogun secondary schools. International Journal of 

Emotional Psychology and Sport Ethics. 10, 208-216. 

Best, E. E (2010). Job satisfaction of teachers in Krishna primary and secondary schools. 

http://eproxy.lib.nku.hk/loginurl=http:pqdd.sinica.edu.tw/twdaoapp/servlet/advancedquery=3212536 

Bishay, A. (1996). Teachers motivation and job satisfaction: A study employing the experience sampling method. 

Journal of Undergraduate Sciences, 3, 147-154. 

Bryner, J. (2007). Survey reveals most satisfying jobs. http://www.livescience.com/health 

Cambridge International Dictionary of English (1995). London: Cambridge university press. 

17


Fon, T P. (2007). Job satisfaction among academic staff in the University of Buea. The Exceptional Child, 9 (2), 

338-344. Microsoft Encounter Dictionary (2009). Satisfaction www.freedownloadscenter.com/terms/ 

microsoft-encounter 

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of Educational Research, 46, 147-180 

18




ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN RESEARCH CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: 

THE CASE OF UNIVERSITY BOTSWANA (UB) GRADUATE EDUCATION 

PROGRAMME 


Department of Educational Foundations, University of Botswana; Botswana 

E-mail address for correspondence: hjnenty@yahoo.com 

___________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: Given the several and severe educational, social and emotional/psychological problems facing the learners 

especially in the face of poverty and the merciless onslaught by HIV/AIDS epidemic, a huge challenge to 

educational research is to find how best to contain the effects of these problems on learning. The problem is that 

teachers who are expected to serve as research warriors generally lack the capacity to carry out educational research. 

This study was designed to determine the effectiveness of UB graduate education research programme in research 

capacity building by ensuring significant desirable cognitive and affective changes in behaviour among graduate 

education students. The data generated from administering a validated questionnaire to 83 in-service graduate 

education students before and at the end of an educational research course in 2007/2008 school year were analysed 

with dependent t-test statistical technique and compared across time. The results showed significant desirable 

changes in cognitive and affective behaviour among these in-service students pointing to some level of 

effectiveness of the course in cognitive and affective capacity building among in-service teachers serving as UB 

graduate education students as regards research skill development. The results were discussed and recommendations 

made. 

Key words: in-service training of teachers; development of research capacity; role of higher education; knowledge 

creation 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

In every discipline, research is the process through which knowledge is created for application in, and advancement 

of such discipline and for dissemination through teaching and publication as well as for application and utilization in 

community services. Since knowledge is the most empowering of all human possessions, possessing the skills 

necessary for its creation could be said to be a very important human possession. This is why acquisition of such 

skills is imperative for a university education and the role of higher education in the development of such skills is 

paramount. It is an overriding duty of education, especially graduate education to ensure such acquisition among 

students (Nenty, 2004). 

19


According to Velho (2004), “only societies who are able to exploit „knowledge‟ seem to grow economically and 

offer decent living conditions to their population” (p. 172) and the means of exploiting knowledge is through 

building research competence among students in institutions of higher learning. Since “knowledge production is 

sensitive to local contexts and committed to the involvement of users,” knowledge production and utilization should 

be “locally driven and constituted.” Hence “research capacity building in local universities will contribute to 

development . . .” (p. 179). This negates the assumption that “research results produced in advanced countries could 

just be transferred to developing countries and directly applied to the solution of the latter‟s . . . problems” (p. 180). 

Therefore graduate degrees “are prerequisite to academic research capacity in the universities and „have greater 

competence to identify, analyse and find solutions to the country‟s development problems” (Scharp, 2001, p.1; cited 

in Velho, 2004). 

In applied form, research in education is seen as a means through which solution is sought for educational and 

societal problems. For example, the problem associated with the achievement of the millennium goals, the quest to 

combat poverty before the year 2015 and the existing stubborn and permeating problem of the HIV/AIDS scourge 

are among the greatest challenges of our times. These call for the best of educational research in the continuous 

attempt to seek for solution to these problems. The problem of HIV/AIDS has subdued every aspect of human life 

and it is devastating to the economy, education, social and spiritual life. It affects education in a variety of ways; 

hence education itself has decided to tackle it head on. This accentuates the need for research skills by classroom 

teachers. Given the insatiable need for research by the urge to seek solution for the social, emotional and educational 

problems brought about by AIDS, every classroom teacher is seen as a research warrior against the effects of these 

problems on learning. These teachers still have to satisfy their primary role of teaching, so in order to gain the skill 

with which to attempt to contribute solution to these society‟s problems like the effects of AIDS, they have to resort 

to part-time graduate education. In Botswana, this and other educational and psychological problems call for the 

development and deployment of skills and knowledge among pupils, students and community members at a fast 

rate. 

Educational Research 

In his contribution to the justification of educational research as a scientific process, Nenty (1991/1992, 1999) 

indicated that just like research in pure sciences is the process of searching for the truth and hence creating 

knowledge about the behaviour of physical materials, educational research is a scientific process of searching for the 

truth about and hence creating knowledge on and about human behaviour. There are truths hidden in nature which 

science is to find out. Since human beings are a part of nature, there are "truths" hidden in each child which 

education is to "educeree" that is "lead forth" or "bring out" and develop. In other words, there are some truths, in 

terms of potentials, traits, or generally, behaviour, latent or inherent in every human being which education by its 

purpose is to find out and then develop. Finding out the truth about human behaviour is tantamount to creating 

knowledge of human behaviour. The process of creating knowledge has been developed and validated through 

science. According to Brubacher (1939), "like medicine, education science is based on other sciences" (p.15), it does 

not have a science of its own. Education science or educational research is therefore, the application of scientific 

methodology in the search for truth about human behaviour (Nenty, 1991/92). 

There are two phases to the process of education, that, like science, is involved with finding out the truth about 

changes in human behaviour, and that like technology, is involved with developmental or instructional application of 

these knowledge created through research. While the former constitutes the science of education, the later 

constitutes the art of education. The art of education, or pedagogy, on the other hand, is involved with the 

application of the tangible and the intangible products of science in the actual attempt at ensuring desirable changes 

in learners‟ behaviour (Nenty, 1999). 

Research Capacity Building in Education 

Education constitutes all the processes involved in ensuring desirable changes in human behaviour. To ensure 

effectiveness in such processes, educators must be armed with a good understanding of such behaviour itself, hence 

human behaviour must first be studied, analysed and understood before an efficient work could be done during the 

process of attempting to change it desirably. While some educators prefer to contribute, through research, to the 

20


creation of knowledge about learners‟ behaviour some prefer to serve only as practitioners in education, that is, to 

apply the tangible and the intangible products of the science of education in the actual attempt at ensuring desirable 

changes in learners‟ behaviour. Even at that, no practitioner can do a good job without some basic knowledge of 

research, especially as they have to read and understand the results from the research process before they can apply 

them effectively. Stenhouse (1979) argued that in order to do a good job at using research findings teachers need to 

carry out research themselves 

Beside arming practitioners in education with the knowledge of human behaviour, research contributes solution to 

the several educational problems faced by these practitioners as well as by all others who are directly or indirectly 

involved in the educational processes. In fact, most educational research in Africa are geared to this aim, that is, 

attempt to contribute solutions to one or the other of the several education-related problems in our society. Since 

performance (cognitive, affective or psychomotor) of the learner is the ultimate dependent variable in education, 

anything that inhibits the maximization of such performance constitutes a problem in education. And there are 

several sources of such problems, including policy; administration from the ministry down to the classrooms; 

parenting and family background; quality and quantity of human and material resources made available to 

education; effectiveness of the several processes like teaching, assessment, involved; and learner-related factors. 

Each of these is a conglomeration of complex variables which act and inter-react resulting sometimes in undesirable 

consequences which are inimical to learning and hence constitute problems for which solutions must be sought if 

learning must be maximized. Finding solutions to such problems involves disentangling or analyzing such 

relationships and determining their intensity and direction, and hence finding out how some of the variables could be 

manipulated in order to maximize learning. Results of such studies are fed back to administration for the formulation 

of related policies and theories which when implemented will provide a guide to such manipulation and hence to the 

solution of the problem, as well as to other stakeholders in education to guide practices towards the solution of such 

problem. 

Hence, it becomes imperative to ensure that all educators gain some level of knowledge, understanding and skills in 

educational research. This prompts the need for research capacity building among education students. Research 

capacity building equips education students with the affective and cognitive skills, knowledge and confidence to 

carry out research as required by their studies and work. Knowledge in their academic area is supplemented by 

practical skills in research, and these provide them with a wider opportunity of professional growth and selfrealization. 

Development of such capacity is of worldwide importance for the creation of knowledge, contributing of 

solution to educational problems and for the improvement of professional practices and hence it has provoked 

several international collaborations (Hewson, et al., 2005). According to Research Capacity Building Network 

(RCBN) (2004), for any research capacity-building activity to be successful in developing students‟ research 

expertise it is important that their research needs be correctly identified in the first place. It is also of equal 

importance that one reflects back on the activity to see if students‟ personal or course objectives have been met 

(RCBN 2004). 

Research Capacity Building of UB Graduate Education Students 

Research in education is generally carried out for two main purposes: (a) contributing solution to an educationrelated 

problem; and (b) satisfying one‟s interest or curiosity, trying to find answers to some intriguing or nagging 

questions or trying to explain an experience or an observation. The first results in what is often termed applied 

research while the second gives us pure research. While applied research is problem-driven, basic research is interestor 

curiosity-driven, and hence may not present and analyse any problem but interest or curiosity. Most educational 

research are applied in nature. When two or more variables or phenomena inter-react the interaction might bring 

about desirable or undesirable results. If the result is undesirable then a problem situation arises or is created and to 

contribute a solution to such problem we need to find out, study and analyse the relationships between or among the 

variables, etc. In other words, problems for which we are seeking solution through research occurs because the 

relationship between or among interacting variables results in an undesirable consequences. And seeking any 

solution to such problem calls inevitably for a study or an analysis of such relationships. In either case, a topic is the 

product of a good analysis of a problem under consideration or of the interest or curiosity which the study is trying to 

satisfy. Solution to given problem, for example, juvenile delinquency, might call for several studies because several 

variables contribute to make this a problem. So a topic, for example: “Family influences on juvenile delinquency among 

21


CJSS students in Gaborone” represents one angle from which the researcher could tackle the given problem. Another 

one might look at influence of peer pressure on juvenile delinquency. 

The first stage to developing capacity is to identify the research needs of students. In other words, to do a good job 

at building research capacity, the basic skills (both cognitive and affective) involved in the research process must be 

identified, analysed and involved in the process of capacity building. In educational research these generally include: 

(1) identifying, analysing, validating and communicating the problem to which a solution is 

anticipated or the interest or curiosity to be satisfied; 

(2) identifying and analysing what is known so far about such problem and based on 

this, speculating what might be the possible solution to the problem or asking 

questions whose answers will contribute solutions to the problem; 

(3) reviewing and assessing the experiences of others who have earlier attempted to 

contribute solutions to this, similar or related problems; 

(4) selecting, describing and implementation research methods and processes that will enable 

valid solution to be found for the problem; 

(5) analysing the information collected through the implementation of such methods 

and interpreting the results of such analyses; 

(6) summarizing, discussing (synthesising and evaluating) the research findings in the light of the 

underlying theory and reviewed literature and presenting it in a form applicable to the research 

problems and hence recommending possible solutions to the research problems; 

(7) reporting and disseminating the research findings in a format or style approved by 

the relevant research community. 

For any capacity building effort to be able to develop these cognitive skills efforts must be made to develop the 

general affective skills of receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and characterization (Krathwohl, Bloom, & 

Masia, 1964) as they relate to research. Favourable attitude towards research is necessary for the acquisition of basic 

research skills hence, during any capacity building processes, efforts must be made to enhance not only learners‟ 

cognitive but also their affective behaviour towards research. Strong emphasis must be placed on research skills as 

being important and desirable for personal and professional growth. 

Faculty of Education, University of Botswana provides for two graduate-level courses for research capacity building 

for her students. The first of these courses, as offered in the first semester of 2007/2008 school year, had the 

following as it objectives: At the end of the course, students who attend every class session and participate fully in 

class activities will: 

1. Acquire knowledge and understanding of the meaning and the several processes of research and its 

related concepts and operations and have a general idea of the philosophy, paradigms and orientations 

of educational research. 

2. Have knowledge of the general outline for writing research report; state and analyse a research 

problem and hence derive a topic, state research question and/or hypothesis. 

3. Critically review and summarize literature and justifying the need for the study given the results of the 

review of literature. 

4. Determine and describe appropriate research method and design for a study; understand and 

differentiate among available sampling methods; develop or adapt and validate an appropriate 

instrument for the study. 

5. Write a research proposal, including referencing, using approved reporting style. 

6. Appreciate the role and usefulness of research as a means of contributing solution to 

22


educational problems and hence a means of creating knowledge in education, and thus 

develop favourable attitude towards research. 

7 Appreciate the place of theoretical background in research and the systematic and logical 

nature of the research process. 

A genuine need to contribute a solution to a definite problem is the spirit underlying especially an applied research 

study. Given the many handicaps of a beginning researcher, the identification and validation of suitable problem is, to 

most students, a problem by itself. Most of the time the student's problem is either too broad or narrow in scope, 

incapable of solution, trivial, duplication, or beyond their capability to handle efficiently. A topic emanates from a 

problem, not vice versa. So instead of asking a student to submit a topic in the first place, a student should be asked to 

submit a problem. An in-depth analysis and discussion of a student‟s research problem yields a topic. For applied 

research in the area, some guiding questions for identifying or pinpointing and analysing a research problem are: 

What problem in (any area of) education, or in the society/community, or in my job, etc, am I intending to, or 

interested in, contributing a solution through this research study 

 

 

 

How and why is this a problem This is tantamount to validating the problem. 

What are the current adverse consequences of this problem 

What are likely to be the consequences of this problem if a solution for it is not sort for and found now 

Such problem can be theoretical, practical or empirical. Oftentimes the students are in a hurry to choose a topic, 

undertake the study under the pressure of meeting graduation deadline. Little do they realize that the search for truth 

requires a great deal of time and energy. A problem well chosen is a research quarter done. 

Problem of the Study 

Government of Ireland (2006) identified “shortage of capacity to plan, manage am implement the financing, 

monitoring, and evaluation of educational systems” (p. 1) among teachers in Africa. The several and severe 

educational, social and emotional/psychological problems facing the learners especially in the face of poverty and 

the merciless onslaught by HIV/AIDS epidemic pose a huge challenge to educational research which is expected to 

find how best to contain the effects of these problems on learning. In Botswana, the problem is that teachers who 

are expected to serve as research warriors generally lack the capacity to carry out educational research. Very often 

than not several courses offered at universities are not handled as if they were meant to provide capacity building 

experiences to students. University education, more so graduate education, provides professional education. That is, 

it provides such education as would enable each graduate not only to provide, at an advanced level, a unique service 

to the society but also to contribute to the advancement of his/her profession. Ability to do both of these depends 

much on the research capacity of the graduate. Hence capacity building in the area of research is fundamental to a 

valid professional training at any level. Since research is an important aspect of career development, imparting 

research skills is a process of enhancing employment and career development. 

The Purpose of the Study 

Any research capacity building endeavour strengthens itself with the feedback from students. The question is: to 

what extent are the objectives of the capacity building training programme being achieved The results of a periodic 

check on this provide a regenerative feedback for the improvement of the training process and an experience for 

future capacity building programmes. The study aims at determining the extent to which the course has realized the 

aims of a research capacity-building objective among in-service/part-time graduate students. According to Silliman 

(2007), “the prime academic value is the continuous building of a strong cadre of qualified researchers who hold 

passionate beliefs about scientific inquiry, have the skills to participate in interdisciplinary partnerships, and 

recognize for their productivity at the institutional level.” Hence the research question was “to what extent has the 

course brought about desirable changes in cognitive and affective behaviour among UB education graduate 

students” Significant changes in affective behaviour would imply that a good affective foundation for the 

23


deployment of any level of cognitive skills that might be developed in research is laid. In the other hand, significant 

changes in cognitive behaviour would imply that skills necessary for carrying out educational research has been 

gained. Desirable changes in both types of behaviour are necessary for effective capacity building. To what extent 

therefore is our current academic culture as well as our associated graduate education strategies lead to assembling 

the necessary research capacity (Silliman, 2007). 

METHODOLOGY 

This is a quantitative study with a one-group pretest-posttest pre-experimental design to determine the effectiveness 

of a research capacity building course in bringing about significant desirable changes in both cognitive and affective 

behaviour among graduate education students in UB. Data for this study was collected from UB graduate education 

students who took the first of the two fundamental courses in educational research for graduate students in the 

faculty of education in 2007. The students were free not to participate in the study, so of the 83 students who 

registered for the course 73 of them participated fully in the study. Of this number, 51 were females while 22 were 

males. 

The questionnaire used in the study was developed by first listing several indicants (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000) of the 

cognitive and affective variables involved in both the course objectives and in capacity building. These were then 

developed into statements intended to elicit the level of related behaviour under measurement possessed by the 

participant. The instrument was given to two colleagues and three teaching assistants/graduate students for face 

validation. Their corrections and suggestions were incorporated in the revision of the instrument. The resulting 

questionnaire (see Tables 1 & 2) had 17 items each designed to measure students‟ cognitive and affective behaviour 

respectively. Subjects were requested to react to each of the statements by choosing the level to which they agreed 

or disagreed with it. The agreement scale had six options ranging from „very strongly disagree‟ to „very strongly 

agree‟. A Cronbach alpha analysis of the reliability of the instrument for the cognitive behaviour gave an alpha value 

of .943, while that for the affective behaviour gave an alpha value of .913. The same instrument was administered on 

the first day of class and again during the last day of class in the course. Out of the 83 students who registered for 

the course 73 completed the pre- and post- administrations of the questionnaire. Their responses were scored, 

entered and analysed using the SPSS quantitative data analysis computer package. 

Data Analysis and Interpretations of Results 

To answer the research question posed for the study, the participants‟ mean pre- and post- responses for each of the 

two sets of 17 items derived from indicators of the cognitive and affective variables involved in the course 

objectives were compared using the dependent t-test statistical analysis. A significant change given what each of the 

questionnaire items was measuring would indicate the effectiveness of the course given the related course 

objectives. These were tested at .01 alpha level. The results, as presented on Tables 1 and 2, show a significant level 

of effectiveness of the course in bringing about desirable behavioural shift among graduate education students who 

took the course in all the cognitive behaviour and in all but two (enthusiasm about research and fear of research) of 

the affective items. The size of the effect of the course on the behaviour reflected by each of the items was 

calculated (Cohen, 1988). For the affective items the effect size ranged from 0.03 for „level of enthusiasm about 

research‟ to 1.17 for „appreciation of the systematic and logical nature of the research process.‟ Given the standard 

interpretation of d = 0.2 as a small effect size, d = 0.5 as medium, and d = 0.8 as large (Cohen, 1988), the course had 

at least a small effect in all but the level of enthusiasm about research. 

24


These were confirmed by a similar analysis of the sum of these items across the two variables. This as shown on 

Table 3 indicates an overall significant pre-post differences, confirming the significant effectiveness of the course in 

research capacity building. 

Table 1: Dependent t-test Analysis of Shift in Affective Feelings towards 

Research as a Result of Experience in EFF 641 at UB (n = 73) 

# Research-related Affective 

Behaviour 

Before EFF 

641 

After EFF 

641 

Difference 

X SD X SD X SE 

t- 

value 

Cohe 

n’s 

d- 

index 

(effec 

t size) 

p< 

1. Enthusiasm about research 

0.03 

3.76 1.89 3.94 1.56 -.15 .23 

8 

-0.64 

.52 

3 

2. Likeness for research 

0.41 

3.40 1.80 4.26 1.33 -0.86 .21 

9 

-3.91 

.00 

0 

3. Usefulness of research 

0.91 

3.29 1.68 4.93 1.23 -1.63 .20 

6 

-7.91 

.00 

0 

4. Fear of research 

0.22 

3.37 1.77 2.92 1.66 .45 .30 

1 

1.48 

.14 

3 

5. Appreciation of the place of 

the theoretical background in 

research 

2.42 1.52 4.05 1.45 -1.63 .21 

9 

-7.45 

0.55 

.00 

0 

6. Appreciate the systematic and 

logical nature of the research 

process 

2.62 1.59 4.62 1.55 -2.00 .20 

7 

-9.67 

1.17 

.00 

0 

7. Need for research training 

0.49 

3.64 1.95 4.80 1.43 -1.16 .28 

6 

-4.06 

.00 

0 

8. Excitement about research 

0.52 

3.05 2.06 4.25 1.64 -1.19 .23 

9 

-4.97 

.00 

0 

9. Appreciation of research as a 

means of creating knowledge 

3.34 1.85 4.70 1.51 -1.36 .25 

1 

-5.40 

0.67 

.00 

0 

25


. 

0.71 

10. 

Awareness of research 3.24 1.59 4.73 1.46 -1.49 .25 

7 

-5.79 

.00 

0 

11. Need for the use of research 

findings in the classroom 

2.88 1.51 4.78 1.46 -1.90 .21 

0 

-9.04 

1.15 

.00 

0 

0.37 

12. Interest in research 3.31 1.88 4.28 1.71 -0.97 .30 

0 

-3.23 

.00 

2 

13. Determination to be involved 

in 

Research 

3.18 1.91 4.72 1.39 -1.54 .26 

1 

-5.90 

0.63 

.00 

0 

14. Realization of the need for 

research in education. 

3.14 1.78 4.94 1.60 -1.80 .27 

3 

-6.59 

0.81 

.00 

0 

15. Need for teachers to undertake 

0.84 

research 3.18 1.89 5.08 1.33 -1.89 .26 

6 

-7.12 

.00 

0 

16. Willingness to undertake 

research 

study 

3.24 1.88 4.49 1.55 -1.25 .27 

9 

-4.49 

0.50 

.00 

0 

17. Justifying the need for a 

research 

study 

2.82 1.76 4.65 1.23 -1.82 .27 

9 

-7.76 

0.91 

.00 

0 

26


Table 2: Dependent t-test Analysis of Shift in Cognitive Behaviour in 

Research as a Result of Experience in EFF 641 at UB (n = 73) 

# Research-related Cognitive 

Behaviour 

Before EFF 

641 

X 

After EFF 

641 Difference 

SD X SD X SE 

t- 

value 

Cohen’ 

s d- 

index 

(effect 

size) 

p< 

0.94 

1. Having knowledge and 

understanding of research concepts 

2.76 1.37 4.18 1.28 - 

1.42 

.18 

5 

-7.71 

.00 

0 

2. Stating and analysing research 

problem 

2.23 1.68 4.06 1.53 - 

1.83 

.21 

6 

-8.45 

1.03 

.00 

0 

3. Having knowledge and 

understanding of basic processes of 

research operations 

2.62 1.33 4.22 1.20 - 

1.59 

.17 

9 

-8.90 

1.08 

.00 

0 

4. Having a clear picture of what 

research is all about 

2.71 1.41 4.69 1.03 - 

1.97 

.20 

2 

-9.77 

1.14 

.00 

0 

5. Having a general idea of the 

philosophy of educational research 

2.28 1.46 4.19 1.40 - 

1.91 

.22 

4 

-8.54 

1.05 

.00 

0 

6. Having knowledge of the general 

outline for writing research report 

2.60 1.57 4.18 1.34 - 

1.57 

.19 

6 

-8.04 

0.99 

.00 

0 

7. Stating research questions and/or 

hypotheses 

2.54 1.52 4.34 1.46 - 

1.81 

.21 

7 

-8.32 

1.01 

.00 

0 

8. Determining appropriate research 

method for a given study and 

describing such methodology 

2.29 1.44 4.30 1.38 - 

2.02 

.22 

2 

-9.09 

1.14 

.00 

0 

9. Understanding and differentiating 

among available sampling methods 

2.21 1.38 4.15 1.59 

1 

- 

1.94 

.25 

4 

-7.65 

0.92 

.00 

0 

10. Ensuring good referencing and 

using approved style in research 

27 

1.51 - .22 

1.06 

.00


reporting 2.03 1.36 3.93 1 1.90 3 -8.49 0 

11. Differentiating between research 

and other intellectual processes 

2.49 1.40 4.16 1.53 - 

1.67 

.23 

8 

-7.02 

0.90 

.00 

0 

12. Having general idea of the 

philosophy of educational research 

2.20 1.37 4.45 1.51 - 

2.26 

.23 

0 

-9.82 

1.16 

.00 

0 

13. Using different resources/facilities 

in the library 

3.03 1.62 4.80 1.25 - 

1.78 

.23 

2 

-7.66 

0.96 

.00 

0 

14. Coming up with a suitable research 

topic. 

2.54 1.48 4.70 1.34 - 

2.16 

.20 

5 

- 

10.60 

1.24 

.00 

0 

15. Acquiring general skill in research 2.44 1.59 4.44 1.33 - 

2.00 

.21 

5 

-9.27 1.09 .00 

0 

16. Having knowledge of the general 

outline for writing research 

proposal 

2.52 1.55 4.14 1.30 - 

1.62 

.21 

2 

-7.67 0.95 .00 

0 

17. Reviewing and summarizing 

literature 

2.62 1.57 4.32 1.32 - 

1.71 

.19 

4 

-8.78 1.05 .00 

0 

28


Table 3: Dependent t-Test Analysis of Overall Shift in Students‟ Research-related Affective 

and Cognitive Behaviour as a Result of Experiences in a Research Capacity Building Course (n = 68) 

Variables 

Mean 

Std. 

Dev. 

Paired Difference 

Mean SD SEM 

t-value 

Overall 

Effectsize 

(Cohen’s 

d-index 

p< 

Cognitive pretest scores 

47.88 20.03 

Cognitive post test scores 96.66 16.79 

-17.76 14.09 1.73 -10.24 2.44 .000 

Affective pretest scores 

35.70 12.63 

Affective post test scores 53.45 9.93 

-48.78 19.57 2.37 -20.55 1.41 .000 

DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

This study took the view that for a university course to serve capacity building functions effectively it has to impact 

not only on the cognitive skills but also on the affective skills. A learner learns what he or she likes and sees the 

need to learn. The course by using active and problem-based learning techniques first creates and maintains 

conducive environment within which students want and like to learn and hence whet students‟ appetite to learn. 

Lectures, class activities and assignments are linked to current and real life problems faced by the in-service 

teachers. 

The study demonstrated highly significant desirable changes in the affective and cognitive behaviour among 

students who registered for and took the educational research methods courses in 2007/2008 at University of 

Botswana. Affectively, the course increased significantly part-time or in-service students‟ appreciation of, need for, 

and perception of the usefulness of research. It also significantly enhanced their awareness of, and determination to 

be involved in research. With this affective dispositions, in-service students in the course have been engaged in 

several problem solving studies. For example, through research they have generated or created knowledge on 

HIV/AIDS which has contributed to the creation of a less fear-intensive environment for containing the scourge of 

the disease. 

It is recommended that: 

• given the several problems that abound in our society and hence the need for researchers, lecturers of 

research courses should see each course as a capacity development endeavour. 

29


• since a learner learns what he or she likes and sees the need to learn, lecturers should first of all ensure that 

the students are affectively prepared to learn before cognitive knowledge or skills are transferred; and 

• course activities should be linked to identified problems to which the learner intends to contribute solutions 

or curiosity to which the learner intends to satisfy. 

REFERENCES 

Brubacher, J.S. (1939). Modern philosophies of education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc. 

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2 nd ed.), Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum 

Associates. 

Government of Ireland (2006). The Irish White Paper on Irish Aid. Retrieved from 

http://www.irishaid.gov.ie/whitepaper/ 

Hewson, P., Curtis, M., Schneckloth, S. & Damose, B. (2005). Building education research capacity: Collaboration 

between the United States and South Africa. Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 8(1), 61- 

80. 

Kerlinger, F. N., & Lee, H. B. (2000). Foundations of behavioral research (4 th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & 

Winston 

Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S. & Masia, B.B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives -handbook 

II: Affective domain. New York: Longman 

Nenty, H. J. (2004). Trends in graduate studies: Lessons for African new and emerging universities. The African 

Symposium – An on-line Educational Research Journal of the African Educational Research Network, 4(2). 

Retrieved from http://www.ncsu.edu/aern/TAS4.2/TAS4.2.pdf 

Nenty, H. J. (1999). Link among education, research, educational research and quality of life. In C. Magagula, E. 

Malibu & S. Z. Manzini (Eds.), Educational research for quality of life (pp. 28 - 44), Swaziland: 

Swaziland Educational Research Association (SERA) [on line: 

http://www.boleswa97.tripod.com/nenty_link.htm. 

Nenty, H. J. (1992). Means of acquiring knowledge. In A. J. Isangedighi & P. M. C. Ogomaha (Eds.) 

Educational research methods (pp.24-48). Owerri, Nigeria: Totan Publishers Ltd. 

Nenty, H. J. (1991/92). The basis of education science. Eduscope (Unical Education Students‟ Magazine), vol.5, 

pp.8 – 11. 

Research Capacity Building Network (RCBN) (2004). Research capacity building in teaching and learning. 

Retrieved from: www.tlrp.org/rcbn/capacity/Activities/RCBNconference.html 

RCBN (2004). What are your research-capacity needs Retrieved from: 

http://www.cf.ac.uk/socsi/capacity/Needs.html 

Scharp, C. (2001). Terms of reference. Stockholm: SIDA/SAREE, 

Stenhouse, L. (1979). Using research means doing research. In. H. Dahl, A. Lysne, & P. Rand (Eds.), Spotlight on 

educational problems. Oslo: Oslo University Press 

30


Silliman, E. R. (2007). Interdisciplinary research frontiers: Building research capacity. The ASHA Leader, 12(5), 6- 

7. Retrieved March 1, 2009 from http://www.asha.org/about/pubications/leader-online/ 

Velho, L. (2004). Research capacity building for development: From old to new assumptions. Science Technology 

and Society, 9(2), 171-207. Retrieved from http://sts.sagepub.com. 

31




FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF GRADUATES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION 

PROGRAM IN PRINCESS RAHMEH COLLEGE 


Special Education Department, Princess Rahmeh College, Al-Balqa Applied University, Jordan 

E-mail address for correspondence: hkatanani@yahoo.com 

_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: This study aimed at evaluating the worth of the bachelor of special education program at 

Princess Rahmeh Collage in Al-Balqa Applied University. From the graduates’ point of view, it is hoped 

that the evaluation will enable those who are involved to develop general understanding, allowing them to 

specify the areas which need to be modified and improved. For this purpose, a questionnaire was prepared 

to collect data, and the subjects were graduates of the program. The results showed certain strengths of 

the program; the most obvious is that the graduates are satisfied with their preparation level in general. 

The theoretical content of the program was rich and deep in spite of the fact that the graduates pointed to 

the need to some topics such as autism, more training in behavior modification, instructional strategies, 

and using technology. The most obvious demerit was the imbalance between the theoretical and practical 

components of the program, which influenced certain performance of skills, as well as certain difficulties 

in the field practice. 

Keywords: follow-up study, program evaluation, teacher education, and special education. 

_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

One of the vexing questions in teacher education today concerns the outcomes of preparation: What 

happens to special education program, who are working, and what happens when they enter the 

classroom Are the effects of their teacher education experiences “washed out”, or do they benefit from 

experiences in teaching What suggestions do they have for improving the special education major 

Which classes are the most helpful These questions challenge teacher educators, and they are common 

among special education programs at the bachelor level. Follow–up studies of graduates are mandated for 

special education approval. Graduates’ feedback offers valuable input to curriculum content and 

development; specifically, evaluative information about the academic preparation as well as information 

about roles, responsibilities, and challenges encountered in employment. This information is valuable to 

the faculty staff as they update course content, revise the curriculum, and incorporate real experience 

world into the preparation of future special educator professionals. The first year of teaching has been 

described in many ways, from reality shock to sink-or-swim to riding a slightly out-of-control roller 

coaster. Regardless of the terms used to describe the experience, the descriptions remain remarkably 

consistent in portraying a difficult transition from being a student responsible for his or her own learning 

to being a teacher in charge of a classroom and responsible for promoting learning in others(Loving Foss, 

et al, 2001). Alarming statistics indicate that the first few years of teaching are the most critical in 

33


determining whether or not the novice teacher will remain in the profession (Whitaker, 2000). To function 

effectively in the 21st century schools, future teachers must be provided with dramatically different 

preparatory experience (Maheady and Harper, 1993). Darling–Hammond (2000) confirms a significant 

relationship between quality teachers and student achievement. To provide a quality teacher for every 

child, Darling–Hammond (1996) suggest that the highest priority for teacher preparation programs should 

be to reach an agreement on what teachers need to know and need to do to affect student success. 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

Ensuring that students with disabilities receive teaching programs and services that will prepare them for 

future life and independent living is one of the continuing challenges facing educators today. To meet this 

challenge, pre-service preparation programs must provide the student with knowledge, skills, and the 

competencies which they need for effective teaching (Blalock et. al., 2003; Breidenstein et. al., 2001). 

Programs conduct follow–up studies of their graduates to evaluate how well the program meets 

community and student needs. It is essential to monitor the quality of teacher preparation programs 

(Ayers, 1989). Professional organizations like CEC (2003), (NCATE, 1997, and 2002) strongly 

emphasize the need for beginning teacher follow–up studies. 

Program Evaluation Purposes 

The purposes of teacher evaluation are controversial, but they support a position in which two masters are 

served by combining formative and summative elements in the process. One purpose relates to 

professional learning and uses formative assessment to improve practice. The other purpose relates to 

quality assurance and requires summative judgments of teacher effectiveness based on clear standards, 

defined criteria, and solid evidence (Avery, 2001). The program evaluation that is premeditated and 

systematic offers the greatest opportunity for determining the worth of the program’s products and its 

working components. It can help determine how well a program prepares teachers while examining those 

constituent elements of the program perceived as contributing to the development of teachers. Systematic 

evaluation provides opportunities for collecting information so that strengths and weakness can be 

identified. Although the overall objective of the program evaluation is to judge the quality of a program, 

the evaluation process itself can serve to unite all program participants in continuous self-examination 

and program improvement (Diobilda and boly, 1999; Conderman, et. al, 2001; and Goodlad, 1991). 

Satisfaction and feedback results from graduates of teachers’ education programs are required data, and 

they should be used to evaluate and modify teacher preparation programs as appropriate (CEC, 2003; and 

NCATE, 2002). 

Program evaluation has several benefits; among them are accountability to accrediting or approval 

organizations, higher education governing boards, and school or college administrative offices 

Improvement is another reason for program evaluation. This may improve a number of areas such as 

curriculum, instruction, course content, faculty, and advising. (Isaac and Michael 1993; Stolworthy, 2000; 

Avery 2001; and Dioloilda and Boly, 1990) Program evaluation is also a resource for material for 

marketing efforts. Examples of the types of information that may be useful for marketing are employment 

data, rating academic preparation and relevance of curriculum to special education delivery, 

Understanding and knowledge are another two benefits of the program evaluation (Warren and Curly 

1998; and Avery 2001). 

Concepts of Teacher Quality 

Regardless of ones’ purpose in defining teacher quality, is not an easy task. Reaching consensus on a 

definition, even among teacher educators and researchers, has proven to be elusive. As noted by Berliner 

(2005), “quality always requires value judgments about which disagreements abound” (P. 206). 

34


Definitions of high-quality teaching range in their focus from the actions of the teacher and the 

knowledge a teacher possesses to the creativity of the teacher. In recent years, however, leading 

researchers such as Berliner (2005), and Fenstemacher and Reichardson (2005) have focused on the 

multidimensional nature of the concept and have defined teacher quality as encompassing two parts: (a) 

good teaching; meaning that the teacher meets the expectations for the role (e.g., holding degrees, using 

age-appropriate methods, upholding the standards of a field of study, and other attributes and practices, 

and (b) effective or successful teaching; meaning the results of the teacher's actions on student learning 

and achievement. In other words, one dimension in the absence of the other falls short of fully defining 

teacher quality. 

In the 1970s, research began to address the complexities of teaching, classrooms, and schools. 

Approaches to research are referred to by different terms: learning-to-teach research, classroom ecology 

research, or interpretive research (Berliner, 1989; Doyle, 1983; Fenstermacher and Richardson, 2005; 

Kagan, 1992; Wideen, et al, 1998). 

The literature has grown rich with research on teacher planning / decision making (e.g., Reynolds, 1992), 

teacher thinking (e.g., Carter, 1990), teacher beliefs (e.g., Pajares, 1992) and novice versus expert teacher 

(Berliner, 1986) among other topics. As in their efforts in process–product research, special education 

researchers (e.g., Fuchs, et al, 1992; Nowacek and Blanton, 1996) have borrowed from these new 

programs of inquiry and produced findings that add to the literature. The knowledge base on teaching and 

understanding teacher quality continues to expand and change, focusing on both good and effective or 

successful dimensions of teacher quality (Blanton, 2006). Currently, accountability and performance 

standards are dominating the teacher quality agenda, with accompanying changes in teacher education 

accreditation and teacher licensure, which are the major quality control mechanisms for the profession. 

The result of this focus is greater attention on such teacher attributes as experience, preparation and 

degree, and certifications (NCATE, 2002; Warren and Curely, 1998; and Rice, 2003). Regardless of how 

difficult it is to encompass the concept of teacher quality, researchers need credible measures to build 

strong research programs. As it is argued, strong research programs are necessary to guide teacher 

education program design and to inform policy. Although large-scale studies of teacher education 

program efficacy are underway (or complete) in general education, similar efforts are needed in special 

education (Darling–Hammond, 2000; Fenstermacher and Richardson, 2005; Humphrey and Weschler, 

2005; and National Commission on Excellence in Elementary Teacher Preparation for Reading 

Instruction, 2003) similar efforts are needed in special education. 

In special education, the problem becomes more difficult because classroom teachers and special 

educators share responsibility for educating most students with disabilities. Thus, determining which 

teacher is responsible for what had been learnt may be impossible to do with any degree of precision or 

consistency. Furthermore, special education teacher’s roles vary from school to school and, for some 

teachers, from student to student. A special education teacher may work with a single group for much of 

the day, work with several groups of students for short periods in a resource room or consult with some 

student classroom teachers in planning accommodations and adaptations, or co- teach with a classroom 

teacher (Donna et al, 2008). 

Program Evaluation Models 

There are various methods for evaluating a program. A frequently used technique is the exit interview, 

which is a structured or unstructured interview upon completion of the program; the use of existing data 

such as competency testing is also common in evaluating programs. A follow–up survey, which is the 

third method, is distributed to participants following a period of elapsed time since program completion 

(Worthen, et al, 1997). Other techniques of program evaluation include external reviews by distinguished 

colleagues, interviews with faculty members in collaborative programs and rating by employers of 

graduates. Some program evaluation efforts combine a number of methods depending on the goals of the 

evaluation process (Clubok, 1997). Blanton, et al, (2006) suggests five traditions of assessing beginning 

teacher quality: (a) empirical representation of effective practice derived from process-product research, 

(b) more complete and holistic representations, exemplified by checklists, (c) standards, (d) 

representations of effective practice from large–scale survey, and (e) observation systems for classroom 

teachers . 

35


Standards 

The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) began promulgating teaching standards in the early 1990s, 

and in 2001, it published a revised edition of the CEC standards for the preparation of special educators. 

Furthermore, Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) standards purport 

to be "performance–based: that is, they describe what teachers should know and be able to do rather than 

listing courses that teachers should take in order to be awarded a license" (Stevens, 2001). 

Although the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) has continuously 

recommended the ongoing use of follow-up surveys to investigate program effects on graduates' 

perceptions of their instructional abilities and content knowledge, that method has its known limitations. 

Despite the limitations, the use of follow-up surveys is still the most efficient way to gather useful 

information for program evaluation (Thomas and Loadman, 2001). In 1989, The CEC adopted standards 

for special educators entering into professional practice that include a minimum of a one-year mentorship 

during the first year of professional special education practice. The CEC (1998) identified five purposes 

of mentorship program for special educators: (1) to facilitate the application of knowledge and skills, (2) 

to convey advanced knowledge and skills, (3) to assist adaptation to the school climate, (4) to reduce 

stress and enhance job satisfaction, and (5) to support professional induction (Whitaker, 2000). 

The quality of education services for students with exceptionalities depends upon the abilities, 

qualifications and competencies of educators who provide services to such individuals (CEC, 1983). One 

implication of this relationship between student success and teacher competencies is that the quality of 

university programs that prepare K-12 teachers has to be as good as it can be. 

The program evaluation standards adopted by CEC have significant potentiality to strengthen the 

preparation of the special educator. One aspect of the CEC standards (the requirements that institutions 

preparing special educators engage in follow-up studies of their graduates) can provide insights into the 

strengths and weaknesses of any given teacher preparation program in order to ensure the excellence of 

that program (Wilcox, et al, 2002). 

The NCATE is responsible for assessing undergraduate and graduate teacher education programs and the 

CEC evaluates special education programs using the NCATE process. The CEC provides specific 

standards for special education undergraduate and graduate programs and lists of core of common 

knowledge and skills for beginning teachers that includes (a) philosophical, legal, and historical 

foundations, (b) characteristics of learners, (c) assessment skills, (d) instructional skills, (e) behavior 

management skills, (f) communication and collaboration skills, and (g) ethical and professional practices 

(Conderman, et al, 2001; and CEC, 2001). 

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 

The major objective of the study is to investigate the skills which the graduates have enabling them to 

work effectively from their point of view through their answers to the following questions (Part 1 of the 

questionnaire). 

To what extent these competencies are important for effective work in the field 

To what extent the program has prepared you to perform it effectively 

To answer these questions, the graduates have to rate the importance of every competency in different 

areas of competencies at first. Then they have to rate the program ability in preparing them at these 

competencies . 

The second objective is to investigate the graduates’ perceptions of the program contents and outcomes, 

their satisfaction, difficulties, recommendations, and personal characteristics through answering a cluster 

of open–ended questions (Part 2 of the questionnaire). 

36


METHODOLOGY 

Subjects: The subjects are all the graduates of the program working in Jordan who have been reached; the 

total number of which is 80. 

Instruments: A questionnaire has been designed to consist of two parts . 

Part 1 includes a list of competencies necessary for teachers of special education to assess the importance 

of each area of competencies in the work of the teacher, and to determine how well the college program in 

general has prepared the graduates to function in that area. Through literature review concerning common 

core competencies of special education teacher, researchers have developed a list of competencies 

necessary for teachers of special education, and the programs of teacher education in special education 

aim to develop it (CEC, 1983; CEC, 1992; CEC, 2002). There is an agreement between specialists on a 

number of competencies. The most prominent one is the competencies set by CEC as well as the 

competencies from many studies and documents (Blanton, 1992; York and Reynolds, 1998; Reynolds, 

1990; Crockett, 2002; Kerns, 1996; Thomas and Loadman, 2001; Hayes, 2002; and Wilcox, et al, 2002). 

The total number of competencies is 57 distributed at 7 dimensions, see Tables 1, 2, 3,4,5,6 and 7.( 

Rating scales from 1 to 4 is identified for questions 1 and 2 (Part 1). These questions will be repeated here 

for convenience. 

-To what extent these competencies are important for effective work in the field 

-To what extent the program has prepared you to perform it effectively 

Scale 4 indicates that the competency is very important, and the program ability to develop it is high. As 

for scale 3, it indicates that the competency is important, and the program ability to develop is moderate. 

Regarding scale 2, it is evident that the competency is less important, and the program ability to develop 

is weak. Concerning scale 1, it is obvious that the competency is not important, and the program ability to 

develop is nonexistent. Cut points which were identified as 3.27 or more mean that the competency is 

very important, and the program ability to develop is high. Cut points from 2.51 to 3.26 mean the 

competency is important, and the program ability to develop is moderate. Cut points from 1.75 to 2.50 

indicate that the competency is less important, and the program ability to develop is weak. Cut points less 

than 1.75 mean that the competency is not important, and the program ability to develop is nonexistent. 

Part 2 of the questionnaire has been designed to answer question 2, which includes a cluster of openended 

questions concerning their perception of the program content and outcomes. These questions have 

been abstracted from (Mastropeiri, 2001; AL-Smadi, 1999; Crockett, 2002; Kerns, 1996; Thomas and 

Loadman, 2001; Hayes, 2002; and Wilcox, et al, 2002( 

Judgments agreement is 88% of the 12 faculty members who are involved. The questionnaire has been 

distributed to 80 (42 male and 38 female) graduates, and the returning rate is 90%. 

DATA ANALYSIS 

Data obtained were analyzed using Descriptive statistical (frequencies and means) with the application of 

statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) to examine graduate responses to the questions in part 1 

of the questionnaire. Frequencies and percentages are used to examine graduate responses to the questions 

in part 2 of the questionnaire. 

37


RESULTS 

1. The following are the graduates’ responses to part 1 of the questionnaire. 

Basic Knowledge Competencies: It has been noticed in Table 1 that the means range from 3.66 to 3.16, 

which indicates that the graduates have considered whole majority of those competencies as very 

important. Concerning the responses involving the extent to which the program prepares the graduates at 

these competencies, they have said the program has prepared them very well in most of these 

competencies; the means range from 2.95 to 3.57. (See Table 1) 

Table 1: The means of graduate’s ratings of the importance of competencies 

and the program ability in preparing them at these competencies 

Basic Knowledge in special education competencies 

Importance 

Ability 

Knowing causes of handicap and prevention strategies 

3.66 

3.57 

Knowing the effect of disability on families and society 

3.53 

3.33 

Knowing the effect of disability on learning at school and life 

3.53 

3.38 

Knowing the relationship between special education and regular education 

3.50 

3.19 

Knowing the development principles of the normal child 

3.50 

3.52 

Knowing the developmental characteristics of individuals with special needs 

3.46 

3.38 

Knowing individual differences in human development between and among 

exceptional and typical people 

Knowing the different foundations (philosophical, legal, and historical) of 

special education foundations 

3.33 

3.16 

3.38 

2.95 

Evaluation and Diagnosis Competencies: The results show that all these competencies (without 

exception) are very important; the means range from (3.36 to 3.90). Whereas the graduates perceive that 

the program ability in preparing them in most of these competencies in general is moderate (most of the 

means range from 3.09 to 2.52), they consider that the program has prepared them quite well at 

competencies no 1 and 4, (See Table 2). 

38




Assessment and evaluation competencies 

Importance 

Ability 

Identification of current performance level 

Using different assessment and diagnosis methods in special education 

Using evaluation results in identifying special education needs 

Evaluating individual educational plan efficacy 

Knowing the appropriate use and limitations of different methods of evaluation 

Participating in evaluation in multi-disciplinary team 

Assessing learning, achievement and behavior by formal and informal procedures 

Using and interpreting different evaluations data 

Monitoring the student’s improvement in regular and special curricula 

Using curriculum based assessment 

3.90 

3.63 

3.60 

3.60 

3.60 

3.53 

3.46 

3.36 

3.36 

3.36 

3.33 

3.00 

2.95 

3.28 

3.09 

2.71 

2.90 

3.00 

2.71 

2.52 

Instruction Planning Competencies: All these competencies are considered very important; the means 

range from (3.46 to 3.73) except for competency no. 7, which is considered important. The highest mean 

is competency no. 1. Concerning the ability of the program to prepare the graduates at these 

competencies, it has been found that it is moderate in general. The means range from 2.85 to 3.23, except 

no.5, which considered high (See Table 3). 



Instruction planning competencies 

Importance 

Ability 

Developing plan for behavior modification 

Planning within cooperative context including individuals with special needs 

and their families 

Developing the curriculum based on individual educational plan 

Developing individual educational plan based on regular curriculum 

Adapting and modifying instructional plans based on continuous analysis of 

individual improvement 

Instruction design to suit individual differences 

Creating supportive and safe instructional environment 

3.73 

3,66 

3.63 

3.56 

3.50 

3.46 

3.23 

3.14 

3.18 

3.23 

3.09 

3.47 

2.85 

2.85 

Practicing Instructions Competencies: The graduates perceive all these competencies as very important; 

the means range from 3.27 to 3.80. Competencies 1, 2, and 3 have the highest means; on the other hand, 

39


the program's ability in preparing the graduates regarding these competencies is moderate except for 

competencies 1 and 2, which are high (See Table 4). 


Applying Instructional practices 


Implementation of individual instructional plan based on regular 

curriculum 

Implementation of individual instructional plan based on special 

curriculum 

Teaching basic academic skills 

Knowing different instructional strategies; e.g.; direct 

instruction, good instruction 

Choosing instruction strategies and applying them effectively 

Applying pre-referral procedures 

Applying individual behavior modification plans 

Important 

3.80 

3.70 

3.70 

3.60 

3.60 

3.46 

3.27 

Ability 

3.33 

3.28 

3.14 

3.09 

3.00 

3.00 

2.90 

Using Technology Competencies: All these competencies are considered very important; the means range 

from 3.56 to 3.66, except for competency no 5, which is important; the mean is 3.26. However, the 

graduates perceive the program has not prepared them well at competencies no. 3, 4, and 5; the means 

range from 2.23 to 2.47, which mean it is weak. Competencies no. 1 and 2 are moderate (See Table 5). 



Using Technology, devices, aids, and instruments 

Importance 

Designing and preparing instructional aids for children with special needs 3.66 

Knowing how to use supportive aids and traditional devices 

3.63 

Using the computer in teaching children with special needs 

3.56 

Using the computer in monitoring the improvement of children 

3.56 

Knowing how to maintain supportive aids and traditional devices 

3.26 

Ability 

3.14 

2.85 

2.47 

2.47 

2.23 

Professional Ethical Practices Competencies: This area of competencies is perceived as very important; 

the means range from 3.46 to 3.70. Furthermore, the graduates perceive that the program ability in 

preparing them at these competencies is moderate; the means range from 2.71 to 3.14. At the same time, 

competency 1 has the highest mean (3.33); which is strong (See Table 6). 

40




Professional and ethical practices competencies 

Importance 

Considering ethical aspects during practice 

3.60 

Ability 

3.33 

Awareness of self–attitudes and self–behavior and their effect on children 

with special needs and others 

Updating knowledge in service 

Considering legal aspects during practice 

Participating in activities enhancing self-professional development 

Knowing research findings and benefiting from them in improving the 

learning process 

Knowing the restrictions and behaving accordingly 

Ability to reflect, think, and modify instructional practices 

Considering professional aspects in practices 

3.66 

3.70 

3.50 

3.70 

3.50 

3.46 

3.46 

3.46 

3.14 

3.14 

3.04 

2.95 

2.95 

2.95 

2.80 

2.71 

Corporation and Communication Competencies: The results show that all this area of competencies is 

very important; the means range from 3.56 to 3.86, while the program ability in preparing the graduates at 

all of them is moderate; the means range from 2.76 to 3.19 (See Table 7). 



Corporation and communication competencies 

Important 

Ability 

Cooperating regularly with families, teachers and other related service 

providers 

Parents’ participation in setting individual educational objectives 

Advocating the issues of people with special needs and their rights 

Establishing effective work relationship with colleagues and parents 

Helping teachers to include students with special needs in regular 

settings 

Providing counseling to regular teachers and volunteers 

Providing counseling to parents to understand their needs and problems 

Participating effectively in teacher supporting team 

Helping regular teachers to understand legislations, policies related to 

people with special needs 

Designing programs for the families to teach their children with special 

needs at home 

3.66 

3.63 

3.86 

3.76 

3.60 

3.66 

3.66 

3.56 

3.63 

3.66 

3.19 

3.09 

3.04 

3.04 

3.00 

2.90 

2.90 

2.90 

2.85 

2.76 

41


2. The following are the questions and the graduates’ responses to the open–ended questions in part 

2. These concern the students’ perception of the program content and outcomes. 

1 -What are the main difficulties that face you after working in the field The most prominent difficulty is 

the gap between the theoretical side of the courses and the actual practice; moreover, they have 

difficulties in dealing with employers and administrators, and in dealing with severe cases, designing 

behavior modification plans, adaptation with work environment, dealing with diagnosis, psychoeducational 

evaluation procedures and using computers and technology in teaching. The graduates also 

complained of low salaries . 

2 -Has the program prepared you to deal with these difficulties The graduates responses vary; 32% of 

them have responded that the program has prepared them to face such difficulties, 39% have responded 

that they have not been prepared to face these difficulties, while 28% have responded that they have been 

prepared but not to the required extent. 

3 -What are the courses perceived as the most important to practice at work There is a kind of agreement 

about the importance of three courses in practice. These are: a) curriculum and methodology in special 

education, b) assessment and diagnosis in special educations, and c) introduction to special education . 

4 -Are you satisfied with your pre-service preparation in general About half of the graduates (43%) are 

satisfied completely, 20% have a sort of satisfaction, while 37% are not satisfied with their pre-service 

preparation. 

5 -What are the important skills for which you need more training Many skills are considered weak from 

the graduates’ point of view; consequently, they need to be trained on them according to their importance; 

evaluation and diagnosis skills (26%), behavior modification (16%), teaching methodology and 

curriculum designing (10%), dealing with autistic children (13%), sign language and Brail method (13%), 

using technology and computer (6%), and dealing with families (3%.) 

6 -What do you suggest to overcome difficulties in pre-service preparation Thirty-three per cent of the 

graduates suggest that every course should have practical activities, (66%) suggest increasing field 

training and extensive supervision in the field, and direct practice of the skills they learned. 

7 -As graduates, what do you recommend to improve the program The graduates recommend many ways 

to improve the program; for example, increasing field training (35%), giving attention to specific courses 

such as behavior modification, assessment and diagnosis, as well as training in all categories in special 

education (16%). It was also recommended to include practical activities for each course (16%), to omit 

some courses (13%), to begin at field training from the second year, not the final year. Every faculty 

member should teach specific courses according to his specialty . 

8 -What are the main characteristics which the teacher should have to succeed in working with children 

with special needs Patience, strong personality, tolerance, compassion, honesty, and unconditional 

acceptance of children with special needs are considered important. 

9 -Has the program helped you to acquire these characteristics Fifty-six per cent of the graduates have 

responded positively while 11% have responded negatively, and 33% have responded that it helps to a 

certain extent . 

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 

It is concluded from the results narrated earlier of part 1 that the graduates realize the importance of 

several areas of competencies in special education, as they consider them in general very important, while 

they see that the program does not prepare them properly most of the time. Because many courses focus 

on theoretical knowledge, the graduates consider that the program has prepared them very well in most of 

the basic knowledge competencies. Theoretical knowledge is considered important but not as important 

as the information with direct applicability to the work. They have succeeded in acquiring some skills at 

field training, and they have stated in the open-ended questions (part 2) that the most prominent difficulty 

which faces them is the gap between the theoretical side of the courses and the actual practice. At the 

42


same time, the majority of the graduates have responded that they are not prepared to face those 

difficulties. That is due to the fact that the program concentrates on theoretical knowledge more than on 

the performance skills, in addition to the problems and difficulties surrounding the field training process 

which weakens the ability to acquire the needed skills and competencies sufficiently and effectively. 

These results are consistent with the findings of several studies in teacher’s education literature in general 

and in special education. Many studies have come up with the same results which can be summarized as 

follows. There is imbalance between the theoretical and practical sides of teachers’ education programs 

(Wilcox, et al; 2002; Crockett, 2002; Reitz and Kerr, 1999; Hayes, 2002; Thomas and Loadman, 2001; 

Mastropeiri, 2001; Al-Smadi, 1999; Katanani, 2005; kennedy, 1996, and 1999). The main issue here is 

the gap between theory and real practice, which is the same new-old story, not only in special education 

but also in teacher education. As Al-Smadi (1999) points out that there are three reasons for the 

emergence of this issue. The first is excessive focus on the theoretical aspects in various humanitarian 

disciplines. The second is misunderstanding of the relationship between theory and practice, which has 

caused the graduate’s conceptual gap between them, and which has resulted in the underestimation of the 

value of the educational theoretical knowledge in the practical field. It is worth to mention that it is rare to 

the educational theories to have direct applications in practice, but their impact can be indirect through 

interactions and overlapping with the experience that comes from real practice. In other words, theoretical 

knowledge acquired by students in the courses can not be applied automatically and directly in schools. 

For more clarification, the theoretical knowledge can be divided into two types: a) the pure theoretical 

knowledge which is not applicable, and b) applicable theoretical knowledge. In fact, the focus on these 

two types is necessary. The first is important and fundamental for acquiring concepts, facts, and 

educational theories; for example, how do students learn, which makes the graduates implement the 

techniques and procedures with full understanding of theoretical bases underlying behind it. Here lies the 

real importance of theoretical knowledge, which benefits the graduates indirectly and unconsciously, so 

they do not realize their importance. The second type, which is the applicable type of knowledge, can be 

translated directly to strategies, techniques, and performance skills in different education situations 

(Katanani, 2005). The third reason is called different contexts and circumstances between schools and 

universities and how this deviation creates the conceptual gap between theory and practice. This is due to 

the fact that students spend the majority of their times attending lectures, reading books, preparing for 

exams by studying theories about instruction and classes which are applicable theoretical knowledge. But 

due to the insufficiency of the practical practice, they see it meaningless and inapplicable. 

The results also reveal that many skills are considered weak points from the graduates’ point of view; 

and thus they need to be trained on (according to priority) diagnosis skills, behavior modification, 

teaching methodology, curriculum designing and dealing with autistic children. Consequently, to improve 

the program, the graduates’ recommendations focus on strengthening the practical side of the program 

through increasing field training, extensive supervision in the field, direct practice of the skills which they 

have learned, and every course should have practical activities paying special attention to specific courses 

such as behavior modification and assessment and diagnosis. Moreover, every student–teacher should be 

trained in all categories in special education. 

These results deal with the findings from several studies; for example, Delaney (1995), Miller and 

Losardo (2002), and Whitaker (2000), have revealed that the graduates request more coursework in 

classroom management skills, more preparation related to communication skills for effective interactions 

with parents and other adults, and more emphasis on skills needed to meet the diverse needs of students 

from various disability areas. The graduates perceive that the program has not prepared them well in 

general at using the computer in teaching children with special needs and in monitoring the improvement 

of children. These results agree with Wilcox, et al (2002), and Crockett (2002) regarding the 

underestimation of the level of graduates’ preparation in the field of technology in the programs preparing 

special education teachers. Concerning preparing and designing instructional instruments, the graduates 

point out that they are trained quite well at these skills as a whole course of the preparation program. 

Competency “considering ethical aspects during practice” has the highest mean; this is due to the 

religious society where the graduates come from. They consider working with exceptional students a kind 

of piety and to the good of those people and to be rewarded on the Day of Judgment (Katanani, 2005). 

All practicing instructions competencies are perceived very important. These competencies concerning 

implementing individual instructional plans and teaching basic academic skills (3Rs) have the highest 

mean. This agrees with (Reitz and Kerr, 1999 and Englert et al, 1992). On the other hand, the program's 

ability in preparing the graduates regarding these competencies is moderate, except for no. 1 and 2 which 

43


are high because they practice these competencies in field training. The lowest mean applies to “choosing 

instruction strategies and applying them effectively”. Because special education means specially designed 

instruction that meets the unusual needs of an exceptional student, the single most important goal of 

special education is finding and capitalizing on exceptional students' abilities. The central goal of the 

preparation programs in special education is the development of teachers capable of providing 

individually designed instruction that is reasonably calculated to provide educational benefits to eligible 

students with disabilities (Hallahan and Kauffman, 2000). In addition to studying intra- and interindividual 

differences among students, special educators have the responsibility to offer what is called 

instruction that is highly individualized, intensive, relentless, urgent, and goal-directed (Crockett, 2002). 

To do so, teacher trainees should actually be engaged in the process of teaching others. But, in fact, what 

is happening is the opposite; they spend hours after hours sitting in college classrooms learning about 

education and how students learn while little time is given to be engaged in the process of teaching. 

Providing extensive experiences for preserves teachers in school setting, and creating a closer link 

between theories of teaching and the practice of teaching are a must (Hayes, 2002; Ayers, 1989; Darling– 

Hammond et al., 2002; Delaney, 1995; Wilson et al, 2002; Wideen et al, 1998; and Tulbert et al, 1996). 

In summary, even though published research addressing beginning teachers’ satisfaction with their 

preparation programs is limited, three major themes for recommendations for the improvement of teacher 

preparation programs have emerged. It is interesting to note that the recommendations documented in 

studies conducted in 1979 are quite similar to those documented in 2011. The three major themes for 

improvement are increasing clinical experiences for a longer duration, provision of a full year of support 

for new teachers and increasing knowledge and skills needed to address the unique needs of the diverse 

learner. Teacher preparation programs receiving high rating from their graduates have common 

components. These components emphasize extensive clinical experiences with exemplary education 

models as well as clinical experiences specifically linked to coursework. In addition, significant attention 

is given to content–bases pedagogy. Teachers who express high satisfaction with the clinical experiences 

tends to rate the overall preparation program positively (Darling-Hammond et al., 2002; and Delaney, 

1995). 


There remains a need for researchers to determine how general and special education teacher preparation 

programs can be improved to produce highly qualified teachers who are equipped to meet the educational 

needs of all children. One way to address this need is through beginning teacher follow–up studies that 

incorporate empirical research methodologies. The results of these studies must be implemented 

appropriately to improve preparation programs, support beginning teachers, and retain qualified and 

experienced teachers who consistently adopt and implement research–based educational practices . 

The researcher agrees with (D'aniello, 2008) that the consistent incorporation of research into practice in 

all teacher preparation programs may take additional focus, dialogue, and requirements at the policy 

levels. Special education teacher preparation should focus on developing special expertise. To do so, the 

graduates should understand the concepts, should be trained on the techniques and should understand the 

different variables which affect the learning process. Consequently, they can analyze various individual 

needs of students and design individual programs to meet those needs and to be able to find solutions to 

various and unique difficulties which may face them. This makes the development of both knowledge 

base and actual delivery of educational services imperative. Where the time knowledge bases are 

evaluated through different theoretical training courses, the practical skills should be developed through 

field training, in which the student applies the acquired knowledge base there, learn to critically evaluate 

emerging teaching practices, and have multiple opportunities to self-evaluate their instructional practices 

and their student's progress. Finally, what do our graduates wish we told them They wish to be told the 

truth about the real world of teaching, they wish to be given tools to be successful, and they wish to be 

inspired. 

44


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48




HIV AND AIDS STIGMA IN BOTSWANA: VOICES OF SCHOOL STUDENTS AND 

IMPLICATIONS FOR MORAL EDUCATION 


University of Botswana, Faculty of Education, 

Department of Languages and Social Sciences Education 

Gaborone, Botswana 

E-mail address for correspondence: mmolaisk@mopipi.ub.bw 

__________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: A quarter of a century after the beginning of the epidemic, and after as many years fighting the disease 

with initiatives and information on HIV and AIDS, discrimination and stigma are still very common in 

Botswana. The findings presented in this paper are based on a research study that was conducted in August 2010 

through a questionnaire among 68 students from a junior secondary school in Gaborone, Botswana. These 

findings indicate that some Botswana secondary school students are very understanding, compassionate, caring 

and sensitive towards those who are suffering from HIV and AIDS. The paper concludes with a discussion 

regarding the importance of the values of tolerance, compassion and caring in the teaching of Moral Education. 

Key Words: HIV and AIDS; Stigma; Moral Education; Compassionate; Caring; Botswana 

_______________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

HIV and AIDS have affected sub-Saharan Africa severely (National AIDS Coordination Agency, 2003) and 

Botswana is one of the most affected countries. For example, out of a population of approximately 1.8 million, 

about 283,764 adults are living with HIV and the hardest hit age is 25-29 years. In Botswana, as everywhere in 

the world many people who are HIV positive lack the courage to declare their status in public because of fear of 

discrimination (Iwuagwu, 2003). This stigma is fuelled by incorrect knowledge about HIV and AIDS and the 

fear of death (Letamo, 2003), or as Adam Ashforth (2005, p.154ff) calls it „pollution‟ by association with people 

living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHA). 

HIV and AIDS raise some moral problems in Botswana, hence PLWHA are being discriminated and 

stigmatized. This is due to the fact that HIV is associated with behaviours such as homosexuality, drug 

addiction, prostitution and promiscuity (http:www.avert.org/aidsstigma.htm). Furthermore, HIV is transmitted 

mainly through unprotected sexual intercourse; hence those living with HIV are perceived as irresponsible 

individuals. For example, some Christians perceive PLWHA as being sinful and receiving punishment from 

God for their immoral behaviours (Nkomazana, 2007). 

49


In Botswana the impact of HIV and AIDS has been greatest among vulnerable groups, such as the poor, 

orphans, people with disabilities, prisoners, women and children (Maundeni, 2009; Monnadibe, 2009; Daniel, 

2003). It is against this realisation that in 1998 the Botswana government adopted a National AIDS Policy 

(Botswana Government, 1998), which among other things, embraces the use of education as a means of 

combating HIV and AIDS. In response to this policy, HIV and AIDS topics have been incorporated into the 

curriculum at primary, secondary and tertiary education as well as in other non-formal institutions. At the junior 

secondary school level Moral Education students explore the mandate of HIV testing; the right and wrong issues 

relating to HIV and AIDS; ARV therapy and its effects; and considerate attitude towards PLWHA. 

The literature on children and HIV and AIDS is extensive, as is the literature on HIV and AIDS related stigma 

(see for example, Holzemer and Uys, 2004; Maundeni, 2009; Monnadibe, 2009), but specific research on 

adolescents‟ perceptions pertaining to HIV and AIDS-related stigma is relatively sparse. The study described in 

this paper aims to partly fill this gap. It looks into Botswana junior secondary school students‟ (age 13 – 15) 

perceptions about HIV and AIDS stigma and explores how moral education, as a formal subject within the 

existing national curriculum, can be used in developing positive values among learners that will ameliorate the 

effects of stigma and discrimination. Most stigma reduction efforts in Botswana have approached the issue as a 

public health matter (Letamo, 2003). But there is also a strong argument to be made for approaching AIDsrelated 

stigma and discrimination as being of moral importance. For this reason addressing stigma within a 

schools‟ Moral Education curriculum is of paramount importance. 

METHODS 

Site and Participants 

The study was conducted at one junior secondary school in the city of Gaborone. This is a state school which 

admits learners from mainly upper middle class families. In Botswana a typical upper middle class individual 

owns or rents a medium high cost house, owns a car or two, uses a gas or electric stove, owns a television set or 

sets and VCR, and has a landline and a cellular phone. Many of these people are degree holders, or hold tertiary 

education qualifications and are employed in reputable organisations with various benefits (Botshelo, 2007). 

The participants of the study were 68 students (32 males and 36 females) aged between 13 and 15 years. These 

participants were from two different Form 2 (the second year of junior secondary education) classes and they all 

studied moral education. 

Permision to conduct the study was sought from the school head and permision for the leaners‟ participation in 

the study was sought from the parents who signed the consent form and returned it to the school. 

Data collection and analysis 

A questionnaire with both closed-ended and open-ended items was used to collect data to enable participants to 

express themselves. The language used in the scenario and questions were the right reading level for the 

students. The instrument was first given to the School head, Head of Department, concerned class teachers and 

the Moral Education teacher for the two sampled classes to confirm suitability. The instrument was administered 

by the researcher to all participants during an afternoon study period in a prepared school hall. Participants were 

discouraged from discussing their responses amongst themselves and they were also encouraged to respond with 

honesty. 

Part A of the questionnaire solicited information on students‟ understanding of the concepts of morality, moral 

values and positive attitude. The researcher‟s assumption was that if learners have not grasped the meaning of 

these concepts, they are likely to find it difficult to apply them to their daily interactions and interrelationships 

with PLWHA. 

Part B of the questionnaire was based on a fictional case study of disclosure concerning HIV status to an 

employer by a young woman (Thato) who was HIV positive, and her subsequent dismissal from her job. The 

50


name Thato Moseki is a pseudonym. Botswana secondary school students are familiar with case studies as a 

teaching strategy. These students had explored HIV and AIDS content in Moral Education prior to this study. 

Closed ended items were analysed quantitatively using tables, frequencies and percentages. All closed-ended 

items were analysed qualitatively by identifying themes emerging from the responses and coding them into 

different categories. 

Hypothesis 

The hypothesis for this study was that students from upper middle class background have less stigmatised 

attitudes to PLWHA because they are exposed to media on effects of HIV and AIDS stigma. Moral Education is 

one of the subjects which are capable of promoting the learners‟ acceptable behaviour (Botswana Government, 

1994). Due to the fact that Moral Education is a core and separate subject (allocated 5 periods a week) within 

the Botswana secondary school curriculum, it was also hypothesised that students doing Moral Education would 

have positive attitudes towards PLWHA. 

The following scenario which depicts experiences of most students in Botswana, was the only one given to 

participants: 

Thato Moseki is a 34 year old woman who stayed in Mogoditshane. She lived with her three 

children and two nieces in a small room she was renting. Last year she was lucky because she 

worked as a domestic servant in the suburbs of Block 5. This work had really made her happy 

as she was able to provide for her family even though it was not enough as she is the only 

breadwinner. One day she started feeling sick and within a week she had lost a lot of weight. 

Her employer noticed this and advised her to go and see a doctor. When she got there she 

tested HIV positive. At first her employers were very supportive and allowed her to continue 

with her work but as time passed everything changed. One day when she got to work her 

employer dismissed her from work with immediate effect. The reason for this dismissal was 

that since she was HIV positive, she might infect the children she took care of. Now that 

Thato had lost her job, she had no money to feed her children and to pay rent. One day when 

Thato and the children returned home from visiting some friends, they found their belongings 

outside the house and the locks changed by the owner of the room she was renting. They then 

returned to their home village. In the village, even her friends kept a distance from her. They 

did not visit her always avoiding her. Some called her bad names like segwapa (“biltong or 

dried meat)”, longangale (dry melon)”, and so on. Some children also decided to stop playing 

with Thato‟s children. This discrimination affected Thato and her children. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The purpose of the study was to investigate and establish some Botswana junior secondary school students‟ 

attitudes and values concerning HIV and AIDS stigma in Botswana. The results of this study are discussed 

under four themes, namely (1) students‟ understanding about morality, moral values and positive attitudes; (2) 

students‟ judgement regarding disclosure of HIV status to an employer, (3) students‟ judgement regarding an 

employer‟s action of dismissal, and why an employer might dismiss a PLWHA from work, (4) student‟s 

attitudes and actions towards a friend living with HIV or AIDS and (5) students‟ attitudes and actions towards 

people in general who might be living with HIV and AIDS. Each will be considered in turn. 

Students’ understanding about morality, moral values and a positive attitude 

Many students displayed a general awareness of the meaning of the concept morality. The following statements 

illustrate this view: 

“A set of what is right or wrong” (Young woman, age 13). 

51


“A sense of good or bad, right or wrong behaviour” (Young man, age 14). 

“Morality is the good behaviour or bad behaviour one can display” (Young man, age 15). 

When further asked what „moral values’ are, the following were some of the responses: 

“Moral values are qualities that are regarded good and they guide one‟s behaviour” (Young 

woman, age 15). 

“Moral values are values that are social and can be important to people, e.g. sharing” (Young 

man, age 14). 

“Moral values are the behaviour we show towards other people e.g. respect” (Young woman, 

age 13). 

Students were also asked to explain „a positive attitude‟. They described a positive attitude as: 

“The way in which people talk to you or behave around you, especially if you have a 

problem. An attitude is what someone thinks of you. This is the way in which people talk to 

you or behave around you, especially if you have a problem. We should develop a positive 

attitude to people living with HIV/AIDS so as to make sure one is given a boost in terms of 

being accepted” (Young woman, age 14). 

“A positive attitude is an attitude that involves positive thinking towards things, he or she will 

try always to think of good things and encourage themselves to do right” (Young man, age 

15). 

“Positive attitude are those things which are good to others” (Young woman, age 13). 

Students‟ awareness of these basic concepts revealed that there should be an expression of solidarity within the 

community. Such a notion of solidarity is in keeping with the African understanding of Botho (Ubuntu), and 

while not exclusively African, is a key feature of Botswana youth understanding of morality. The interesting 

question therefore is how this sense of community solidarity can be linked to HIV and AIDS. Arguably, 

accepting and caring for PLWHA could be one way of expressing this sense of community solidarity. 

Students’ judgement regarding disclosure of HIV status to an employer 

Having established the students‟ understanding of these basic concepts of moral education, they were then asked 

questions related to the Thato case study. In the first place, they were asked whether or not it was right for Thato 

to disclose her HIV status. 

The majority of the students (78%) were of the view that it was right for Thato to disclose her HIV status. More 

interestingly, the majority of female students (60%) were the ones who felt that it was right for Thato to disclose 

her HIV status. It is also clear from these results that the 18% who felt that Thato was not right and those who 

were not sure (4%) were all male students. Perhaps the fact that Thato is a female has made more female 

students to sympathise with her situation. 

In justifying their responses, those who felt that Thato was right argued that „if someone has HIV and keeps it to 

herself, s/he will always be lonely‟, and therefore „it is best to tell someone you trust so that he/she can help 

you‟. It was also argued that Thato had to tell her employer so that the latter „can limit her work, give her 

support and always allow her to get her treatment from medical practitioner‟. 

It is also evident from student‟s reported beliefs that Thato‟s disclosure of her HIV status was morally 

acceptable. They argued that „it is right since you feel good about yourself‟, „it is the right thing to do, it makes 

you feel ok after telling someone‟, „before telling someone, you feel like you are cheating‟. In general, students 

argued that disclosing one‟s status would enable the community to be tolerant, compassionate and more 

understanding, as echoed by this student: 

“Yes, I think it was right because by doing so people would be able to help her even though 

others discriminate her, but regardless of that telling people was the right thing” (Young 

woman, age 15). 

However, what happened to Thato contradict students‟ perceptions: she lost her job, her friends and her children 

suffered humiliation. It is also worth noting that 18% felt that it was not right for Thato to disclose her HIV 

52


status due to the potential fear of stigma and discrimination that PLWHA face. These students felt strongly that 

Thato exposed herself and her children to stigma by revealing her HIV status: 

If she did not tell people what was wrong with her, they were not going to call her names and 

her children‟s friends were going to play with her children. She made her children suffer for 

telling people she was not well (Young man, age 14). 

It is evident from these findings that the general feeling is that while it is morally good to disclose one‟s HIV 

status; it is at the same time not always in the best interest of the PLWHA to do so. This particular result 

expresses a moral question asked by these students: If it is morally acceptable for PLWHA to disclose their HIV 

status, then why are they discriminated against Apparently, the discrimination seems to be more influenced by 

people‟s perceptions of the moral behaviour associated with HIV and AIDS. This perception makes it difficult 

to know what one has to do in this situation as gathered from some of the comments by those who were not sure 

of whether Thato was right or not. This was highlighted by the following statements: 

“I am not sure of the situation. It is difficult to tell what was the right thing to do in her 

situation” (Young woman, age 14). 

“Because if she tells people that she is infected by HIV/AIDS they will tell other people that 

she is infected. While she does not tell people, she will not get supported by the people or die. 

So it is not easy to say she was right or wrong” (Young man, age 14). 

It can be deduced that due to the stigma attached to HIV and AIDS some students feel that perhaps it is best for 

infected people not to disclose their HIV status. 

Students’ judgement regarding an employer’s action of dismissal, and why an employer might dismiss a 

PLWHA from work 

In responding to whether it was right or wrong for Thato‟s employer to dismiss her from her job, the majority of 

respondents (80%) indicated that Thato‟s employer was wrong. One student argued: 

“She was treating Thato unfairly just because of her HIV status, but Thato needed the money 

to provide for the family which depended on her. This was unfair to Thato and her family 

were affected by the situation too. They should have at least given her notice so she could 

have found another house and job” (Young woman, age 13). 

However, 15% of the respondents did express the belief that it was right to dismiss Thato from her job. The 

reasons they gave in support of their belief was that since the HIV weakens an individual, keeping Thato at her 

job would have been unfair to her employer because she would perform below her employer‟s expectations. One 

student stated that: 

“Because sometimes if Thato has a wound and has blood flowing but not noticing it and one 

of the children has a cut and her blood gets into the wound, the child would be infected” 

(Young woman, age 14). 

Another student also argued that: 

“If you think of your children, then you must protect them. If she kept Thato in the job maybe 

she was not thinking of the children. If you think of Thato you do not protect the children” 

(Young man, age 15). 

It can be deduced from these statements that some students seem to have given priority to the welfare of the 

children. This is an interesting finding of this study because it highlights these students‟ awareness of ways of 

contacting the HIV virus on one hand, and the role of parents in protecting their families on the other hand. 

Arguably, this is an indication of maturity and responsibility. 

There were also some students who were not sure, as indicated by this statement: 

“Maybe she was to keep Thato in her job. But it is also not safe, but some will say it is safe. 

So, I don‟t‟ know, maybe she was not thinking about Thato‟s children, but hers” (Young man, 

age 13). 

53


What emerges from these findings is the fact that the few who were not sure about dismissing Thato were 

concerned about issues that are important. One realises that their argument shows some moral maturity in that 

they assessed the situation from both Thato and her employer. 

With regard to the various reasons why Thato might have been dismissed from her job, more respondents agreed 

or strongly agreed with the option „Generally, people despise those living with HIV and AIDS‟ (73%), „She was 

worried that Thato would infect the family with HIV‟ (67%), „She was ashamed of Thato‟ (44%), „She was only 

concerned about her own needs and interests‟ (32%) and „She was worried that her friends would laugh at her‟ 

(27%). 

An analysis of these findings show an insignificant difference between male (38%) and female (35%) 

participants who are of the view that Thato was dismissed due to the fact that people despise PLWHA. The 

findings further reveal that female participants (41%), in comparison to 26% of the male participants are of the 

view that Thato‟s employer was concerned that she could infect the family. 

Student’s attitudes and actions towards a friend living with HIV and AIDS 

The study further attempted to understand students‟ attitudes towards a friend who is living with HIV and AIDS. 

When students were asked how they would relate to Thato if she were a friend, the majority affirmed that they 

would (all the time) sit at the same table with her (94%), hug or shake hands with her (88%), or play with her 

(82%). It was the feeling of some respondents that interacting with Thato would be the least a friend could do, 

given Thato‟s situation. They would interact with her to affirm their friendship and give her moral support: 

“Because she is my friend and I must be there for her. If I spend time with her, she will feel 

loved” (Young woman, age 15) 

“So that she can feel that she has a friend who takes care of her” (Young man, age 14). 

Other respondents expressed the view that since they are fully aware of the effects of stigma and discrimination; 

they would interact with Thato to help her cope with her illness. One student argued: 

“So that she can‟t try to commit suicide because she will find out that we care about her and 

we don‟t keep her away from us” (Young man, age 13). 

Another echoed this sentiment: 

“People who are HIV positive know that everybody else hates them. This makes them feel sad 

and lonely. I will not like my friend to feel sad and lonely. I will therefore be with her” 

(Young woman, age 15) 

It is worth noting that respondents are willing to care for Thato if she was their friend. An analysis of these 

findings reveals that female students are willing to interact more with Thato in comparison to their male 

counterparts. For instance, students would (all the time) sit at the same table with Thato (females-74%; males- 

20%), hug her (females-57%; males-31%), play with her (females-50%, males-32%), shake hands with her 

(females-47%; males-41%) and share a meal with her (females-53%; males 15%). Perhaps the disparity 

between males and female students is not due to the fact that males are less caring, but to the age group of 

participants. Arguably, boys of this age interact more with other boys. This being the case, they would not feel 

free to admit their interaction with Thato. 

Student’s attitudes and actions towards people in general who might be living with HIV and AIDS 

Finally, the study attempted to understand students‟ attitudes towards PLWHA in general. The majority of 

students indicated that PLWHA need tolerance, support and compassion. They explained that it is important for 

PLWHA to be given support and be loved (100%), feel respected and be accepted (97%) and to be cared for 

(92%) since these positive attitudes would benefit PLWHA by helping them not to feel stigmatised and 

discriminated against. The majority of students argued that it is important to accept PLWHA because HIV and 

AIDS-related stigma has negative consequences, particularly stress which can result in alcohol abuse or even 

suicide. They further agreed that it was important for PLWHA to have opportunities to share their feeling with 

54


other people (88%); be received by other people (88%) and feel wanted (80%). These findings reveal that these 

students have a positive attitude towards PLWHA. 

Limitations 

There were several limitations to this study. First, since this was a descriptive study it lacks context, structure 

and validation process of stigma items. However, this study has produced valuable results which could be used 

as a basis for follow-up studies. Second, the paper mainly addressed the question of dismissal in the moral 

terms, with no reference to legal terms. Third, this study did not use a control group to validate the results. 

Fourth, even though participants were asked to respond with honesty, it is difficult to ascertain the extent to 

which the students were honest in their responses. Fifth, these students are from more educated backgrounds and 

have better exposure to materials on HIV and AIDS in comparison to their counterparts in lower social contexts. 

This might have influenced their responses. Further studies should use students from both backgrounds in order 

to compare the results. 

Implications for teaching Moral Education 

In spite of these limitations, this study suggests some implications for the teaching of Moral Education in 

Botswana secondary schools. First, the fact that these students have covered HIV and AIDS content in their 

Moral Education curriculum prior to this study could have influenced their responses. This implies that since 

Moral Education has a role in promoting values of compassion, caring and tolerance, the Moral Education 

teacher should emphasise the need to have a positive attitude towards PLWHA. 

Second, Moral Education has a higher responsibility in teaching learners attitudes geared towards accepting 

PLWHA because it lays great emphasis on desirable, worthwhile and acceptable behaviour. In this connection, 

HIV and AIDS related content; particularly stigma can be infused into the Moral Education curriculum. This 

would in turn promote tolerant and non discriminatory attitudes and behaviour towards PLWHA. Third, the 

Moral Education curriculum should emphasise Botho (ubuntu) because a caring, compassionate and tolerant 

nation is a central tenet of Botho, and such a nation ought to be capable of accepting PLWHA. 

It was hypothesised that due to exposure to media, students from upper middle class background would have 

less stigmatised attitudes to PLWHA. The findings of this study reveal that most students do not have 

stigmatising attitudes as most would sit at the same table, hug or shake hands, share a meal and play with an 

HIV positive person. 

Since Moral Education is a core subject within the Botswana secondary school curriculum, it was also 

hypothesised that students‟ understanding of the basic concepts of this subject would influence students to have 

positive attitudes towards PLWHA. These findings confirm this hypothesis. This study therefore concludes that 

Moral Education should emphasise attitudes geared towards the promotion of a caring, compassionate and 

tolerant nation. Students displaying these moral behaviours, values and attitudes are more likely to contribute 

towards the amelioration of stigma and the achievement of a compassionate and caring society by 2016. 

55


REFERENCES 

Ashforth, A. (2005). Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy in South Africa .Chicago: University of Chicago 

Press. 

Botshelo, I. (2007). The Maid, Botho and HIV & AIDS Infections: The Economic and Ethical Perspectives. In J 

.Gaie and S. Mmolai (Eds.), The Concept of Botho and HIV/AIDS in Botswana (pp.45-60). Zapf 

Chancery:Eldoret. 

Botswana Government (1994). Revised National Policy on Education, Government Printer: Gaborone, 

Botswana Government (1998). Botswana National Policy on HIV/AIDS. Ministry of Health: 

Gaborone. 

Chilisa, B. & Preece, J. (2005). Research Methods for Adult Educators in Africa. Pearson Education: Cape 

Town. 

Daniel, M. (2003). Listening to Orphan Voices. In E. Biakolo, J. Mathangwane and D. Odallo, (Eds.) The 

Discourse of HIV/AIDS in Africa (pp.117-119). Department of English, University of Botswana; 

Gaborone. 

Department of Curriculum and Evaluation (2007). Three-Year Junior Secondary Syllabus – Moral Education. 

Ministry of Education: Gaborone. 

Holzemer, W. & Uys, L. (2004). Managing AIDS Stigma. Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS 1 (3), 165- 

174. 

Iwuagwu, S. (2003). Challenges of Stigma and Discrimination to Voluntary Counselling and Testing (Vct): 

Communication Implication Experiences from Nigeria. In E. Biakolo, 

J. Mathangwane & D. Adallo (Eds.) The Discourse of HIV/AIDS in Arica (pp.268-273). Department of English, 

University of Botswana: Gaborone. 

Letamo, G. (2003). Prevalence of, and Factors Associated with, HIV/AIDS- Related Stigma and Discriminatory 

Attitudes in Botswana, J HEALTH POPUL NUTR, 21 (4), 347-357. 

Maundeni, T. (2009) Children and HIV and AIDS in Botswana: Challenges faced by the boy Child. In C. M. 

Fombad, R. Mupedziswa, T. Maundeni & G. Mookodi (Eds.) HIV and AIDS, Vulnerable Groups, 

Human Rights & Development in Botswana (pp.135-153). OSSREA-Botswana Chapter: Gaborone. 

Mmolai, S.K. (2007). The Role of Religious Education in the fight against HIV and AIDS in Botswana by 

Promoting Caring Attitudes, BOLESWA Conference Proceedings, Department of Theology and 

Religious Studies, University of Botswana: Gaborone, 85-93. 

Mmonadibe, P. (2009). Orphaned HIV-positive children in Botswana: Challenges and Prospects. In C. M. 

Fombad, R. Mupedziswa, T. Maundeni & G. Mookodi (Eds.) HIV and AIDS, Vulnerable Groups, 

Human Rights & Development in Botswana (pp.155-167). OSSREA-Botswana Chapter: Gaborone. 

National AIDS Coordinating Agency (2003). Botswana National Strategic Framework for HIV/AIDS, 2003- 

2009. Pyramid Publishing: Gaborone. 

Nkomazana, F. (2007) Christian Ethics and HIV/AIDS in Botswana. In J.N. Amanze, F. Nkomazana & O.N. 

Kealotswe, (Eds.) Christian Ethics and HIV/AIDS in Africa (pp 48-69). Bay Publishing: Gaborone. 

http://www.fmshk.org/database/articles/dignityrespectfordignityanddignityconservinginpall.pdf (Retrieved 21st 

August 2010). 

56


http://www.popline.org/docs/1596/191386.htm. Retrieved 26 th February 2010. 

http://www.avert.org/aidsstigma. Retrieved 26 th February 2010. 

57




ICT ADOPTION AND EFFECTIVE SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

IN EKITI-STATE 

ABIODUN-OYEBANJI OLAYEMI* and K. OMOTAYO** 

*Department of Educational Foundations and Management, Faculty of Education, 

Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria 

**Department of Curriculum Studies,Faculty of Education, 


*E-mail address for correspondence: olayemi.oyebanji@yahoo.com 

_________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: This study examined ICT adoption and effective secondary school administration in Ekiti-state. A 

sample of one hundred and eighty secondary school administrators was drawn from the three senatorial districts 

in the state. A questionnaire tagged “ICT and Secondary School Administration” was used to collect the data 

needed for the study. The data collected were analysed using frequency counts, percentage score, t-test and 

Pearson Product moment Correlation. The study revealed that the level of ICT awareness by the secondary 

school administrators was low. The study also revealed that many of the secondary schools understudied were 

not provided with ICT facilities. It was also found out in the study that a significant relationship existed between 

ICT adoption and effective secondary school administration. However, administrators gender difference have no 

influence on their attitude towards ICT and effective secondary school administration. It was therefore 

recommended that adequate provision of ICT facilities should be made into secondary schools by the 

governments and private individuals. Also the secondary school administrators should be encouraged to be ICT 

driven so as to boost their productivity. 

Keywords: ICT adoption, secondary school administrative 

__________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

The number of secondary schools in Nigeria, particularly in Ekiti-state has tremendously grown that we have 

343 public secondary schools in Ekiti state alone and 7,536 teachers as at the time of this study. Due to this 

development, the administration of secondary education system seems to be becoming more and more complex 

by the day and this complexity makes it expedient for the administrators to find a way of ensuring an effective 

management system that will enhance their productivity. 

Today’s secondary schools without any doubt require administrators or leaders who can get at, interpret 

appropriately and favourably disposed to the knowledge of ICT so as to ensure their effective job performance. 

Information and communication technology (ICT) evolved from the quest for faster and easier management of 

enormous information available to users. Thus, ICT is very essential for the generation of quality information 

and management of that information is required for effective decision making. ICT components include as 

identified by Ayeni (2004) prints media, electronic media, telephone, telex, e-mail, fax and computers. 

59


ICT in the word of Aboderin (2009) also encompasses the broad fields of information and communications by 

means of computer and telecommunication; tools that are being increasingly used for organization or personal 

information processing in all sectors of economy and the society as a whole. 

The advent of ICT brings all the citizen of this planet close together. Information and communication 

Technology (ICT) has permeated all nooks and crannies of our society. It has revolutionized the society and, 

ipso factor, demands corresponding changes in the education sector in line with societal changes (Mbakwem & 

Okeke, 2007). ICT is further viewed as the combination of computer and telecommunication system to improve 

the quality of research, teaching, learning and communication through its gathering, processing, storing, 

connecting, analyzing data functions and dissemination of information. ICT has successfully made fundamental 

changes in the way and manner many people do business and also communicate, secondary school and 

administrators inclusive. 

It has drastically revolutionized business patterns and structures, work habits and interpersonal relationships 

within an organization. (Mbakwem, 2006). However, most of the developing world lack access to the physical 

infrastructure through which much of the new knowledge could be enjoyed or utilized, for instance lack of 

electricity is a major problem confronting the use of ICT facilities, (Obadara & Adenike, 2008). In stating the 

obvious, Aderibigbe (2008) opined that the world is undergoing a major social and economic change through 

the new information processing technology of communication and computers. 

Also, Uwadia (2009) emphasized that ICT serves as a tool for increases productivity and effective decision 

making. For instance the knowledge of ICT can be explored by the secondary school administrators to ensure 

teachers effective delivery of services, effective communication, effective maintenance of sound students record 

system and maintaining academic planning record system among others. In the school system today, it seems 

impossible to ignore the place of ICT anymore. School administrators are therefore faced with the challenge of 

incorporating ICT into the management of school in the meaningful and productive way. ICT can improve or 

enhance the administrative duties of a principal. For instance, computer as one of the ICT facilities can provide 

better management results. Most experts in education agreed that, when properly used, ICT holds great promise 

to improve teaching and learning situation (Agabi & Uche, 2006). 

However, despite the enormous advantages embedded in the use of ICT, it seems as if its deployment has not 

met with enthusiastic embrace and widespread acceptance of the developing nations. Although this attitude is 

slowly changing, a wide gap still exists between the developed and the developing nations in the use of ICT 

(Aderibigbe, 2008). 

Secondary school administration entails working with and through teachers, non-teaching staff and students to 

get things done effectively. It is more concerned with the institution, its goals, policies, and execution of these 

policies (Ajayi & Ayodele, 2003). In school administration according to Jaiyeoba (2006), the primary aim has to 

do with the improvement of teaching and learning and all the activities of the school; and which is being 

performed by the principals in secondary schools. 

The place of ICT in secondary school administration therefore can not be overemphasized considering the 

problems of over-enrolment of students, shortage of instructional materials and human resources, inadequate 

infrastructural facilities coupled with poor funding of secondary education which appear to be militating against 

effective secondary school administration, most especially in Ekiti state. 

As the secondary educational system is expanding at an unprecedented rate so also the problems of its planning, 

organizing, coordinating, controlling and directing which are to be performed by the school principal. It has 

been observed that the level of principals’ ICT awareness in secondary school administration in Ekiti-state 

seems to be low, many of the principals seem not to have the basic knowledge of ICT facilities such as computer 

and internet to mention just two and it also appears as if some of the secondary schools in Ekiti-state are not 

even well equipped with necessary ICT facilities and it seems as if school administration is effective in the 

secondary schools with ICT facilities than those without it, it also seems as if ICT remains a low policy of 

financial priorities in most secondary schools in Ekiti state. On this note, this paper is set to identify whether 

there is any relationship between ICT and secondary school administration in Ekiti state. 


This study was designed to identify the relationship that exist between ICT and secondary administration. It has 

been observed that the level of principals’ ICT awareness seem to be low. Also, the school administrators 

irrespective of their gender differences seems to be more at home with administering their schools through the 

conventional way of administration despite the fact that we are in computer and information age. Traditional 

60


method of administration appears to be far from what administrators need at this information age in order to 

bring about effective administration in their schools. The conventional administrative method has been observed 

to be highly rigid and does not issue practical result. The study therefore set out to investigate the relationship 

between ICT and effective secondary school administration. 

The following research questions were raised to guide the study. 

1. What is the level of awareness of ICT knowledge by the secondary school administrator in Ekiti-state. 

2. Are secondary schools in Ekiti-state well equipped with ICT facilities. 


In order to find solution to the problems of this study, the following research hypotheses were raised to pilot the 

study. 

1. There is no significant relationship between ICT and effective secondary school administration. 

2. Principals gender differences will not significantly influence their attitude towards ICT and effective 

secondary school administration. 

METHODOLOGY 

The descriptive research design of the survey type was used for this study. The population consisted of all the 

principals in all the public secondary schools in Ekiti state, while the sample consisted of 180 principals 

randomly selected from the secondary schools in 3 senatorial districts that make up Ekiti-state. 60 principals 

were selected through simple random sampling technique from each of the senatorial district making a total of 

180 principals altogether. 

A questionnaire tagged “ICT and Secondary school administration” Validated by research experts in 

measurement and evaluation was used to elicit information needed from the respondents. The questionnaires 

were personally administered by the researcher on the respondents and this enhanced good and prompt response 

from the respondents. The data collected were analysed, scored and subjected to statistical analysis. The 

hypotheses raised were tested at 0.05 level of significance. 

The result of the study were presented based on the research questions and hypotheses generated. 

Research question 1: What is the level of awareness of ICT knowledge by the secondary school administrators 

in Ekiti state 

Table 1: Level of ICT awareness by the secondary school administrators 

Level Frequency Percentage 

High 40 22.22 

Moderate 53 29.44 

Low 87 48.33 

Total 180 

61


Results in table 1 showed 40 persons which accounted for 22.22% of the total respondents perceived the 

principals’ level of ICT awareness as high. While 53 respondents (29.44) saw administrator level of ICT 

awareness as rather moderate and 87 respondents (48.33%) however saw it as rather low. 

Research question 2: Are secondary schools in Ekiti-state well equipped with ICT facilities 

Table 2: The views of the respondents about ICT facilities in the secondary schools 

S/N Items Agree % Disagree % 

1. Many of the secondary schools in the state 

are strangers to ICT facilities, especially 

computer 

2. ICT facilities are haparzardly provided for in 

many of the secondary schools in the state 

3. Computers are the only ICT facilities 

available in many secondary schools in the 

state 

4. My school is well equipped with ICT 

facilities 

5. Lack of electricity often jeopardizes effective 

use of ICT facilities in my school. 

84 46.67 96 53.33 

161 89.44 19 10.56 

136 75.56 44 24.44 

64 35.56 116 64.44 

129 71.66 51 28.33 

From table 2, it is seen that 46.67% of the respondents agree that many of the secondary schools in the state are 

strangers to ICT facilities while 53.33% disagreed with this position. 89.44% of the respondents again was of 

the view that ICT facilities are haparzardly provided for in their schools but 19% of the respondents disagreed 

with this stand. 

On the availability of ICT facilities in schools, 75.56% of the respondents agreed that only computers are the 

ICT facilities available in their schools while 44% disagreed with this. 

However, 35.56% of the respondents submitted that their schools are well equipped with ICT facilities while 

64.44% of the respondents disagreed with this. Also, 71.66% of the respondents agreed that lack of electricity 

often jeopardizes the effective use of ICT facilities in their schools while 28.33% of the respondents disagreed 

with this. 

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between ICT and effective secondary school administration. 

Table 3: Test of relationship between ICT and effective secondary school administration 

Item N r-cal r-table 

ICT 180 

Administrative 

effectiveness 

180 

P < 0.05 

0.326 0.195 

Table 3 shows the relationship between ICT and effective secondary school administration. The result obtained 

from the analysis shows that the value of r-calculated (0.326) is greater than r-table (0.195) at 0.05 level of 

significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. That is, there is significant relationship between ICT and 

effective secondary school administration. 

62


Hypothesis 2: Principals’ gender differences will not significantly influence their attitude towards ICT and 

effective secondary school administration 

Table 4: t-test showing influence of principal gender difference on their attitude 

toward ICT and effective secondary school administration 

Variable N X SD DF t-cal t-tab 

Male 110 1.65 1.96 

Female 70 1.82 2.43 17.8 14.2 1.96 

Table 4 showed the influence of principals’ sex on their attitude towards ICT and effective secondary school 

administration. The value of t-calculated (1.42) is lesser than t-table (1.96) at 0.05 level of significance. The 

null hypothesis on principals’ gender difference is hereby not rejected. The findings showed that the principal 

attitude towards ICT and effective secondary school administration is not as a result of their gender difference. 

DISCUSSION 

The result in table 1 showed that the level of ICT awareness by the secondary school administrators is low. This 

shows the poor response of the school administrators to the use of ICT, perhaps owing in part to poverty and 

largely to ignorance. This position is line with Aderibigbe (2008) findings that attitudinal response of people to 

the use of ICT in the developing world (school administrators inclusive) is of great concern. 

The findings also indicated that many of the secondary schools understudied in the state are not well provided 

with ICT facilities and where they are available, there use are obviously being jeoperdised by lack of electricity. 

This finding is line with Obadara and Adenaike (2008) findings that lack of electricity, high cost of computers 

and internet access, all contribute to deprive citizens, enterprises and workers in developing countries from 

benefiting from the ICT revolution. 

It was also found out in the study that there was significant relationship between ICT and effective secondary 

school administration. It could be inferred from the result of the tested hypothesis that ICT will among others 

things facilitate effective administration and management of activities and processes. This study is in agreement 

with Uwadia (2009) that ICT will among others serve as a tool for increased productivity, act as a tool for 

information storage, processing and retrieval and increase decision-making. 

Another findings of this study indicated that administrators gender difference have no influence on their attitude 

towards ICT and effective secondary school administration. 

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

From this study, it could be concluded that many administrators of the secondary schools understudied were not 

ICT driven and government on its own part also failed to provide ICT facilities in secondary schools. The 

gender of a school administrator also has no bearing on his/her use of ICT facilities and effective secondary 

school administration. 

It is therefore recommended based on the findings of this study that adequate provision of ICT facilities should 

be made into schools by the government, parents and philanthropists should assist educational institutions by 

donating computers and internet services to them. Also, the administrators should be encouraged to be ICTdriven 

so as to boost their productivity. 

63


REFERENCES 

Aboderin, O.S. (2009). The status of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in secondary schools 

in Ondo State. Ph.D. thesis University of Ado-Ekiti. 

Adenaike, F.A. and Obadara, O. (2008). The Role of ICT in the Development of Technical and Vocational 

Education and Training (IVET). African Journal of Educational Managenement, 11(1). Jan. 

Aderibigbe, F. (2008). The Place of Information and Communication Technology in the Preparation of 

Examination Results. Being the text of a paper delivered on one day seminar organized by the University 

of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria on Boosting the Job Performance of Academic Staff. March 2008.. 

Agabi, O.G. and Uche, C.M. (2006). ICT Adoption and Information Quality in Effective University 

Management. Nigerian Journal of Educational Administration and Planning (NAEAP) Vol. 6, No. 2, 

June. 

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Publishers. Nigeria. 

Ayeni, A.A. (2004). Relevance of ICT to the Construction of Sports Courts and Pitches,.West African Journal of 

Physical and Health Education. Vol. 8, July. 

Jaiyeoba, A.O. (2006). Educational Management: Thoughts and Practice. Edited by J.R. Babalola, Ibadan, 

Codat Publications. 

Mbakwem, J.N. and Okeke, F.N. (2007). Enhancing Internal and External Quality Assurance Mechanisms in 

Nigerian University through ICT compliance. In Access Equity and Quality in Higher Education, 

NAEAP publication, 2007. 

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presented at the 19 th Annual Conference of the Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON) held at 

Olabisi-Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, from Sept. 12 th to Sept. 15 th . 

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46 th edition of the Business meeting of the committee of Registrars of Nigerian Universities (CORNU). 

May 2 nd – 4 th . 

64




A CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN WAEC AND 

NECO MATHEMATICS IN OSUN STATE, NIGERIA 

AJAO, I.O.* and AWOGBEMI , C.A.** 

* Department of Mathematics and Statistics, The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. 

** National Mathematical Centre, Kwali, Abuja, Nigeria. 

** E- mail address for correspondence: awogbemiadeyeye@yahoo.com 

_________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: This study presents the findings of the relationship between students’ achievement in mathematics 

conducted by the West African Examination Council (WAEC) and the National Examination Council (NECO) in 

four selected secondary schools in Ifedayo Local Government Area , Osun State, Nigeria. 

The analysis showed that there is significant positive relationship between mathematics in all the selected schools 

contrary to the hypothesis that says there is no relationship in WAEC and NECO mathematics results in the schools. 

It is therefore recommended that students should develop more interest in sitting for either of the two examinations 

since they produce equivalent results. 

Keywords: WAEC, NECO, Correlation Coefficient, Mathematics results, Performance 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

Every culture on earth has developed some mathematics. In some cases, this mathematics has spread from one 

culture to another. There is now a predominant international mathematics, and this mathematics has quite a history. 

It has its roots in ancient Egypt and Babylonia, and then grew rapidly in ancient Greece. Mathematics written in 

ancient Greek was translated into Arabic. About the same time, some mathematics of India was translated into 

Arabic. Later on, mathematics was translated into Latin and became the mathematics of Western Europe. Over a 

period of several hundreds of years, it became mathematics of the world (Joyce, 1998). 

This study presents the findings of a study of the relationship between students’ achievement in mathematics 

conducted by the West Africa Examination Council (WAEC) and the one by the National Examination council 

(NECO), in selected secondary schools in Ifedayo Local Government Area of Osun State. It is a fundamental 

statement nowadays that we are in the age of science and technology and Nigeria has also imbibed the idea. The 

school curricula thus lay emphasis on science subjects of which mathematics takes a higher rank. Hence, it is one of 

the core subjects in both primary and secondary school in the nation. (Amini, 1997) 

65


The West African Examination Council (WAEC) for a number of decades has been the only examination body in 

this country especially for ordinary level examinations. A lot of concerns have been expressed by large number of 

concerned citizens on students’ failure especially in mathematics and English language. 

In the year 2000, the Federal Government of Nigeria came up with another examination board referred to as 

“National Examination Council” (NECO). Is this new body efficient in its work What about students’ performance 

if compared with that of WAEC Is there any relationship between WASSCE mathematics results and NECO 

mathematics results These are some of the questions that shall be answered during the course of this research. 

Recently, there has been a lot of mounting public criticism on the fallen standard of education in the media and 

public places even though there has not been available or little data to back up this statement. 

There has also been criticism against NECO. Some even say their questions are tough than those of WAEC. 

Some universities who once rejected NECO results now accept it. Many private owned secondary schools now 

register their students for NECO. One of the reasons could be that WAEC and NECO have the same syllabus and 

each of them has a regulatory body. So, their results should be equivalent. 

Investigation had shown that students in secondary schools are not very much interested in sciences even though 

they are aware of the benefits therein. This is due to academic difficulty, using choice of subject and course, poor 

standard in mathematics and English Language; others are lack of textbooks and insufficient home support 

(Ajeyalemi, 1987). 

The importance of mathematics in studying science has long been recognized world-wide. Now that there are two 

major examination bodies, is there any relationship between students achievement in both examinations with respect 

to mathematics If there is, how strong or weak is it 

The suggestions and recommendations in this study will go a long way in determining which examination body 

should be preferred by the schools or students based on the results of the analysis. 

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM 

Mathematics is not entirely abstract but has practical aspects. It touches all aspects of life. According to Greek 

philosophers, the whole life is synonymous to mathematics. The Greek believes that everything can be mathematics. 

On the other hand, according to Lawton(1983), curriculum has to do with a whole range of matters and tasks relating 

to contents, experiences and the implementation of the plans into practice by the class-room teachers. 

For all secondary school students in Nigeria, it is compulsory to offer mathematics. This is in line with the National 

Policy on Education (FRN, 1981) which emphasizes mathematics as a “vehicle” of science and technology. The 

National Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) which was established late 1964 organized 

series of seminars and workshops between 1973 and 1975 on how to plan a curriculum and produce syllabi 

textbooks and other instructional materials for all levels of education. This was in anticipation of the proposed new 

policy on education. 

In his work, Fakuade (1976) declared that it is a fact that excellence in the knowledge and use of mathematics is an 

essential factor in the development programme of any nation that wants to have respectable status among other 

nations of the world. 

Due to Technological awareness and the need to teach Science and Mathematics for meeting societal needs and 

aspirations, quite a number of science curriculum projects were prepared for primary and secondary schools and are 

constantly reviewed. 

Notably among these include: African Primary Science Programme (APSP) which was later known as Science 

Education programme for Africa (SEPA), Midwest Bendel Primary School Science, Nigerian Integrated Science 

Project (NISP) and so on. 

66


Abdullahi (1982) pointed out that Mathematics like an octopus has its numerous tentacles in all branches of 

knowledge. In the same vein, Dada (1996) reiterated the fact that teaching of mathematics in secondary education 

after independence did not in any significant way different from what it used to be before the independence. It was 

such lives and cries that forced the government to organize a national conference on curriculum development in 

Lagos between September 8-12, 1969. The conference on curriculum was sponsored by the Nigerian Educational 

Research Development Council (NERDC) and was saddled with the onerous responsibility of reviewing the nation’s 

educational system with particular emphasis on the objectives of education and the content of the curriculum in the 

light of the peoples’ needs; both as individuals and as a nation (Dada, 1996). 

The Sogbetun Commission of enquiry recommended the setting up of NECO, along with Angulu led Commission in 

1989 when Professor Bab Fafunwa became Minister of Education (FRN, 1989). 

The following are some of the roles of WAEC and NECO: 

i. Conduct examination and award certificates. 

ii. 

iii. 

iv. 

Set questions and conduct examinations to cover such areas as practical, oral and Essay. 

Set a common standard through their syllabi and draw a uniform time table for conduct of examinations. 

Provide data or feedback on students’ performance to schools, thus helping to fast- track improvement in 

teaching and learning in schools. (Ibrahim 2003) 

Adeogun(1991) showed the relationship between students’ performance in chemistry and mathematics in some 

selected secondary schools in Ilorin Local Government Area of Kwara State. Twelve (12) schools were selected by 

stratified random sampling technique. 

Twenty (20) students from each of the selected secondary schools were chosen by systematic random sampling 

techniques. 

Among the findings by the researcher are: 

i. There is a positive and high correlation between students’ performance in chemistry and mathematics. 

ii. 

iii. 

Boys performance in chemistry and mathematics is not better than the girls 

The locations of the schools (urban or rural) had influence on students’ performance in chemistry and 

mathematics (Adeogun, 1991) 

A lot of concern has been expressed by a large number of concerned citizens on students’ attitudes to sciences. Their 

verdict was that there was low enrolment of students in science. (Aminu, 1987). 

The importance of students’ performance in science and mathematics could not be viewed slightly at it helps in 

pursuit of academic and industrial revolution. 

The importance of mathematics in studying and understanding sciences has long been recognized worldwide (Ale 

1981, Osibodu 1981). 

Aliyu (1983), in his research study, concluded that chemistry topics which require mathematics for proper 

understanding are difficult areas for Nigeria High School students in terms of comprehension. He therefore 

concluded again that there is a relationship between mathematics and chemistry empirically. Students who find 

mathematics easy to understand tend to turn towards chemistry and those who find mathematics difficult choose 

against chemistry. 

Continuous assessment is the mechanism whereby this final grading of a student in cognitive affective and 

psychomotor domains of behaviour takes into account a systematic way of all his performance during a given period 

of schooling (FRN, 1981) 

Adeyemo (1991) has his primary objective highlighting the relationship between continuous Assessment and Junior 

school Certificate Examination scores in mathematics. 

67


Terminal assessments are those administered on learners after a series of lessons, usually covering many different 

concepts or topics that have been taught (Ayodele, 1985). 

He highlighted further that such assessments usually come at the end of the term, session or the middle of the 

session. Ayodele (1985) also said something about periodic assessments. These are more frequent especially with 

mathematics teachers, usually in form of quizzes, mental sums, and short tests. 

Spencer (1961) was of the opinion that mathematical experience could be interesting and fruitful in developing 

individual abilities to understand social institution and in equipping one to meet more effectively problems which 

occur in his personal life. 

Another study by Ogunleye (1991) was carried out in sampled secondary schools in Ikole Local Government Area 

of Ekiti State, Nigeria. The study examined the relationship between students’ attitude toward mathematics and their 

performance in it. Some hypotheses were formulated and tested statistically. 

Within the limitation of the study, mathematics attitudes are conclusively related to achievement in mathematics. 

The study revealed that mathematics is seen as more useful to males than females. This fact is documented by 

Sherman and Fennema (1972). 

An investigation revealed significant correlation between attitudes and mathematical achievement (Jackson,1988). 

Since his review concentrated on measured attitude towards mathematics, one may then conclude that attitude 

towards specific subjects are more related to school achievement than a general attitude towards the school. 

As regards sex factor in attitude and performance of students in mathematics, it was discovered that when males and 

females performance were compared for the analysis, there existed a sex factor in the students’ performance in 

mathematics. (Ogunleye, 1991). 

Aiken and Danger (1961) discussed the effect of sex differences on performance of students. Aiken said: “I have 

consistently found a significantly more positive mean attitude towards mathematics in males”. This statement 

implies that there are differences in attitude of males and females towards mathematics. 

In his work, James (1992) tested for the relationship between mathematics and physics. Five questions were drawn 

from each topic which were given to the students to solve in five different schools. The solutions were collected and 

analyzed to bring out the various concepts that are involved. With this, relevant mathematical concepts for 

understanding physics were however identified. Adekanni, O. (1989) declared that without mathematics there is no 

physics. 

Arinola(1996) examined the correlation between the performance in MOCK- SSCE and SSCE examinations in 

mathematics from 1990 to 1994 at Ajibade Grammar School, Ibadan. 

The correlation analysis was employed to determine the relationship that exists between the MOCK and SSCE 

examination. That is to examine the contribution of the mock examination on the final SSCE examination. The 

findings showed that the MOCK- SSCE and SSCE results were closely related for the period of study (1990 to 

1994). These results however, showed that there is less relationship between the two sets of grades for MOCK- 

SSCE and SSCE. Thus, the insignificant correlation obtained shows that both results were generally poor. 

The implication of the close relationship of MOCK-SSCE and SSCE results are as follows: 

i. That, students who passed mathematics in the MOCK- SSCE have very low probability of failing 

mathematics in the SSCE result. 

ii. 

That, students who failed mathematics in the MOCK-SSCE have very low probability of 

passing mathematics in the SSCE. (Arinola, 1996) 

The relevance of mathematics to the physical sciences was emphasized by Owa (1988) in his work on “Games in 

mathematics education” when he pointed out that, mathematics is a must on the school curriculum right from the 

primary school to the senior secondary school since it is the basis of understanding science. 

It is a known fact that one cannot understand concepts and phenomena in physics or chemistry without a set of high 

powered mathematics tools. This was carried out and clarified further by Adeoye (1991) when he pointed out that 

mathematical knowledge and skills are prerequisites for successful learning of Physics. 

68


Ninan (1970) in his study involving 76 undergraduates of liberal Arts at Hinter college of city University of New 

York, found that the students of the experimental group, that is those whose basic curriculum had been 

supplemented by mathematical models texts, performed significantly better in the physics test than the control group 

who has studied only the basic curriculum. He then advised that students of science should learn the mathematical 

concepts and skills which are applicable in science because their attainment of scientific progress depends much on 

their mathematical competence. 

Adeniran (1990) looked at various factors responsible for poor performance of students in mathematics and ways of 

minimizing the problems. A total of five secondary schools from which 200 students and 40 mathematics teachers 

were drawn participated in the study. One cognitive measuring instrument (mathematics achievement test) and two 

non-cognitive (The teachers’ questionnaires and students questionnaires) were used for data collection. 

The results showed that a good percentage of sample of students drawn have a negative attitude towards 

mathematics. There was a significant relationship between students’ attitudes towards mathematics and their 

performance in it. Results also showed that boys performed significantly better than their girls’ counterpart. Several 

other intervening factors were suspected to be responsible for the poor students’ achievement in mathematics and 

suggestions were made for further in depth research into effect of such factors. 

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 

The data for the study were collected from four selected secondary schools in Ifedayo Local Government Area of 

Osun State, Nigeria using Simple Random Sampling. The Scope of data spans through the period 2000-2004. 

The correlation coefficient, r, of the relationship between students’ performance in WAEC mathematics and NECO 

mathematics in various school were calculated 

The computational formula for correlation coefficient, r, as defined or deduced by Karl Pearson is 

r 

where 

[ N 

N 

XY XY 

2 

2 

2 

X ( X ) ][ NY 

( 

N = Number of pairs 

X i = Marks in WAEC mathematics 

Y i = Marks in NECO mathematics. 

Y 

2 

)] 

The method of analysis is chosen because the Pearson product moment coefficient is sufficient to provide the 

direction and magnitude of the relationship between the two variables (WAEC Mathematics and NECO 

mathematics) for this study. 

TESTING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT 

In order to test whether there is significant correlation between WAEC and NECO mathematics results in all the 

schools, t-test was used: 

t r 

N 2 

2 

1 

r 

The level of significance was set as 0.05 significant level (or 95% confidence level) with degree of freedom = N- 2 

and N is the number of students. 

69


The null and alternative hypotheses are given as: 

H 0 : There is no significant relationship between WAEC and NECO mathematics results. 

H 1 : There is significant relationship between WAEC and NECO mathematics results. 

The decision rule is: reject H 0 if t calculated > t critical at 0.05 level of significance 

ASSUMPTIONS: 

The following assumptions were made on the students in each of the schools selected: 

(i) All the students used the same textbooks; 

(ii) The students used the same syllabus in mathematics; 

(iii) The students were subjected to the same environmental and social conditions; 

(iv) The students have the same educational background. 

All the grades scored were converted to marks for easy computation of the correlation coefficient (see appendix for 

conversion table). 

EMPERICAL ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 

The summary is stated below: 

Table 1: Relationship between students’ achievement in WAEC mathematics 

and NECO mathematics in school A for the period 2000 - 2004. 

School A 

Correlation Coefficient (r) 

Year 2000 0.56 

Year 2001 -0.14 

Year 2002 0.54 

Year 2003 0.39 

Year 2004 0.04 

Table 1 shows both an average positive (r = 0.56) for year 2000 and low relationship (r = 0.04) for year 2004 

between students’ achievement in WAEC and NECO mathematics. 


and NECO mathematics in school B for the period 2000 - 2004. 

School A 

Correlation coefficient (r) 

Year 2000 0.69 

Year 2001 0.13 

Year 2002 0.11 

Year 2003 -0.27 

Year 2004 0.70 

Table 2 shows a high positive value of r = 0.70 for the year 2004, lowest value of r = 0.11 for the year 2002 and 

negative relationship of r = -0.27 for the year 2003 between students’ achievement in WAEC mathematics and 

NECO mathematics. 

70



and NECO mathematics in school C for the period 2000 - 2004. 

School A 

Correction coefficient (r) 

Year 2000 0.62 

Year 2001 0.11 

Year 2002 -0.04 

Year 2003 0.40 

Year 2004 0.73 

The table shows a high positive value of r = 0.73 for the year 2004 lowest value of r = 0.11 for the year 2001 and an 

inverse (negative) relationship of r = 0.04 for the year 2002 between students’ achievement in WAEC mathematics 

and NECO mathematics. 


and NECO mathematics in School D for the period 2000 – 2004 

School D 

Correlation coefficient (r) 

Year 2000 0.30 

Year 2001 0.56 

Year 2002 -0.16 

Year 2003 0.65 

Year 2004 0.62 

Table 4 shows a high positive value of r = 0.65 for the year 2003, lowest value of r = 0.30 for the year 2000 and an 

inverse (negative) relationship of r = -0.16 for the year 2002 between students’ achievement in WAEC mathematics 


Table 5: Summary of testing for the significance of correlation coefficient 

School A 

Year 

t-calculated t-table Remark 

r 

2000 0.56 3.577 2.048 Significant 

2001 -0.14 -0.748 2.048 Insignificant 

2002 0.54 3.390 2.048 Significant 

2003 0.39 2.450 2.048 Significant 

2004 0.04 0.212 0.048 Insignificant 

School B 

Year 


r 

2000 0.69 5.065 2.048 Significant 




2004 0.70 5.187 0.048 Significant 

71


School C 

Year 


r 

2000 0.62 4.181 2.048 Significant 



2003 0.40 2.309 2.048 Significant 

2004 0.73 5.652 0.048 Significant 

School D 

Year 


r 


2001 0.56 3.577 2.048 Significant 


2003 0.65 4.526 2.048 Significant 

2004 0.62 4.181 0.048 Significant 

SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS 

The following major findings were made by the researchers in this study: 

(1) There was significant positive relationship between students’ achievement in WAEC and NECO 

mathematics in school A for the year 2000, 2002 and 2004. 


mathematics in school B for the year 2000 and 2004 

(3) There was significant positive relationship between students’ achievement in WAE and NECO 

mathematics in school C for the years 2000, 2003 and 2004. 


mathematics in school D for the years 2001, 2003 and 2004 

DISCUSSIONS 

Within the limitation of this study, it has been revealed that there is positive relationship between WAEC and NECO 

mathematics results. The findings of the study revealed that a student who had credit in WAEC mathematics would 

have at least a credit or pass in NECO mathematics. 

Majority of the Students who had credit and above in NECO mathematics obtained at least passes in WAEC 

mathematics and those who failed in NECO mathematics also failed in WAEC mathematics. 

The correlation coefficients calculated for each of the schools studied indicated that there was a positive relationship 

between students’ achievement in NECO mathematics and WAEC mathematics in four out of five years data used 

for the study. 

72


In this study, the research hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between WAEC and NECO 

mathematics results in all the schools was found invalid. 

High marks in WAEC mathematics implied high marks in NECO mathematics and low marks in WAEC 

mathematics implied low marks in NECO mathematics as illustrated in school A for the year 2002 and so on. 

The findings of the study also revealed that students’ achievement in WAEC mathematics and NECO mathematics 

were not affected by the year of the examination or by the location of the school. 

The least correlation coefficient (r = 0.04) calculated for this study was from school A. However, a unique case 

occurred at school C which has a high positive correlation coefficient r calculated (i.e. r = 0.73), meaning that 

students achievements here were closely related in both WAEC and NECO for year 2004. 

The researchers have no available data to explain why there was a high positive correlation coefficient in WAEC 

mathematics and NECO mathematics in one school than other schools in the Local Government. 

Adeogun (1991), determined if students’ performance in mathematics will enhance their performance in chemistry. 

He limited his research on WAEC result of 1988 only to find their relationship. Other types of relationship were 

determined by Ogunleye (1991), Arinnola (1996), Olatunji (1992), Oyeyemi (1988) and James (1992) but none of 

them worked on relationship between WAEC and NECO mathematics results. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Life, according to Butter (1962) is the art of drawing sufficient conclusion from insufficient premises. Emanating 

from the discussion above, the following conclusions are drawn out: 

(a) There was significant positive relationship between students’ achievement in WAEC and 

NECO mathematics is school A for the years 2000, 2002 and 2004. 

(b) There was significant positive relationship between students’ achievement in WAEC and 

NECO mathematics in school B for the years 2000 and 2004. 

There was significant positive relationship between students’ achievement in WAEC and NECO mathematics in 

school C and D for the years 2000, 2003 and 2004. 

Since it has been found that there is positive relationship between students achievement in most of the schools in the 

two examination bodies, the hypothesis that there is no significant correlation between WAEC and NECO 

mathematics results in all the schools was rejected. 


The following recommendations are made in an attempt to improve students’ achievement in 

both WAEC and NECO mathematics: 

i. Students should develop more interest in sitting for either of the two examinations since they were found to 

be the same or equivalent. 

ii. 

Mathematics teachers and school authorities should encourage the students to prepare adequately for both 

examinations. 

73


iii. 

iv. 

Students who perform very well in WAEC mathematics should be able to perform well in NECO 

mathematics so as to confirm the notion that the two bodies produce equivalent results. 

Parents should encourage their children to put more efforts in studying to reduce the high rate of failure in 

the two examinations. 

SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES 

On the basis of the above findings, it is suggested that further research should be carried out to: 

i. investigate whether students who gained admission into higher institutions through WAEC O’ level result 

perform better than students who were admitted through NECO O’ level result. 

ii. 

iii. 

determine whether or not male students are better than their female counterparts in WAEC mathematics 


investigate whether or not the urban male or female students performance in WAEC mathematics and 

NECO mathematics differ significantly from those of their rural male or female counterparts. 

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Nigeria. 20(3), 15 – 17 

Adeogun, I.O (1991). The Relationship between students performance in chemistry and mathematics. An 

unpublished PGDE. thesis submitted to the Institute of Education, University of Ilorin. 

Adeoye, B. (1991). Mathematics, perquisite for successful learning of physics. Journal of mathematics Association 

of Nigeria. 

Adeyemi, J.A. (1991) Relationship between Students performance in continuous Assessment and Junior School 

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Aiken, L.R. (1970), The Effect of Attitudes on Performance in Mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology. 52 

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Aiken and Danger (1961). Effect of sex differences in performance of Students. Journal of Educational Psychology 

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Aina, Alonge and Owa (1988). What Mathematics is to the Physical Sciences. Journal of Science Teachers 

Association of Nigeria 24. (2) 20-23 

Ajeyalemi, D. (1987). The Teaching of Chemistry and Mathematics as an Experimental Experience in Nigeria 

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16-25 

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Akinola, J.A. (1992). Students Mathematics Background and their Achievement in Physical Sciences. An 

Unpublished PGDE. thesis Submitted to the Institute of Education University of Ilorin. 

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Teachers Association of Nigeria 19 (1), 3-5 

Aliyu, A. (1984). An Investigation into the difficult area of the Ordinary Level Chemistry Syllabus for Nigeria 

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Aminu, J. (1987). Traffic Warden at Ribadu Road: A paper Presented at the 25 years of Centralized University 

Education in Nigeria 

Anthony, A (1984). The performance of Nigeria school O’ level Sciences Students on Mathematics tasks Essential in 

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80-96 

Castle E.B. (1959). Principles of Education for Teachers in Africa. Oxford Press (59) 

Fafunwa, A.B (1974). History of Education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and unwin. 

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Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education (4 th ed), Lagos. NERDC. 

Ilori, A. (1988). Uses of Mathematics in Solving Problems of Natural Sciences, Technology and Commerce Journal 

of Sciences Teachers Association of Nigeria 20 (2), 4-6 

Jackson, O.C. (19988). Correlation between Attitudes and Mathematics Achievement Journal of Educational 

Psychology 51 (2), 16-18 

James, M.O. (1992). Relevance of Mathematics Concepts for Understanding Physics in the Senior Secondary School 

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Jones, L.V. (1980). Changes in Achievement test Scores of pre college students in mathematics and science. A 

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Lawton, C. (1983). Designing of Curriculum New York: harper and Row Publishing 

Ninan. D.C. and Gill, N (1970). Relationship between Attitude towards schools subjects and school Achievement. 

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Odunsi, T.O. (1984). A Study of the attitude of some Nigeria Science Students Towards Science Teaching. Journal 

of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria 22 (2), 15-18 

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An Unpublished PGDE thesis submitted to the Institute of Education, University of Ilorin. 

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Ormarod, M.B. (1975). Chemistry in Britain London: Longman 

Osafehinti, J.O. (1990). The University of Mathematics Journal of Mathematical Association of Nigeria 20 (1), 47- 

55 

Oyeyemi, M.O. (1988). Effect of Family Background on Academic Performance in Mathematics. An Unpublished 

PGDE thesis Submitted to the Institute of Education, University of Ilorin. 

Roberts, L.S. (1974). The Correlation of Science Knowledge of Preserve Elementary Teacher of Education. Journal 

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Sherman and Fennema (1972). Usefulness of Mathematics of Males and Females. Educational Research 58 (4), 

143-151 

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Psychology. 24 (3), 17-21. 

APPENDIX 1 

TABLES OF CONVERSION FOR WAEC AND NECO EXMINATION RESULTS 

A1 

B2 

B3 

C4 

C5 

C6 

D7 

D8 

F9 

GRADE 

MARK INTERVAL 

75-100 

70-74 

65-69 

60-64 

55-59 

50-54 

45-49 

40-44 

0-39 

87.5 

72 

67 

62 

57 

52 

47 

42 

19.5 

MID-MARK 

GRADE OBTAINED 

A1 

B2 

B3 

C4 

C5 

C6 

D7 

D8 

F9 

CORRESPONDING MARK 

87.5 

72 

67 

62 

57 

52 

47 

42 

19.5 

76




DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF INTERNET-BASED 

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN ASSISTANCE FOR PRINT-BASED SELF- 

LEARNING MATERIALS 

OMAR MAJID*, ZURAIDAH A. RAHMAN, HANAFI ATAN, AHMAD H. MOHAMAD 

School of Distance Education, University Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia 

*E-mail address for correspondence: momar@usm.my 

_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: The article reports on the development and evaluation of the Internet-based systematic 

instructional design assistance that is intended for the development of print-based self-learning materials. 

The system consists of three main elements namely, the instructional design principle, subject contents 

and collaboration among members of the course development team. The combination of these elements 

facilitates the collaborative social workspace for the collective use of the subject matter by experts, 

instructional designers, graphic artists, editors and administrators to effectively develop the self-learning 

materials. The evaluation of the system was based on the structured interview of the participants who had 

played his/her role in the development of the self-learning materials. The overall comment from the 

participants was positive as the system was able to reduce the turnaround time in the development of such 

learning materials, and the system allowed for the production of the learning materials which conformed 

to the instructional design principles. However, there were some shortcomings in the system. The support 

for the instructional design principle was not specific to a particular subject matter. The workspace within 

a specific template was also found to be restrictive and it hindered the overall flow of the development of 

the self-learning materials. The various issues and challenges elucidated from this evaluation are 

discussed in the paper. 

Keywords: Instructional design, internet-based, self-learning materials, print-based learning materials 

_________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

In the development of print-based self-learning materials for distance learners, instructional design can be 

defined as the procedure of planning the instruction in a way that it induces the distance learners to 

actively engage the learning materials using some form of cognitive strategies (West et al., 1991). Gros et 

al. (1997), on the other hand, states that instructional design is the process of providing links between 

learning theories and how we learn and the practices of building an instructional system is the 

arrangement of resources and procedures to promote learning. It is thus imperative that some form of 

instructional design should exist in the design of learning materials so that the contents are arranged in a 

logical manner and are able to stimulate and induce learning and achieve the learning objectives set forth 

(Yusup, 1999). 

77


The development of the self-learning materials involved a team of personnel with various expertise such 

as the subject matter expert (the contents writer), instructional designer, editor, graphic artist and 

administrator. The task was challenging and the team had to work closely together in order to produce 

high quality self-learning materials containing all the functions a teacher would carry out in the face-toface 

setting such as guiding, motivating, explaining, provoking, reminding, asking questions, discussing, 

appraising, providing remedial and enrichment help (Rowntree, 1986). 

The conventional way of producing self-learning materials is very time consuming and very costly. The 

novice needs to be regularly trained to acquire the necessary skills to incorporate the appropriate 

cognitive theories into the design of instruction. The development also involves a series of face-to-face 

meetings to coordinate the various roles of the members of the development team. In addition, there are 

extensive physical movements of documents from one member of the team to another with each of them 

assuming a set of different tasks. 

In order to reduce the needs of continuous training for the novice, physical meetings among team 

members and to minimize the physical movements of documents, this study is intended to develop a 

systematic instructional design system with the following aims: 

i. Provide instructional design assistance to the subject matter expert at every stage of the 

self-learning materials development. This is achieved via the provision of templates 

illustrating the appropriate examples that conform to the instructional events as well as 

the required instructional design principle and the pedagogical approaches to be 

adhered to. 

ii. 

Provide a sharable workspace for the designated members. This space is used 

collectively by all team members in the construction of the learning materials. Each 

member can complete the defined tasks within the sharable workspace and the learning 

materials thus evolve and grow as the developmental process progresses. Such a space 

also eliminates the needs of separate and independent evaluations and peer reviews by 

other subject matter experts, instructional designers and editors. 

iii. 

Provide a platform for collaboration among team members. This collaboration can be 

conducted anytime and anywhere, thus overcoming the spatial and temporal constraints 

among team members. 

Some instructional design applications have already been developed by researchers such as the 

IDXelerator (Merrill & Thompson, 1999). However, these are learning-oriented applications that include 

built-in instructional strategies and run within the multimedia ToolBook. The applications are not 

internet-based and require installation at individual user PCs. They do not contain collaborative tools and 

the sharable workspace that this study intends to develop. 

Ridzwan (2007), Kasowitz, (1998),Lewis, D. (2003), Merill (1999), Muraida & Spector (1993) and Paquette 

et al. (1994) have also developed an application for the development of learning materials based 

on the instructional design principle but the final product was targeted for the incorporation of other multimedia 

attributes to enhance the learning experience. In contrast, this study focuses solely on the development 

of print-based self-learning materials and the final product is not for delivery in the multi-media 

based format. 

Due to the importance of the pedagogical elements in the instructional contents of self-learning materials 

and the need to reduce the turnaround time, this study seeks to develop and evaluate the systematic 

Internet-based assistance for self-learning materials development. Specifically, the objectives of this study 

are to: 

i. develop a systematic online application for self-learning materials based on Gagne’s 

Nine Events of Instruction. 

ii. 

determine if such an application can assist the subject matter expert to write materials 

more easily. 

78


iii. 

iv. 

determine if the application can assist the instructional designer to monitor or supervise 

the subject matter expert more readily throughout the development of the self-learning 

materials. 

find out how the application can reduce the turnaround time for the development of the 

self-learning materials. 

v. investigate the extent to which the materials written by the subject matter expert abide 

with the instructional design principle adopted. 

THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE SYSTEM 

The theoretical framework of the system has been reported by Ahmad et al. (2009). The main features of 

the system consist of the following modules: 

i 

ii. 

iii. 

iv. 

The User Access Module 

The System Administration Module 

The Instructional Design Principle Module 

The Collaboration Module 

v. The Content Development Module 

The Instructional Design Principle Module is the main module that provides the assistance to the subject 

matter expert via various suitable templates made available at the appropriate instructional events. In this 

way, the system is providing continuous assistance to the subject matter expert during the entire process 

of the writing of the learning materials. 

The Collaboration Module incorporated into the system allows asynchronous online discussions to be 

conducted among the assigned members of the developmental team, i.e. the subject matter expert, 

instructional designer, editor, graphic artist and the administrator. 

The next important module is the Content Development Module. This module focuses on the text editor 

who looks at the materials prepared by the subject matter expert. This module is sharable as the teaching 

contents can be subsequently updated and revised by members of the team. As such, it allows the 

creation of new versions of the learning materials which can be further expanded or updated and revised 

by members of the team until the final version is arrived at and approved by the members. Figure 1 

depicts the conceptual framework of the system. 

Subject Matter Expert 

Instructional Designer 

Graphic Artist 

Editor 

System Administrator 

Collaboration Module 

Content 

Development 

Module 

Subject Matter Expert 

Instructional Designer 

Graphic Artist 

Editor 

System Administration 

Output 

Instructional Design Principle 

Module 

79


Figure 1: The conceptual framework of the system (Ahmad et al., 2009) 

The figure shows that the Content Development Module is contributed by three sub-modules, namely, the 

Collaboration Module, the team members (subject matter expert, instructional designer, graphic artist, 

editor and systems administrator) and the Instructional Design Principle Module. The team members 

share the same workspace and collaborate with each other in the process of the learning material 

development. The Content Development Module thus serves as a social workspace for all members to 

generate the final version of the contents. In addition, the subject matter expert is supported by the 

Instructional Design Principle Module during the entire process of writing. 

The initial writing conducted in the Content Developmental Module is subsequently revised and edited by 

the instructional designer and editor. The graphic artist then incorporates the required graphics within the 

contents as discussed with the subject matter expert in the collaboration module. The revising and editing 

represent a continuous process until the final contents are agreed upon by all members. Thus, the final 

contents can be considered as an evolution of the contents from the draft format to the final format carried 

out by all members in the team. The developed contents by the subject matter expert are kept in the 

server and all designated users are able to gain access to the materials for further revision and refinement. 

Once the team is satisfied with the final version of the contents, they can be published in the pdf format 

and printed and distributed to students. 

EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEM 

The preliminary evaluation of the prototype system was carried out involving a focus group discussion 

among the members of the contents development of the particular course. The discussion involved a 

series of structured questions aimed at eliciting the strengths and weaknesses of the developed system. 

The subject matter expert perceived that the system was useful and capable of helping a writer like him to 

write self-learning materials based on Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction more easily. The instructional 

design assistance provided via the various templates would assist him to write materials which would be 

consistent with the various stages of the instructional design and intended learning outcomes. 

However, the subject matter expert pointed out several weakness of the system which included the limited 

use of the instructional design assistance. This facility only provided general templates of instructional 

design events and the assistance was not specific for the use of a particular subject matter. 

Comprehensive instructional design assistance covering the instructional design events for all subjects 

should be made readily available for the system to be of significant use. In addition, the expert felt that 

the instructional design assistance was not very user-friendly to the extent that it interfered with the actual 

writing process. The system also did not support texts with special characters such as mathematical 

characters as well as there was difficulty in uploading and positioning the image files. 

The evaluative feedback on the instructional design aspect revealed that the system allowed the 

instructional designer to easily monitor or supervise the subject matter expert throughout the development 

of the self-learning materials. The role of the instructional designer in the self-learning materials 

development was made easy with the provision of the sharable workspace. The instructional designer 

could be involved in the revision of the contents at any stage of the writing and this could be done 

regardless of spatial and temporal constraints. Nevertheless, the instructional designer agreed with the 

subject matter expert that the instructional design assistance could be made more beneficial and useful to 

the expert if a wide range of templates was made available for each instructional design event and if it 

could cater for most of the subjects involved e.g. covering the areas of physical or biological sciences, 

social sciences, humanities and other fields. In this way, the subject matter expert is provided with 

sufficient guidance and support throughout the writing process. 

80


The administrator felt that the application could reduce the turnaround time for the development of selflearning 

materials. The face-to-face meetings between each member of the development team could be 

reduced or eliminated altogether. The administrator also felt that if the materials written by the subject 

matter expert adhered to the applications and abide by the instructional design principle adopted, the 

system had the capability of producing high quality self-learning materials with respect to instructional 

design. 

CONCLUSION 

The conventional process of developing self-learning materials involves many physical face-to-face 

meetings between each member of the development team for the purpose of coordination at various stages 

of the development. At the same time, physical documents have to be transferred from one person to the 

other for revision or editing and upgrading thus lengthening the period for development before the final 

version can be produced, printed and distributed to students. The system that is being developed is an 

attempt to shorten the developmental time, reduce the cost of the development and at the same time, 

enhance the quality of the self-learning materials being produced. We managed to develop such a system 

which fulfils the objectives set forth. However, improvements have to be made to many areas in the 

system before full implementation can be carried out. 

REFERENCES 

Ahmad H. Mohamad, Zuraidah A. Rahman, Omar Majid & Hanafi Atan (2009). A Conceptual 

Framework for the Development of Internet-based Systematic Instructional Design Assistance. 

Paper presented at the IADIS International WWW/Internet Conference 2009, 19-22 November 

2009, Rome. 

Baker, M. (1994). Adapting instructional design methods to intelligent multimedia authoring systems. 

http://ses.telecom-paristech.fr/baker/publication/ArticlesBakerPDF/.../1994c.pdf 

Gros, B., Elen, J.K., Merrienboer, J.M. & Spector, M. (1997). Instructional design and the authoring of 

multimedia and hypermedia system: Does a marriage make sense Educational Technology, 

37(1), 48-56. 

Kasowitz, A. (1998). Tools for Automating Instructional Design, ED420304. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse 

on Information and Technology. 

Lewis, D. (2003). Automating Instructional Design with Automated Pedagogical Agent Systems: Will 

There Always Be a Need for Instructional Designers Paper presented at the Association for 

Educational Communications and Technology Annual Meeting, October 22–26, Anaheim, CA. 

http:// www.coedu.usf.edu/agents/aect2003/ 

Merrill, M. D. (1999). Instructional transaction theory (ITT): Instructional design based on knowledge 

objects. In Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, 

Vol. II, edited by C. M. Reigeluth, pp. 397–424. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Merill, M.D. & Thomson, B.M. (1999). The IDXelerator: Learning-Centred Instructional Design 

http://mdavidmerill.com/Papers/ElectronicTextBook.PDF 

Muraida, D. J. and Spector, J. M. (1993). The advanced instructional design advisor. Instructional 

Science, 21(4), 239–253. 

81


Paquette, G., Aubin, C., and Crevier, F. (1994). An intelligent support system for course design. 

Educational Technology, 34(9), 50–57. 

Ridzwan W A (2007). An Application for Creating e-Learning Content Story Board Based on 

Instructional Design Principle. Master Thesis. Universiti Malaya. Unpublished. 

Rowntree, D. (1986). Teaching Through Self-Instruction. London: Kogan Page. 

West, C.K., Farmer, J.A. & Wolff, P.M. (1991). Instructional Design Implications from Cognitive Science. 

Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 

Yusup, H. (1999). Are instructional design elements being used in module writing British Journal of 

Educational Technology, 30 (4), 341-358. 

82




IMPACT OF SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICES ON KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE & 

PRACTICE OF HEALTH AMONG STUDENTS TOWARDS STRENGTHENING 

NATIONAL HEALTH STATUS IN DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY ABRAKA 


Department of Physical and Health Education, Delta State University, Abraka 

E-mail address for correspondence: ogbe_joseph@yahoo.com 

_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: The study was all about assessing of undergraduate students and would – be health education 

professionals, on knowledge, attitude and practice of school health services. This is to ascertain their 

understanding of the benefits of school health services. Two sets of students; experimental and control 

groups who were purposively sampled for used. A pre- experiment post test only, non equivalent design 

was used to test – knowledge, attitude and practice of school health services. The correlation analysis of 

pearsman’s correlation and independent t- test were used to analyze the data at alpha of 0.05. The findings 

reveal that students had good understanding of knowledge, attitude and practice with the three variables 

significantly correlated. It was observed that Health Education Students were significantly positively 

informed than their Social studies Education counterparts. It was recommended that the present level of 

awareness of school health services be sustained and improve upon, among other recommendations. 

Key words: school health services, health education, school community 

______________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

Health education is a teaching – learning process directed at a learner acquiring knowledge, positive 

attitude and skill or practice for the well-being of himself and others School health services is a component 

of school health education, referred to as school health programme or education. School health education / 

programme comprises of school health instruction by which health education purpose is achieved. The 

school health services is directed at the well – being and health of the school community (learners, teachers 

and non – teachers) and the school healthy living environment meant to cater for preventive health of the 

school community. The school health service is meant to promote the health of the school community. 

Without it there will be drastic reduction in learning. This is because learning is a factor of physically, 

mental and social well- being. It is only with this, that intelligence, absorptive and retain memory is 

developed. Towards this, the federal ministry of education, Nigeria in 2006, approved the national school 

health policy, with the mission statement: 

83


To put in place adequate facilities, resources and programmes. 

That will guarantee physical and mental health, social well being 

and the safety and security of the school community which will 

promote the learning outcomes of the child. 

National School health policy 2006, page 4 

The school community is made up of students, teaching and non-teaching personnel. National school policy 

(2006) defined school community to mean “all the people living /working within the school premises 

including pupils / students, the teaching and non-teaching staff as well as members of their families” Udoh, 

Fawole, Ajala, Okafor, Nwana and Obayan (200) stated that the coordinal objective of school health 

service as a component of school health programme is to promote and maintain the health of the school 

child and the school personnel .The national school health policy (2006) was specific to state “that to help 

children at school to achieve the maximum health possible to obtain full benefit from their education”. 

Very often it was observed by this researcher that some students may not care very much about their health 

as they often take to drinking, smoking and even keep late nights. Others may not register in the university 

health facility. Other may not report at the health facility when sick. The question is often asked: Do 

students know much about school health services available to them The rationale of the study is to know 

how much students know of the school health services available to them, as to form the basis for guiding 

and counseling of students. The focus of this study was to assess student’s benefits of school health 

services in term of their knowledge, attitude and practice of health, and to make comparison between health 

education students in their knowledge, attitude and practice (skills) and their social studies education 

counterpart. The statement of problem in the study was simply put at: Do students’ school health services 

practice in Delta state university justify the aims and objectives of school health services towards 

strengthening national health status 

An individual health status is the ranking of the absence or presence of the determinant of health, which 

according the world health organization (1948), include, the level of physical, mental, and social wellbeing 

plus the absence of disease or infirmity. But what determines an individual health status Ajala (2005) 

stated that the overall health status of a population or of the individual is not a simple task. He stated 

further; 

Many factors must be considered. Factors relating to mortality. 

Such as life expectancy, mortality rate, both total and cause 

specific mortality; infant mortality and maternal mortality are 

frequently used to assess the health of the people in an area. Ajala (2005) pg25 

School health service is a sub – set of school health education, would assess, as to what extent has theses 

aforementioned variables be achieved in the school community. Towards this, school health services 

include pre-entry medical screening, routine screening examination; school health records; sickbay, first 

Aid and referral services. (NSHP 2006). Also included is the provision of advisory and counseling services 

for the school community and parents. The objectives are to provide basic services for disease prevention 

and management of injuries in the school and build capacity of the school community to identify, treat and 

manage simple illness, injuries infections and infestation (NSHP 2006). Personnel for school health 

services include; medical doctors, nurses, health educators, environmental health officers, school guidance 

and counselors, community health workers, dietitians, nutritionists, school teachers and social workers 

(NSHP 2006) 

Various studies have been conducted on school health services. Ademiju and Ayanlaja (2006) assessed 

teachers’ perception of school health services and concluded that public primary school teachers are aware 

of school health services and their benefits to pupils and the school community and that non- provision of 

varied services by school 

health services can negatively affects the quality of services provided in the health facility. Ogwu and 

Ayabiogbe (2010) studied school health services in public and private senior secondary schools and 

observed that health services in Kogi state do not include 

84


frequent measurement of weight and height, inspection of food in public schools, vaccination in public 

schools, health appraisals in private schools, private and provision of potable water and drugs in public 

schools and that both private and public schools have some inadequacy of provision of health services, 

among others. Baba, shehu, Oniyangi (2010) assessed the impact of school health programme on health of 

primary school pupils and observed that school health services provided at school have impact on health 

and well being of primary school pupils. According to the researchers, general health inspection and 

treatment of minor ailments, all of which were directed at promoting health and well being of primary 

school pupils. Siwach (2009) assessed the impact of health education programme on the knowledge and 

practice of school children regarding personal hygiene and observed the need for based school health 

education programme, developed for different age groups and classes will definitely lead to improvement 

in knowledge and practice of school children regarding personal hygiene. 

Research question:-To address this study, two research question two hypotheses were drawn 

1. Will Delta state university students’ attitude and practice of health justify their knowledge of 

school health services towards strengthening national health status 

2. Will Health Education Student’s knowledge, attitude and practice of school health service be 

different from that of their social studies education counter part 

Hypotheses 

1. Student’s health attitude and practice achievement scores will not significantly justify their 

knowledge of school health services towards in strengthening national health status. 

2. There is no significant difference in knowledge, attitude and practice of school health services 

towards strengthening national health status between Health Education Students and Social 

Studies Education students in Delta state University Abraka. 

The purpose of the study was to access student’s knowledge, attitude and practice of school health services 

towards strengthening national health status on one hand and on the other, to make a comparisons in 

knowledge attitude and practice between Health Education Students’ and Students’ of Social Studies 

Education in Delta state University Abraka. 

METHOD 

The study adopted the pre-experiment post-test only nonequivalent groups design. The population was 96 

final year students in department of Physical and Health Education as at 2011 session and 101 students in 

the department of social studies education, making a total of 197 students. A purposive sampling was 

adopted making provision for likely fall out of the study. After administration of post – test, 95 health 

education and 95 social studies education students were finally purposively sampled based on the best 95 

students in each group. Making a total of 190 students. The instrument was a self – design post – test with 

26 question items in four sections. 

Section A (demography) Name, matriculation number, department, programme and set; Section B 

(knowledge) 6 open ended questions, 

Section C (Attitude) 10 closed –end objective questions and 

Section D (practice) 10 questions answering Yes or No 

The questions contain every aspect of school health services in the areas of knowledge, attitude and 

practice. Questions like: 

85


-State 3 main purpose of school Health services,(open – end question) 

-One of the benefits of your knowledge of health inspection is ……. (Closed end question) 

-I check my weight /height /blood pressure to avoid stroke (Yes or No option) 

Scores obtained were referred to as school health services achievement scores. 

The scores instrument was given to two experts in test and measurement and one in Health Education, for 

face and content validity. Minor adjustment were made and accepted for use. The cronbach’s alpha 

statistics was used to ascertain the internal consistency of the instrument. The cronbach alpha was reliable 

at, r =.980. To achieve this, the instrument was administered to degree students of both the experimental 

and control group in college of education, Agbor / Warri – (Abraka external degree programme) prior to 

the study. Cronbach alpha if item is deleted ranged between .978 to .983.Summary items statistics were 

means , 1.634,mininmum, .968, maximum, 4.226, range, 3.258, variance .673, no of items 26. The 

instrument was administered to the students of both groups under extreme examination condition, the same 

day in different places. Both descriptive and inferential statistics of independent t – test and Pearson 

correlation statistics were used to analyses the data at 0.05 alphas. Computer analysis using SPSS version 

16 was used for the data analysis. 

FINDINGS 

One hundred and ninety (190) students, 95 from both the experimental group and the control took the post 

– test. 

Ho I. 

Knowledge Pearson correlation 

N 

Attitude Pearson correlation 

N 

Practice Pearson correlation 

N 

Table 1: Achievement scores correlation of knowledge, 

attitude and practice of school health Services in strengthening national Health status 

Sig (2 tailed) 

Sig.(2 tailed) 

Sig. (2 tailed) 

Knowledge, Attitude & Practice summation Pearson 

correlation 

Sig (2 tailed) 

N 

1 

190 

Knowledge Attitude Practice 

.168* 

.020 

190 

1.97** 

.006 

190 

.877** 

.000 

.168* 

.020 

190 

1 

190 

.256** 

.000 

190 

.480** 

.000 

.197** 

.006 

190 

.256** 

.000 

190 

1 

190 

.506** 

.000 

Knowledge 

attitude and 

practice 

summation 

.877** 

.000 

190 

.480** 

.000 

190 

.506** 

.000 

190 

1 

190 

190 

190 

190 

86


*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed) 

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed) 

Table 1 explains the correlation among knowledge, attitude and practice of school Health Service in 

strengthening National Health status. Knowledge was correlated with attitude and practice at .168 and .197 

respectively and significant at .020 and .006 respectively. Attitude was correlated to knowledge and 

practice at .168* and 256** respectively and significant at .020 and .001 respectively. Practice was 

correlated with knowledge at .197** and .256** respectively and significant at .006 and .001 respectively. 

The summation scores of knowledge, attitude and practice was correlated to knowledge at .877, significant 

at .001, attitude at .480, significant at .001 and practice at .506, significant at .001. 

School health 

services 

Table 2: T–test – analysis of post–test – Health Education Students and Social Studies Education Students 

achievement scores on knowledge, attitude and practice as school Health services towards strengthening 

National Health status. 

N= 95 

Post –test 

Health Education 

Students 

- 

x ± SD 

Post – test 

Social Studies Education 

Students 

- 

x ± SD 

F-value Alpha Sig. 

Knowledge 14.096 ±4.622 10.126±5.560 7.320 .001 S. 

Attitude 7.463 ± 1.449 6.694 ± 1.392 3.726 .001 S. 

Practice 6.326 ± 1.806 5.273 ± 1.340 4.560 .001 S 



S=means significant 

Table 2 reveals that a t-test – post test analysis observed that knowledge achievement scores in the Health 

Education students were significantly different from that of the Social Studies Education students. This was 

also applicable to attitude and practice. In all three variables the experimental group had higher means 

scores than the control group. The t-value was significantly different in all three variables of knowledge, 

attitude and practice. 

DISCUSSION 

In this study, school health education was seen as the overall umbrella of school health services. The 

respondents were significantly knowledge. Hence beneficiaries of Health Education particularly school 

Health Services were conscious of knowledge as the foundation of attitude and practice. Knowledge, 

attitude and practice of school health services were significantly correlated. In other words, students’ 

attitude and practice were reflective of their knowledge of school health services. Knowledge correlated 

attitude and practice, while attitude correlated knowledge and practice. Practice also correlated knowledge 

and attitude. This correlates the claims of Collins (1995) that the school health programme has direct 

bearing on total school activities directed at the development of healthiest individuals. The findings also 

correlated the findings of Baba et al (2010) that school health services provided at school have impact on 

87


health and well-being of pupils. All students in this study, experimental and control showed evidence of 

some knowledge, practice and attitude toward healthy living. This is because health instruction is a 

component part of General studies which a compulsory course in this university. 

It also observed in this study that there was significant difference in knowledge, attitude and practice of 

school health services between Health Education Students and the Social Studies Education students. This 

is so because health education students were direct beneficiaries of school Health services. Not only do 

they benefit as students but also as would be providers. This findings tally with that of Baba et al (2010), 

Ogwu and Ayabiogbe (2010) Siwach (2009) Pauline, Ademijie and Ayanlaja (2006). All who saw school 

health services as having significant impact on the health and well – being of students and the school 

community. This finding also tally with that of schetzina (2009) who in her study provided avenue to 

identified strengths in the school health services as a means of solving obesity in children. 

School health services recognition in this study of influencing student’s knowledge attitude and practice of 

health and well-being will eventually strengthening national health status as it has impact on individual 

health status. An aggregate of students enhanced health status constitute a National health status at national 

level. Student’s knowledge, attitude and practice will in turn reduce total fertility rate, death rate, and 

annual population and increase life expectancy as the school health services improve and impacts on the 

health of citizenry. 

CONCLUSION 

This study has identified students in the university as having knowledge and have positive attitude and 

practice towards health, that various programme of activities in the school community promote health and 

well – being of the school community. Students utility of available services which include health appraisal, 

speech test, auditory and visual examination, treatment of emergencies illness and injuries provide avenue 

for learning, creating, awareness and developing a positive attitude and practice of health. 

It was also observed that students of health education were better equipped than their social studies 

education counterpart on issues boarding on Health Education Students were not just for the school 

community but also for the society at large where they are expected to function on graduation. Their 

participation in school health services become a strong background for the Nation preventive and 

promotive health. Their present’s health status and that of the school community and their duties 

performance in further strengthen national health status 

LIMITATIONS 

This study was university based. The findings cannot be totally applicable to lower schools but the 

recommendations will be beneficial to all levels of education. Although some studies exist in primary 

schools in other state in Nigeria but not much in Delta state. Research effort towards primary secondary 

and vocational institution in Delta state is being recommended. 

88


RECOMMENDATION 

It was recommended that 

1) School health services in the university system be sustained and improved upon to the advantage 

of all within the school community through provision of all factors necessary for the promotion of 

school health services: These include; qualified health teachers school, sick bay or university 

clinics, visiting doctors and Nurses. Provision of First Aid Box and materials and students 

encouragement to participate in school health programme. 

2) Health education students should be given preparation in the school that will make them face the 

challenges as community health extension workers and community guidance and counseling 

health workers, which by their education / duties there suppose to be. 

3) Government should use knowledge, attitude and practice of school health services which already 

exist in Health education students to enhance their productivity on graduation as Health Educators 

towards strengthening national Health status, through their campaign against dirty environment, 

promotion of immunization, campaign against drugs abuse, child trafficking, child abuse and 

utilization of available health services. 

REFERENCES 

Ajala, J.A (2005) Health Education in wellness and sickness: this day, this age. Inaugural lecture of 

University of Ibadan. Ibadan. Print mark Ventures Ltd. P.25 

Ademijiu, P.U. & Ayanlaja. O .A. (2006) Teachers’ perception of school health services in public primary 

schools of Lagos metropolis, Lagos state, Nigeria. West African Journal of physical and Health 

Education. 10. 169-176 

Baba, D.A., Shehu. R.A . & Oniyangi. S.O. (2010) impact of school health education programme on health 

of primatry school pupils in Moro local government, Kwara state, Nigerian Journal of health 

education, 14 (1) 248 -260 

Ogwu, T.N. & Ayabiogbe, C.I. (2010) School health services in public and private senior secondary 

schools in Kogi State. Nigerian Journal of Health Education, 14 (1). 232 - 247 . National School 

Health policy; Federal Ministry of Education, Nigeria. P.26 

Schetzina, K.E; Dalton 111WT, Lowe E.F, Azzay, N, Von Wessowetz, Kin; Givens. C; Stern H.P. 

developing a coordinated school health approach to child obesity prevention in rural Appalachia: 

result of focus groups with teachers, parents and students. Rural and remote Health 9 (online) 

1157. Available from Http://www.rrh.org.au 

Siwach, M. (2009). Impact of health education Programme on the knowledge and practices of school 

children regarding personal hygiene in rural pan pat. International Journal Education Science. 1 

(2) 115-118 

Udoh, C.O, Ajala, J.A Fawole J.O Okafor, C & . Nwama, O. (1987) Fundamentals health Education, 

Ibadan, Heinemann educational books Nig. Ltd. 

World health Organization (WHO) (1948).Official records of the World Health Organization. 

89





ADEDOKUN MARY OLUFUNKE* and OJELEYE JONATHAN ADEMOLA** 

*Faculty of Education, University of Ado Ekiti, Nigeria. 

** Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria 

*E-mail address for correspondence: funkadedokun@yahoo.com 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: The paper examined the role of adult education for the marginalized groups. The groups include women, 

children, school dropout and the disabled to mention but a few. The study was carried out in three states of Nigeria 

namely Oyo, Ogun and Ekiti States in the south western part of Nigeria. The population for the study was all the 

seeming marginalized groups in these states out of which a sample of 251 was used. A self developed questionnaire 

was used to generate responses from the subjects and the data collected were analysed using chi-square statistical 

tool at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that the rights of the marginalized are trampled upon due to 

lack of proper education and so the study recommended that exposure of the marginalized groups to non-formal 

adult education would go a long way in raising their already low-self-esteem to a level where they would be 

involved in enlightened participation in socio-political and economic issues of their societies. 

Key words: Marginalization, Non-Formal Education, Exclusion 

INTRODUCTION 

Marginalization is a cause of wish for death. A marginalized person is one that is not given any form of recognition; 

he/she is one that is possibly attached with socio-political and economic stigma. Theses type of people usually 

suffers poverty, diseases and low-self esteem which eventually lead to depression and ultimately death. 

Marginalization breeds diminished low-self esteem and this hurts relationships and impairs performance in most 

areas of life (Nugosa, 2011). The feeling of low self-esteem is greatest in the marginalized because the media often 

portrays its celebrities as larger than life, leaving others to feel their non inadequacy in contrast to the icons paraded 

before them. To be marginalized therefore is to be forced to occupy the sides or fringes and thus not be at the center 

of things (www.excellup.com). 

In social environment, groups of people, or even communities can be marginalized for example in the states under 

study, rural communities belong to the marginalized groups and in cities, people who migrated from the rural to the 

urban centre in an attempts to avoid the drudgery of life in rural communities, only got to towns to face the stifle of 

91

marginalization. This therefore means whether one lives in the city or rural setting, the marginalized are everywhere 

to be found. 

Causes of marginalization vary but the effect is the same. The great effect of marginalization is that the marginalized 

group always has the experience of being „excluded‟. To a marginalized person, being excluded means a lot; it is 

living as if one is non-existing. Some of the causes of marginalization can be because some people speak different 

language in the midst of a majority. May be they follow different customs or they belong to a different religious 

group from the majority community; people also often feel marginalized when they suffer from the hold of poverty, 

and when they have no jobs. Such people will see themselves as been considered of low social status and are seen as 

“nobody and even less human than others. (Understanding Social Marginalization (www.excellup.com) accessed 19- 

02-11. 

In various societies marginalized groups like women, destitute, school drop out that roam the street, street beggars 

and even the aged and handicapped are all viewed with fear and people are hostile to such group of people. Such 

groups of people do not have access to necessary resources, opportunities and services and so they are unable to 

assert their rights let alone of claiming such. This means that marginalization is accompanied by disadvantages and 

powerlessness. This is as a result of their not having necessary tools that could move them up the social ladder. 

The marginalized are subjected to control by the more powerful and dominant sections of the society. These ones 

enjoy the best of the human rights, because they have access to the best treatment in all spheres of life. They are 

wealthy, better educated and politically powerful and so they have no cause to feel what the marginalized are 

feeling; therefore no good step is being taken to bring succor to the plight of these marginalized group. This analysis 

points to the issue of stratification in our societies in which inequality in terms of services, rights, obligations, power 

and prestige is the order of the day (Oaskinle, Oyeniyi Olanipekun, 2010). To these authors, education is therefore 

viewed as an instrument or asset to move up the social ladder. This therefore means that education plays a 

significant role for social mobility. Morich, (1980) sees social mobility as the movement of an individual from one 

social position to the other which could either be up or down the social stratum. 

This definition implies that for the marginalized group to enjoy wealth, social prestige and power which are hitherto 

not equally enjoyed, they need to be educated because education has the potential of providing opportunity for 

upward mobility. In other words, education changes social structure through social mobility. Education is a 

progressive force and it is the main channel to the social class system (Osakinle et al 2010). 

Reaching and teaching the most marginalized, concept note for the 2010 Global Monitoring Report in 

(www.unesco.org/pdf/gmr/2010/ Reaching and teaching the most marginalized/ Accessed 19-2-11) states that; 

All education systems have to address the problems of marginalization, chronic 

poverty social exclusion, and inequalities linked to gender, race and ethnicity, 

conflict, location and disability can interact to push the disadvantaged groups into 

extreme educational disadvantage. Effective and innovative education policies 

open enormous opportunities for overcoming marginalization…”. 

The report states that the common thread that links each of the groups in the marginalized is that the groups figure 

prominently at the lower end of the distribution for education access and achievement in their respective societies 

and that reaching and providing a meaningful education to the most marginalized poses a distributive set of 

challenges that go beyond promoting equity in general. 

The type of education to be given the marginalized therefore is one that will give these set of people the right 

understanding, mutual fulfillment and self sufficiency (Dan 2010). 

Education to Dewey should be a continuous process because it is a necessary instrument for man‟s actualization of 

himself and so it is a lifelong process. 

Adedokun (1998) quoting the document on the World Declaration on Education for All (1990) states that education 

is not only a social service but a transformative act which is fundamental to social and personal development as 

when there is access to education, there is an increase in social and political awareness and heightened aspirations, 

self assurance and self-assertiveness. 

The above implies that the best type of education for these marginalized groups is adult education. Adult education 

has been described by Omolewa as an instrument for moving forward. To him adult education: 

92

Makes provision and gives access for those who have been kept out of the educational system for various 

reasons. 

Gives opportunity for re-growth to happen 

It helps people tackle whatever problems they are faced with 

It offers people a second chance, its focus is on life-long learning and it provides everyone with the hope to 

live and change the unpalatable situations to better ones. 

Adult education is so wide in scope that it is able to care for everybody within the society through its varied 

programmes and also through it people can make progress in their society. Adult education is democratic and 

empowering. Anyanwu (1992) therefore defines adult education as that education whether formal or otherwise, 

whether they prolong or replace initial education in school as well as in apprenticeship whereby people enrich their 

knowledge, improve their technical or professional qualifications or bring about changes in their attitudes or 

behaviour in a way as to bring about balance and independent, social, economic and cultural development. 

Adult education is therefore needed for the marginalized group. It will empower them to become what they want to 

become and to bring the best solutions to problems besetting them in a bid to move up the social ladder. 


The problem of the marginalized is one that should give cause for thought provoking solutions. The problem is 

majorly what are the causes of marginalization and how can one tackle the problem of marginalization with its 

associated problems 

METHODOLOGY 

Research Design: This study adopted descriptive research design. It was used to collect detailed facts on the study. 

Population 

The population consisted of all the marginalized (school dropout, less privileged men and women, the disabled and 

the street boys and girls). 

Sample 

Random sampling was used to choose two hundred and fifty one (251) subjects for the study from the three states 

under study. 

Instrument 

Questionnaire tagged Adult Education for the Marginalized was used (ADEMQ) was used to elicit responses from 

the subject of the study. The questionnaire items were both in English and Yoruba the mother tongue of the people. 

93

Validity 

The instrument was validated by experts in tests and measurement of the University of Ado Ekiti. 

Reliability: Test re-test method was used on 60 respondents outside the subjects of the study and a reliability 

coefficient of 0.72 was obtained which was good for the study. 

Method of Data Analysis 

The questionnaire items were scored by the respondents item by item making use of the four-point Likert type scale 

of strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A) Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). The results were analysed using chisquare 

statistical tool to determine whether there is a relationship between adult education and upward social 

mobility of the marginalized. 

RESULTS 

The Results are presented below 

Hypotheses 

1. There is no relationship between education and upward social mobility of the marginalized. 

2. There is no relationship between adult education and improved living for the marginalized. 

Presentation of Results 

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant effect of education on the upward social mobility of the marginalized. 

Table 1: Relationship between Education and Upward Social Mobility for the Marginalized 

Items Observed Expected X 2 cal df X 2 tab p 

SD D A SA 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

40 

17 

28 

90 

30 

21 

5 

9 

31 

6 

10 

10 

4 

11 

20 

180 

219 

210 

119 

195 

50.02 

50.02 

50.02 

50.02 

50.02 

299.120 12 21.026 0.000 

As shown in table 1 above X 2 Cal = 299.120 > X 2 tab = 21.026 at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis that 

states that there is no significant effect of education on upward social mobility of the marginalized is rejected while 

the table shows that there is significant influence of education on upward social mobility of the marginalized. 

94

Table above shows that there is a strong relationship between education and upward social mobility. This fact is 

supported by Osakinle et al (2010) that education appears to be the main channel of the social class system. To them 

education helps to break the barriers of mobility and helps one to achieve higher status. When people are educated 

their feeling of being inferior give way to one of superiority and this eventually helps them to perform actively by 

contributing to the development of their society .For the disadvantaged and the powerless to gain power in the 

society therefore, education should be given. Since it may not be easy for everybody to have the opportunity of 

attending schools on a formal basis adult education becomes a better alternative for the marginalized to be educated. 

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant influence of adult education on improved living for the marginalized. 

Table 2: Effect of adult education on improved living for the Marginalized 

Items Observed Expected X 2 cal df X 2 tab p 

SD D A SA 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

26 

10 

29 

12 

37 

21 

17 

8 

7 

25 

23 

14 

19 

3 

27 

181 

210 

195 

299 

162 

50.2 

50.2 

50.2 

50.2 

50.2 

297.319 12 21.026 0.000 

As shown in table 2, X 2 cal = 297.319 > X 2 tab = 21.026 at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis 

that there is no significant influence of adult education on improved living is rejected while the alternate hypothesis 

that there is a significant influence of adult education on improved living is accepted. 

The above table shows there is a strong and reliable relationship between adult education and improved living for 

the marginalized. Therefore, everybody in the society should be made aware of what adult education is all about. 

DISCUSSION 

The research findings reveal that education assumes a degree of importance in the lives of the marginalized. People 

could be relieved of social and political marginalization only through education. Education to the marginalized 

should not be seen as remote, difficult to access and the education of the marginalized should not be of poor quality. 

They should be provided with meaningful education (www.unesco.org – 19-02-11), one that will help them live 

meaningful lives in the society in which they are found and in the world community. 

The study revealed that marginalized adults are often illiterates and lacking opportunities for skills development and 

according to the document “Reaching and Teaching the Marginalized (www.unesco.org), in the area of learning 

achievements, children from marginalized groups are more likely to experience poor quality education and to leave 

school and enter adulthood with poor skills. The only solution to remedy this problem is quality adult education. 

This is supported by Ademola and Adedibu (2008) that adult education is the last chance for learning for those who 

ought to have learnt but due to one problem or the other could not learn at the right time. 

UNESCO in Anyanwu (1992) sees adult education as the entire body of organized educational method whether 

formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial education in schools, colleges or universities as well as 

in apprenticeship whereby persons regarded as adults by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, 

enrich their knowledge, improve their technical or professional qualification or bring about changes in their attitude, 

or behaviours in a way as to bring about changes in their attitudes or behaviours in a way as to bring about balance 

95

and independent social, economic and cultural development. The above indicates that adult education is the last 

hope of the marginalized. Through its various programmes, all the classes of the marginalized could be reached and 

their lives changed for the better. 


Based on the above findings, the following recommendations are made. The government should make sure that 

inclusive policies are made for every member of the society. Creating a sense of exclusion will lead to the 

marginalized not having access to necessary education that could empower them. 

Religion of any kind should not be reasons for low self-esteem and exclusion. Religious leaders should educate their 

members as to the importance of education and should make efforts at providing various educative programmes for 

their members (Non-formal education). 

The marginalized should be educated to see the importance of making themselves available for adult education 

programmes. This is because putting good programmes in place, without participants‟ interest amount to nothing. 

Policies concerning the education of the marginalized should be followed to the letter. The marginalized should 

elevate their status first from their thought by having high esteem about themselves and cast off the low-esteem 

feelings. 

REFERENCES 

Adedokun, M.O. (1998). Contributions of Community Development to Sustained Community Development Project 

in Oyo State 1987-1996. Unpublished Ph.D, Thesis, Ibadan, University of Ibadan. 

Ademola, A.E and Adedibu, M.B. (2008). Contemporary Issues on Education of Special Target Groups, Ibadan, 

Akin Johnson Press and Publishers. 

Ademole and Adedibu (2008): Education of the Marginalized. 

Anyanwu, C.N. (1992) Community Development. The Nigerian Perspective, Ibadan Gabecther Educational 

Publishers. 

Dan, B. Human Education should be Humanistic in www.ashonet.org/conferences/ 2000indiaconf/ paper.htm 

Accessed - 12-12-2010. 

Dewey, J. (1916). The Republic of Plato (trans) London, Oxford University Press. 

Marich, I. (1980). The Sociology of Education London, George Allen and Unwin. 

Melgosa J. (2011). “Jesus Wept”. The Bible and Human Emotions in Adult Sabbath School Bible Study Guide – 

January-March, 2011. pp. 100-103. 

Osakinde, E.O. Oyeniyi P. and Olanipekun J.A. (2010). Fundamentals of Sociology of Education. Ado-Ekiti, Balfak 

Educational Publishers. 

96

Reading and Teaching the Most Marginalized: Concept note for the 2010 global Ministry Report. January 2009 in 

www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTI-MEDIA/HQ/ED/ GMR/pdf/gmr2010-consultationconcept.pdfreaching 

and teaching the most marginalized: Accessed 19-02-11. 

www.excellup.com/marginalizationeight.aspx - Accessed 19-02-11. 

97




VISUAL ACUITY AND MOTOR PERFORMANCE CORRELATES IN BASIC 

EDUCATION SCHOOL CHILDREN OF EDO STATE, NIGERIA 

F.U.OKAFOR* and E.O.AGWUBIKE** 

*Department of Nursing Science, University of Benin, Nigeria 

**Department of Health, Environmental Education and Human Kinetics, 

Faculty of Education, University of Benin, Nigeria 

E-mail address for correspondence: uchendifidelis2001@yahoo.com 

__________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: The study was conducted to investigate the relationship between visual acuity and physical 

performance of students of Universal Basic Education (UBE) in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. It was aimed at 

eliciting relationship and instituting intervention strategies on the students, who performed poorly in the skill 

related activities. A sample of 1,491 students, 771 males and 720 females, from three primary schools and four 

junior secondary schools was recruited. A cross sectional survey involving pre-post test design was used. Data 

were collected from a structured exercise programme involving catching and throwing the ball and the 

assessment of visual acuity of the students by reading the snellen chart. The data were analysed descriptively 

using frequency counts and percentages and inferentially by using correlation to test the hypotheses. The results 

revealed that visual acuity had significant relationship with the indices of physical performance of speed, agility 

and reaction time (skill related fitness) at p


• The body for achieving tactile perception; 

The eye is regarded as the vital organ of vision, which is one of such sense organs. It plays an important role in 

the visualisation of objects in ones environment. The absence of this essential organ of sight results in blindness 

which is regarded as a vision less than visual acuity of 3/60( Vanghan, Riordam-Eva &Asbury, 

1999;Emmette,Cuningham,Lietman & Whitcher,2001). Structurally, the eye is a very sensitive and delicate 

organ, though highly equipped to protect itself from undue injuries and to guide the body to perform a variety of 

motor skills. In motor performance by children, there is need for proper: 

I. Eye-hand-foot co-ordination; 

II. Speed of recognition, and 

III. Balance and Timing (Agwubike, 2005). 

These motor performance requirements are provided in part by the human eye (Vaughans, et al 1999). Limburg 

(1993) indicated that poor vision in childhood will affect performance in school and have a strong negative 

influence on the future life of the child. Vision problems among children have been linked with behavioural risk, 

reduced academic and motor performance and low self-esteem (Johnson,Nottinghan, Stratton, & Zaba, 1996; 

Yawn, Lydick, Epstein, & Jacobsen,1996). It is sometimes being speculated that poor vision may be one of the 

main reasons for some school age children’s drop-out from schools in Nigeria (Okoro & Okafor, 2009). 

Hence, in visual dysfunctionality or disability, the sufferers are rarely identified by most teachers and parents 

thus, leaving such school children in the world of darkness, confusion and frustration. In most instances, they 

are ignorantly blamed for their poor performance in both cognitive and psychomotor tasks as well as other 

mishaps in teaching and learning experiences. Odirin (1998) outlined the implications of poor visual status to 

education as: 

 

 

 

 

Learning difficulties due to visual defects; 

The learner constituting a nuisance to him/herself; 

The learner constituting a nuisance to his /her teacher; and 

The learner acting as nuisance to his/her peers. 

It should, however, be noted that numerous factors influence stress responses emanating from visual problems. 

They include the individuals’ physical and mental condition, age, sex, socioeconomic status, heredity, religious 

affiliation, previous experience with similar stressors and the like. 

Through the process of visual acuity, defective school children are identified and necessary adjustments effected 

in such areas as their sitting arrangements in the classroom, teaching methods, instructional materials in use, and 

health care services offered to them (Okoro & Okafor, 2009). By so doing, the promotion of visual health, 

prevention of eye disease, and provision of therapeutic eye services which are good indices for promoting 

effective and efficient teaching-learning process will positively be geared towards achieving the goal of the 

World Health Organisation’s global initiative for the elimination of avoidable visual problems, especially 

blindness, tagged vision 2020 ‘‘Right to Sight’’. 

Various tests of motor ability for children have been designed in many fields. One of them is measuring motor 

performance quantitatively with speed, distance, accuracy and time. Establishing motor ability quantitatively is 

possible when performance is represented by numerical values thereby producing a relative platform for 

individual or group comparison. Many of these tests are examined in validity, reliability and standardization to 

be used for measuring motor abilities in basic education children. The question that arises is: Do basic education 

school children’s motor performances in Benin metropolis correlate positively with their visual acuities. It is 

against this backdrop that this paper correlates the basic education school children’s visual acuity with some of 

their motor performance indices (speed, agility and reaction time). It is expected that the outcome of this 

screening test will serve as a basis for instituting intervention strategies for not only solving the children’s visual 

problems but also for promoting their visual health and fitness. 

Hypotheses 

The following hypotheses were formulated and tested 

1. There is no positive correlation between the students’ speed of physical performance and their visual 

acuity. 

100


2. There is no positive correlation between the students’ agility and their visual acuity. 

3. There is no positive relationship between the reaction time of the students and their visual acuity. 

Method and Materials: 

A cross sectional survey of male and female school-age children in government (public) basic education schools 

within Benin metropolis of Nigeria was carried out. Basic education in Nigeria school system involves a six 

year primary education and a three year junior secondary school education which is free and compulsory 

(Nigerian Federal Government, 2004). 

Global sampling of public basic education schools within the metropolis was carried out. Private schools were 

not included in the study due to the high disparity in economic status of parents of children attending such 

schools as against those in public schools. A total of 1,491 school-age children (771 males and 720 females) 

were randomly drawn from the seven basic education schools in Benin metropolis as the study sample. The ages 

of the males and females ranged between six and twelve years with a mean age of 10.2 years for the males and 

9.9 years for the females. Informed consent forms were given to the children which were filled by their parents. 

Permission was also obtained from the head teachers of the schools and the chairman of the Basic Primary 

Education Board. 

The screening test was pre-tested as a pilot survey at public basic education school about two kilometres from 

the metropolis before the actual survey was carried out. 

Data collection procedure involved the collection of data in two phases namely: 

I. Structured exercise programme, in terms of structured throwing and catching, and. 

II. Screening for ocular problems/diseases (i.e. measurement of visual acuity). 

Structured Exercise Programme: The throwing of the ball was done by the researcher who performed the 

throws to the children to ensure uniformity and efficiency of the throws. In throwing, the researcher adopted two 

phases: 

 

 

Phase1 required throws to be performed from a three metre distance; and 

Phase2 involved a six metre distance throws. 

In each phase, the researcher grasped the ball with the right fingers slightly spread; the right elbow bent and 

raised almost to shoulder level. As the elbow was drawn back, the hand reached the shoulder, the elbow was 

straightened, the trunk was rotated slightly to the right and back, and also inclined sideward so that the right 

shoulder was lower than the left. The weight was on the right foot. The left arm was extended, the foot just 

touching. 

The throw was accomplished by bringing the right arm forward with the elbow leading at shoulder height for a 

short time. The arm was then extended and the hand whipped through rapidly. This arm action was 

accompanied by a rotation of the trunk to the left. When the ball was released with a snap of the wrist, the hand 

was in front of the shoulder, the trunk was forward, and the weight was then transferred to the forward (left) 

foot. All balls were thrown above the children’s waist level, preferably toward the chest level. 

There was a follow-through which involved the right arm becoming fully extended, the trunk continuing its 

rotation to the left with the left arm swinging backward, and frequently the weight of the body falling forward, 

resulting in a step on the right foot. 

In catching by children, the hands were held forward of the body with the elbows held in to maintain balance 

when moving in any direction to meet the ball. The ball, and the hands and arms brought towards the body 

(give) with the ball or move in the direction in which the ball was travelling. The player/child was advised to 

relax and keep his/her eye on the ball so that its (ball’s) position was known until it was caught. The caught ball 

was held for three seconds (until the researcher’s command for its release). Each child was allowed twenty 

catches at the three metre distance in the first turn. Then after all have completed the first turn, another twenty 

catches at the six metre distance were performed. 

101


Measurement of Visual Acuity: 

The visual acuity was tested in each eye separately, in line with Smith (1995), Darling and Thorpe, (1975), and 

Garland’s, 1995) recommendation. This was measured with a Snellen chart showing letters. If the vision was 

very poor, and the child could not even see the largest letter on the Snellen chart, other tests involving 

Picture/natural object were introduced. The children were tested at two different standard distances of six and 

three metres. Near each line on the chart was a small number indicating the distance (in meters) at which the 

child with normal sight should be able to clearly see that line. 

If the child could only see the top letter of the chart, his/her vision was 6/60. This means that at six meters 

he/she could see a letter that a normal person can see at sixty metres. If he/she could see as far as the second 

line, his/her vision was 6/36, and so on. The top number of the fraction is the distance between the children and 

the chart. The bottom number is the number of the smallest line of letters the child could read. An adolescent 

child with normal sight should reach the line which was marked with a six. This was a 6/6 very good vision 

If the vision was below 6/60 and the child could not even see the top letter, he/she w as requested to go nearer 

the chart until he/she was able to see it. If he/she saw it at two meters, his/her vision was 2/60. If he/she could 

only see it at one metre, his/her vision was 1/60. Another method used for testing the children with poor vision 

less than 6/60 was to ask the children to count the fingers (CF) held up in front of their eyes by the researcher. 

The human finger was about the same size as the top letter on the chart and so counting fingers at six metres was 

about equal to 6/60 vision. Counting fingers at one metre distance was therefore the same as 1/60. 

If the vision was below 1/60 and the child was still able to detect the movement of the hand in front of his/her 

eye, a hand movement (HM) was recorded. If the subject could not even see HM, the final test was to shine a 

light into his/her eye and see if she/he could perceive the light, referred to as light perception (LP). If there was 

PL, it was important for further test if the child could identify the direction the light was coming from, termed 

‘projection of light’. The light was shone from all four quadrants of the child’s vision: top left, top right, bottom 

left, and bottom right. Good projection indicated that the retina and optic nerve were functioning normally. 

Therefore, the defect was probably opacity in the cornea, lens and/or vitreous body, and was regarded as 

treatable. Poor projection of light indicated retinal or optic nerve disease, and was regarded as probably 

untreatable. 

Any child with defective visual acuity was tested again through a pinhole. This minimised any refractive error 

by narrowing the beam of light entering the eye, the blurred area on the retina becoming smaller, and so the 

object appeared clearer. If the visual acuity improved when the child looked through a pinhole, it indicated an 

error of refraction, which spectacle could correct. If there was no improvement, then the loss of vision was 

regarded to emanate from eye diseases. 

If the child could not identify different symbols on the chart, in terms of ‘‘E’’ or ‘‘C’’, pointing in different 

directions was used. The child was requested to hold a card with the letter on it, and was instructed to turn it so 

that it matches each symbol on the chart. 

Plan for data analysis: The data were generated in both absolute and relative terms. The absolute points 

represent the number of points realised from twenty catches in each phase. The relative points were got by 

multiplying the absolute point with the designated scales, in which: 

‣ A good or clean catch was scored three points; 

‣ A fumbled catch attracted two points, and 

‣ A missed catch attracted one point. 

The data realised through this process were analysed with percentages and further correlated with data arising 

from the ocular screening. The scores generated from ocular screening were correlated with those obtained from 

physical performance indices of speed, agility, and reaction time using SPSS modality. 

102


Results: The study revealed the findings shown in tables 1 -3. 

Table 1: Distribution of respondents according to their visual acuities 

Visual Acuities F % % Vision Remarks 

6/4-6/5 857 57.5 150-120 Very Good Vision 

6/6 443 29.7 100 

6/9-612 118 7.9 66.6-50 Good Vision 

6/18-6/24 44 3.0 33.3-25 Poor Vision 

6/36-6/60 16 1.1 16.6-10 Very Poor Vision 

HM-NPL 13 0.9 8.3-0 

Total 1491 100 

Source: Fieldwork. 

Table1 shows that respondents with very good vision (100 to 150%) had frequency of 1300(87.2%) followed by 

respondents with good vision (50 to 66.6%) that recorded a frequency of 188(7.9%) and the least being the 

respondents with very poor vision (0 to 16.6%) who had a frequency of 29(2%). Poor vision (25-33.3% vision) 

however featured 44 respondents which represents 3% of the sample. 

Testing of Hypotheses 

Hypothesis1: There is no positive correlation between the students’ speed of physical performance and their 

visual acuity. 

Table 2: Pearson Product-Moment Correlation (PPMC) of visual acuity with speed of movement 

Variables N Mean Std. D r Coevar p Remarks 

Visual 

Acuity 

1491 1.63 0.93 

Speed 1491 14.64 1.42 0.753 56.7% 0.000 Sign. 

Table2 reveals that there is positive correlation between the physical performance and visual acuity. Therefore, 

hypothesis 1 was rejected, since r=0.753; p


Table3 reveals that there is significant positive correlation between the agility of students’ physical performance 

and their visual acuity, displayed as (r=0.836; p


and other health personnel in sport medical unit should be encouraged to regularly check the UBE student 

athletes’ visual acuity in order to design structured exercise programme as a corrective measure for those with 

defective vision. 

There is the need for physical and health educators to continually promote eye fitness of UBE children in 

Nigeria. It is well recognised that visual screening is most effective in the preschool and early childhood years 

because in the early years such problems are most amenable to treatment and early identification. Moreover, 

treatment of many such conditions can prevent irreversible vision loss. Yet, despite the importance of early 

screening and the fact that vision problems among children seem to be on the increase in Nigeria, school-age 

children in Nigeria are denied this vital aspect of health care. It should be noted that children are the least likely 

age group to visit an eye professional. School vision screenings will remain an important safety net for many 

children, but these screenings occur too late for early detection of many serious eye or visual problems. 

Prevention of vision problems and their consequences require timely detection. Here calls for the role of nursing 

and health education which provide the best opportunity for effective and inexpensive approach to vision 

reaction time. 

The preventive component of health care is a vital organ of eye health education, which should involve: 

• Vitamin A deficiency education. Vitamin rich foods are rarely consumed by children in most rural and 

urban communities despite some being available free of cost in the villages or at low price (e.g. pawpaw 

fruits i.e. papaya). This lapse is mainly due to children lack of dietary knowledge, ignorance or a 

lack of advice from health authorities. Arrangements to organise vitamin A supplements in school midday 

meals by UBE health centres should be instituted. 

• Small songs and dramas impart eye health and dietary education to UBE school children should be 

practised. 

• There should be screening system through the school teachers. In order to achieve this goal, such 

teachers need special training in which the objectives of school eye screening programme and the role 

teachers can play in the programme are well spelt out. A little theoretical information on vision and the 

functioning of human eye will be given. The ways children suspected of having poor vision would be 

examined by the Paramedical Ophthalmic Assistant (PMOA) and eye defective children should be 

provide with spectacles. 

• Child-to- Child approach of spreading exercise promotion and visual message is equally helpful. UBE 

teachers will be instructed on how to teach children to carry out eye screening. After such exercise 

promotion and ocular screening training, teachers go back to their respective schools and conducts the 

screening programme. Good coordination with PMOA is very important at this stage, because the 

teacher has to provide the service of examining the eyes and prescribing spectacles. 

REFERENCES 

Agwubike, E.O.(2005). Physiology of physical activities: Theory through question and answer approach. Benin 

city:Osusu Publishers . 

Chandna A. & Gilbert C. (2010) When your eye patient is a child. Community Eye Health (23)72:1. 

Darling, V & Thorpe, M. (1975). Ophthalmic Nursing, London: Fakenhan Press Ltd. 

Emmette, T; Cuningham Jr: LietmanT.M. & Whitcher, J.P. (2001). Blindness: A global priority for the twentyfirst 

Century Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 79 (3): 180. 

Garland, P. l. (1995). Ophthalmic Nursing London: Faber and Faber. 

Guyton, M.D. (1981) Medical Physiology, London: W.B. Saunder Company. 

Johnson, R; Nottinghan, D; Stratton, R. & Zaba, J. (1996). The Vision Screening of Academically and 

Behaviourally at Risk-Student. Journal of Behavioural Optometry, 7 (2). 

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Limbury, H. (1993). School Eye Screening, Community Eye Health, 6: (11), 12 – 14 

Nigeria Federal Government (2004) The National Policy on Education, Abuja. 

Okoro F.I. & Okafor U.F. Ocular Screening among Pupils in Public Primary Schools in Edo State of 

Nigeria,Pakistan Journal of Nutrition8(9):1446-1449. 

Odirin, O. (1998). An Introduction to Special Education, Benin City: Bellio Publisher. 

Ross, J.S. & Wilson, J.W. (2000). Foundations of Anatomy and Physiology, London: Churchill and Livingstone. 

Smith. M.C. & Maure, F.A. (1995) Community Health Nursing Theory Practices. U.S.A: Saunders, Company. 

Vaughan, D.T. Asbury P. Riordan-Era (1999) General Ophthalmology U.S.A. Appleton and Lange. 

Walsh.M& Crumbie A. (2007) Watson’s Clinical Nursing and related Sciences. U.S.A. Bailliere Tindall. 

Yawn, B. P; Lydick, E.G; Epstein, R. & Jacobsen, S.J. (1996). Is School Vision Effective Journal of School 

Health 66 (5) 

106




DESIGNING AND VALIDATING A SOCIAL CAPITAL SCALE WITHIN A GRADE 

SPECIFIC CONTEXT 


Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran 

E-mail address for correspondence: ekhodadady@ferdowsi.um.ac.ir 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: This study designed a 40-item social capital scale (SCS) and explored its reliability and factorial validity 

by administering it to one thousand three hundred and fifty two grade three high school students in Mashhad, Iran. 

The internal consistency analysis and application of the Principal Axis Factoring to the data and rotating the 

extracted factors via Varimax with Kaiser Normalization showed that the SCS is a highly reliable scale which 

consists of ten factors, i.e., Self Volunteering, Receptive Relatives, Maternal Supervision, Parental Monitoring, 

Teacher Consultation, Parental Expectation, Parental Rapport, Family Religiosity, Helpful Others, and Parent 

Availability. Further analysis of factors revealed that they were reliable and correlated significantly with the SCS 

and each other. The implications of the findings are discussed and suggestions are made for future research. 

Keywords: Social capital, factor analysis, parents, grade three high school students 

__________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

Human beings are by their very nature social. In order to lead a peaceful life and fulfill their economic, educational, 

political, and psychological needs, they have to live together and cooperate with each other. Living together also 

provides humans with various opportunities to build social capitals or “networks, norms, and trust” (Putnam, 1996, 

p. 56) through which they can address their higher and future needs or objectives. These reasons have prompted 

scholars in various fields to study the capitals and explore their relationship with variables such as academic 

achievement. 

Khodadady and Zabihi (2011), for example, investigated the underlying factors of a 35-item Social and Cultural 

Capital Questionnaire (SCCQ) in Persian and explored their relationships with the academic achievement of Iranian 

university students. The administration of the SCCQ to 403 undergraduate and graduate university students in 

Mashhad, Iran, resulted in the extraction of ten factors, i.e., Literacy, Parental Consultation, Family-School 

Interaction, Family Support, Extracurricular Activities, Family Relationship, Parent-School Encouragement and 

Facility, Cultural Activities, Peer Interaction and Religious Activities. Among these, Khodadady and Zabihi could 

107


establish significant relationships between the students‟ GPA and Parent-School Encouragement and Facility (r = 

.33, p


The social capital scale designed in this study involves parents being at home (e.g., Morgan, & Scrensen, 1999), 

parents‟ educational encouragements (e.g., Furnstenberg, & Hughes, 1995), parent-child talk (e.g., Yan, 1999), 

parents‟ keeping track of their children‟s progress (e.g., Lopez, 1996), parents‟ help with the homework (e.g., 

Wright, Cullen, & Miller, 2001), parents‟ control (e.g., White, & Glick, 2000), family cohesion (e.g., Parcel, & 

Dufur, 2001), parents‟ expectations (e.g., Carbonaro, 1998; Muller, & Ellison, 2001), friends‟ expectations (e.g., 

Stanton-Salazar, & Dornbusch,1995), mothers‟ attendance of school meetings (e.g., Pong, 1998), mothers‟ 

familiarity with children‟s friends (e.g., McNeal, 1999), visiting grandparent (e.g., Bianchi, & Robinson, 1997), 

calling friends and relatives (e.g., Bullen & Onyx, 1998), visiting relatives and neighbours (e.g., Morrow, 2001), 

extent of parental acquaintance (e.g., Israel, Beaulieu, & Hartless, 2001), religious involvement (e.g., Candland, 

2000; Putnam, 200; Smith, Beaulieu & Israel, 1992), participation in extracurricular activities (e.g., Hao, & 

Bonstead-Burns, 1998), school environment (e.g., Muller, 2001), teachers‟ role (e.g., Onyx, J. & Bullen, 1998), 

trusting people (e.g., Dyk & Wilson, 1999), being valued by society (e.g., Blaxter et al, 2001), being socially 

responsible (e.g., Bullen & Onyx, 1998), expressing feelings (e.g., Garmoran & Lopez, 2007), social integration 

(e.g., Carmo, 2010), school quality (e.g., Hughes, 1995) and social satisfaction (Blaxter et al, 2001) 

The capitals cited in the previous paragraph and reviewed by Dika and Singh (2002) in some details were expressed 

in forty Persian statements comprising the SCS. Every attempt was made to make the structure and style of the 

statements as simple as possible so that they could be easily understood by grade three high school students without 

any ambiguity. Each capital was then presented on a scale consisting of six points, i.e., never, seldom, sometimes, 

usually, often, and always. The values of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 were assigned to these points, respectively. (The capitals 

along with the factors upon which they have loaded are given in the results section.) 

Procedure 

The nine educational districts of Mashhad were classified into low, middle and high class areas by consulting the 

education organization. From each area one district was then chosen on the basis of their comparability, i.e., the 

number of high schools and student population. This process resulted in the selection of districts 5, 9 and 4 being 

populated by low, middle and high class families, respectively. The types of schools in the selected areas were then 

taken into account and the gifted, private, religious and semi private schools were all excluded from analysis as 

shown Table 1. 

Table 1: School Type in the three selected low, middle and high social class schools 

School type Frequency No of students Girls Boys 

Gifted 2 235 122 113 

Private 24 1283 926 357 

Religious 4 369 209 160 

Semi-State 3 1857 84 103 

State 65 5721 3788 1993 

Total 98 7795 5129 2726 

Upon specifying the type and number of schools in districts 5, 9 and 4, the gifted, private, religious and semi-state 

schools were excluded from the present research because of their offering different syllabi and charging the well-todo 

families for educating their children. The statistics related to the 65 state high schools were then obtained. The 

researchers first decided to choose ten percent of grade three high school students as their sample. It was, however, 

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noticed that the number of students differed drastically from school to school. In order to make the sample as 

representative as possible, each district was also divided into the three social classes in consultation with the 

authorities and then the data were collected from the schools with the largest number of students resulting in the 

selection of more than 20% of the whole population of grade three high school students in Mashhad in 2010. 

Data Analysis 

The descriptive as well as inferential statistics of the forty social capitals were estimated by utilizing IBM SPSS 

statistics 19.0. The internal consistency of the SCS was estimated via Cronbach‟s Alpha and the Pearson Product 

Moment Correlation was employed to explore the relationships among the capitals. For extracting the factors 

underlying the SCS, Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) was followed by adopting the Eigenvalues of 1 and higher as 

the criterion to determine the number of factors. They were then rotated via Varimax with Kaiser Normalization to 

study the structure of factors upon which the capitals loaded acceptably, i.e., .30 and higher. The three hypotheses 

below were followed to present and discuss the results. 

H1. The Social Capital Scale (SCS) will be more reliable than the Social Capital Sub Scale (SCSS) of Social and 

Cultural Capital Questionnaire (SCCQ). 

H2. The 40 items comprising the SCS will correlate highly among themselves. 

H3. The factors extracted from the SCS will correlate significantly with each other. 


The internal consistency analysis of the SCS showed that it is highly reliable, i.e., α = 0.89. The Cronbach‟s Alpha 

of SCS is slightly higher than the coefficients obtained by Khodadady and Zabihi (2011) on the 35-item Social and 

Cultural Capital Questionnaire (SCCQ), 0.87, and its 24-item Social Capital subscale (SCSS), i.e., .85, when they 

administered it to 403 undergraduate and graduate students. Similarly, Khodadady, Alaee and Natanzi (2011) 

[henceforth KAN11] estimated almost the same coefficients for the same SCCQ, .87, and SCSS, 0.84 upon 

administering it to 706 high school students. The results of the present study, therefore, confirm the first hypothesis 

that the SCS will be more reliable than the SCSS of SCCQ. 

Upon establishing the reliability of the SCS, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of Sampling Adequacy was 

utilized to find out whether employing factor analysis to extract its latent variables was appropriate. Since the KMO 

statistic obtained in this study was in the .80s, i.e., .86, it was considered „meritorious” (Kaiser, 1974 as cited in 

DiLalla & Dollinger, 2006, p. 250) and its sample was treated as adequate. The significant Bartlett‟s Test of 

Sphericity, i.e., X 2 = 12964.176, df = 780, p < .0001, indicated that the correlation matrix was not an identity matrix. 

Table 2 presents the ordered initial and extracted communalities obtained from the 40 capitals comprising the SCS. 

As can be seen, the extraction communalities range from .68 (capital 22) to .12 (capital 2) and thus challenge 

Costello and Osborne‟s (2005) suggestion of .40 to.70 as common magnitudes in social science research. The 

findings of the present study are to some extent in line with the lowest extraction communality found by Khodadady 

(2010), i.e., .29, and suggest that .40 needs to be reduced to .12. 

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Table 2: Forty capitals (C), the Initial Communalities (IC) and 

extracted communalities (EC) obtained via Principle Axis Factoring 

C IC EC C IC EC C IC EC C IC EC 

05 .527 .596 31 .363 .469 24 .333 .467 29 .267 .351 

06 .454 .564 15 .359 .498 23 .319 .383 26 .257 .308 

20 .411 .514 14 .357 .428 36 .316 .362 19 .246 .279 

35 .409 .489 10 .356 .446 39 .309 .370 12 .230 .252 

04 .403 .465 09 .351 .402 30 .307 .460 17 .205 .273 

18 .393 .540 32 .343 .365 08 .303 .347 07 .202 .229 

11 .391 .560 25 .337 .427 34 .301 .360 03 .173 .186 

22 .390 .678 13 .337 .414 37 .287 .309 01 .158 .234 

40 .378 .453 28 .333 .414 33 .286 .365 16 .152 .169 

21 .375 .434 38 .333 .395 27 .274 .341 02 .107 .120 

The low extraction communalities (ECs) obtained in this study seem to be more common than what is suggested in 

the literature (e.g., Costello and Osborne, 2005). Khodadady and Ghahari (2011), for example, obtained the ECs 

ranging from .57 to .32 when they administered the 20-item Persian version of Cultural Intelligence Scale (CQS) to 

854 undergraduate and graduate university students in Iran. Since the SCS is twice the size of the CQS and covers 

more divergent topics than the CQS does, the ECs ranging from .60 to .12 must be a common feature in social 

studies. 

Table 3 presents the ordered 780 correlation coefficients (CCs) and their frequency (F) and percentage (P). As can 

be seen, the magnitude of CCs ranges from -.01 to .56 (Mean = .17, SD = .09). Out of 780 CCs, only 67 (8.6%) 

reach .30 and higher, indicating that the 40 SC items are addressing divergent capitals and are thus quite 

heterogamous in nature. They also disconfirm the second hypothesis that the 40 items comprising the SCS will 

correlate highly among themselves. 

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Table 3: The frequency (F), percent (P) and cumulative percent (CP) of 780 

ordered correlation coefficients (CC) obtained among the 40 capitals comprising the SCS. 

CC F P CP CC F P CP CC F P CC F P CP 

.56 1 .1 .1 .35 4 .5 3.8 .22 23 2.9 25.3 .09 42 5.4 86.5 

.53 2 .3 .4 .34 2 .3 4.1 .21 31 4.0 29.2 .08 26 3.3 89.9 

.51 2 .3 .6 .33 7 .9 5.0 .20 34 4.4 33.6 .07 15 1.9 91.8 

.48 1 .1 .8 .32 7 .9 5.9 .19 34 4.4 37.9 .06 19 2.4 94.2 

.46 2 .3 1.0 .31 12 1.5 7.4 .18 42 5.4 43.3 .05 10 1.3 95.5 

.44 1 .1 1.2 .30 9 1.2 8.6 .17 33 4.2 47.6 .04 11 1.4 96.9 

.43 1 .1 1.3 .29 15 1.9 10.5 .16 38 4.9 52.4 .03 7 0.9 97.8 

.42 2 .3 1.5 .28 13 1.7 12.2 .15 53 6.8 59.2 .02 10 1.3 99.1 

.40 4 .5 2.1 .27 11 1.4 13.6 .14 30 3.8 63.1 .01 5 0.6 99.7 

.39 2 .3 2.3 .26 21 2.7 16.3 .13 44 5.6 68.7 .00 1 0.1 99.9 

.38 4 .5 2.8 .25 13 1.7 17.9 .12 37 4.7 73.5 -.01 1 0.1 100.0 

.37 3 .4 3.2 .24 17 2.2 20.1 .11 32 4.1 77.6 Total 780 100.0 

.36 1 .1 3.3 .23 17 2.2 22.3 .10 28 3.6 81.2 

Table 4 presents the ten factors extracted from the SCS via PAF rotated through Varimax with Kaiser 

Normalization. As can be seen, all forty capitals have loaded acceptably on the ten factors and thus shown their 

contribution to the scale validated in this study. Among them only capital five, My mother keeps track of my 

progress, has cross loaded on three factors, i.e., 3, 4 and 6. As can be seen in Table 1, this particular capital has the 

largest extraction communality among the others which might explain why it cross loads on more than two factors. 

Similarly, six items cross loaded on two factors, i.e., 21, 24, 29, 35, 36 and 39. 

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Table 4: Rotated factors extracted from the 40 capitals (C) comprising the SCS via PAF 

C 

Factors 

Factors 

C 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

1 * * * * * * * * * .42 21 * .32 * * * * * .52 * * 

2 * * * * * * * * * .32 22 * * * * * * * .76 * * 

3 * * * * * .34 * * * * 23 * * * * .33 * * .45 * * 

4 * * * .52 * * * * * * 24 .46 * * * .33 * * * * * 

5 * * .38 .56 * .32 * * * * 25 * * * * .44 * * * * * 

6 * * * .63 * * * * * * 26 * * * * .44 * * * * * 

7 * * * .38 * * * * * * 27 * * * * .49 * * * * * 

8 * * .42 * * * * * * * 28 * * * * .54 * * * * * 

9 * * * * * * .44 * * * 29 * * * * .35 * * * .44 * 

10 * * * * * .59 * * * * 30 * * * * * * * * .61 * 

11 * * * * * .70 * * * * 31 * * * * * * * * .54 * 

12 * * * * * .35 * * * * 32 .38 * * * * * * * * * 

13 * * .56 * * * * * * * 33 .52 * * * * * * * * * 

14 * * .56 * * * * * * * 34 .50 * * * * * * * * * 

15 * * .68 * * * * * * * 35 * * * .37 * * .44 * * * 

16 * .32 * * * * * * * * 36 * * * * .32 * .35 * * * 

17 * .44 * * * * * * * * 37 .41 * * * * * * * * * 

18 * .68 * * * * * * * * 38 .47 * * * * * * * * * 

19 * .42 * * * * * * * * 39 * * * * .32 * .37 * * * 

20 * .64 * * * * * * * * 40 * * * * * * .54 * * * 

* Loadings less than .30 

Cross loading items have stayed unaddressed in social sciences in general and applied linguistics in particular as if 

they did not occur in any studies. Moafian and Pishghadam (2008), for example, compiled a questionnaire dealing 

with the characteristics of successful teachers and extracted 12 factors upon which no item cross loaded. Khodadady 

(2010), however, extracted only five factors from the same questionnaire upon which 29 characteristics (62%) cross 

loaded on at least two factors. Based on his findings, Khodadady suggested that cross loading items be reported for 

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three main reasons, i.e., 1) they contribute to the factors upon which they cross load, 3) they increase the reliability 

of factors, and 3) they provide the necessary background to explore the contexts in which they cross load. 

Table 5 presents the descriptive statistics of ten factors extracted in the present study. (The descriptive statistics of 

the capitals have been given in Appendix.) As can be seen, the fourth and tenth factors are the most and least reliable 

factors underlying the SCS, i.e., .73 and .40, respectively. Since factor ten consists of only two capitals, its low 

reliability sounds quite plausible. The eight remaining factors, however, show acceptable reliability coefficients 

ranging from .60 to .72. The ten factors together explain 54.1% and 39.2% of variance in the SCS when they are 

initially extracted and rotated, respectively. 

Factors 

# of 

Capitals 

Table 5: Descriptive statistics of ten factors underlying the SCS 

Mean SD α 

Eigenv 

alue 

% of 

Variance 

Cumulativ 

e % 

Eigenv 

alue 

% of 

Variance 

Cumulativ 

e % 

1 6 27.67 5.598 .70 7.956 19.891 19.891 1.955 4.887 04.887 

2 5 18.43 5.470 .65 2.480 6.199 26.090 1.937 4.843 09.730 

3 4 17.86 4.728 .70 1.891 4.727 30.816 1.789 4.472 14.202 

4 4 14.72 4.907 .73 1.755 4.389 35.205 1.772 4.431 18.633 

5 4 13.31 4.397 .63 1.654 4.136 39.341 1.757 4.393 23.026 

6 5 20.12 4.416 .60 1.394 3.486 42.827 1.745 4.362 27.388 

7 5 21.01 5.439 .72 1.232 3.079 45.906 1.472 3.679 31.067 

8 3 12.12 3.594 .66 1.156 2.890 48.796 1.383 3.458 34.525 

9 3 9.13 3.686 .64 1.074 2.685 51.481 1.194 2.984 37.510 

10 2 7.52 2.115 .40 1.045 2.611 54.092 .710 1.775 39.285 

SCS 40 161.89 27.719 .89 

Table 6 presents the six acceptably loading capitals (ALCs) on the first factor extracted and called Self Volunteering 

in this study, i.e., 24, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38. Capital 24 is the only one which cross loads acceptably on the fifth factor as 

well, indicating that high school students studying EFL get involved in extracurricular activities partly because they 

are ready to help (and possibly be helped by) others. As can be seen, capital 33, When needed, I will help my 

townspeople, has the highest loading, i.e., 0.52, on factor one and thus emphasizes the fact that students will help 

their townspeople and turn into responsible citizens when they have strong friendship with others and feel valued by 

them. While the findings of KAN11 specifies Family-School Interaction as the main factor of social capital for high 

school students, the present study replaces it with Self Volunteering for the grade three high school students. 

Table 6: Acceptably loading capitals on the first factor Self Volunteering 

No Capital Loading 

33 When needed, I will help my townspeople. 0.52 

34 I know my responsibilities as a citizen and perform them completely. 0.50 

38 My friends have strong ties with me. 0.47 

114


24 I like to get involved in extracurricular activities. 0.46 

37 While shopping, if I see a friend or an acquaintance I will run to him/her. 0.41 

32 I feel valued by society. 0.38 

Table 7 presents the five ALCs on the second factor extracted and called Receptive Relatives in this study. As can be 

seen, capital 18, We regularly visit our relatives, has the highest loading on factor two, i.e., 0.68, emphasizing the 

fact that students practice socialization with their relatives first and then extend it to friends, acquaintances, 

neighbors and grandparents. Similar to the first factor, Receptive Relatives replaces the second factor of KAN11, 

i.e., Facility Consciousness, emphasizing the validation of social measures with specifically more homogeneous 

samples. While the present study highlights the importance of relatives as social capitals for grade three high school 

students, KAN11‟s findings turn the light to the quality of schools. 

Table 7: Acceptably loading capitals on the second factor Receptive Relatives 


17 I call my friends and acquaintances regularly. 0.44 

19 We regularly visit our neighbors. 0.42 

16 I see my grandparents weekly. 0.32 

20 We have many friends and acquaintances and keep in touch with them. 0.64 

18 We regularly visit our relatives. 0.68 

Table 8 presents the four ALCs on the third factor extracted and called Mothers’ Supervision in this study. As can be 

seen, capital 15, My mother supervises my school affairs more than my father, has the highest loading on factor three 

(.68), emphasizing the pivotal role of mothers‟ supervision and its close relationship with students‟ friendship, 

behaviors and whereabouts. The extraction of this factor highlights the importance of mother‟s supervision not only 

in their children‟s schooling but also in their social life. 

Table 8: Acceptably loading capitals on the third factor Maternal Supervision 


8 My parents know where I am and what I do. 0.42 

13 During my education, my mother has taken part in school meetings. 0.56 

14 My mother knows most of my friends. 0.56 

15 My mother supervises my school affairs more than my father. 0.68 

Table 9 presents the four ALCs on the fourth factor extracted and called Parental Monitoring in this study. As can 

be seen, capital 6, My father keeps track of my progress, loads the highest on factor four (.63) and highlights the 

importance of Parental Monitoring of what they do in school and what they intend to do in future. Since capital 35, I 

easily talk about my feelings with my parents, cross loads on this factor, parents must know that their monitoring 

must be based on a strong rapport with their children. 

Table 9: Acceptably loading capitals on the fourth factor Parental Monitoring 

115



7 My parents help me with my homework. 0.38 

4 I usually talk to my parents about my future feature job and education. 0.52 

5 My mother keeps track of my progress. 0.56 

6 My father keeps track of my progress. 0.63 

Table 10 presents the four ALCs on the fifth factor extracted and called Teacher Consultation in this study. As can 

be seen, capital 28, I consult my teachers when I have a problem, has the highest loading on factor five (.54), 

showing the distinct and significant role the teachers play in students‟ school activities. Since capitals 23, 24, 29, 36, 

39 cross load on this factor and they all deal with schools and their environment, more attention must be paid to 

teachers to enhance their contribution to students‟ success. Future research must reveal whether Teacher 

Consultation is significantly related to school achievements. 

Table 10: Acceptably loading capitals on the fifth factor Teacher Consultation 


26 Generally, we have intimate school environment. 0.44 

25 I participate in school activities. 0.44 

27 I like my teachers. 0.49 

28 I consult my teachers when I have a problem. 0.54 

Table 11 presents the four ALCs on the sixth factor extracted and called Parental Expectation in this study. As can 

be seen, capital 11, My parents expect me to be accepted in a very good field at university, has the highest loading 

on factor six (.70). Two other capitals loading on this factor specify being top in the school and continuing studies as 

what the parents expect their children to do. However, the third highest loading capital, i.e., 12 (.35), deals with 

friends‟ expectations. These expectations must however be accompanied by proper monitoring as reflected in the 

acceptably cross loading capital five. 

Table 11: Acceptably loading capitals on the sixth factor Parental Expectation 


3 My parents encourage me to continue my study. 0.34 

12 My friends expect me to be accepted in a good field at university. 0.35 

10 My parents expect me to be among the top students in my class. 0.59 

11 My parents expect me to be accepted in a very good field at university. 0.70 

Table 12 presents the five ALCs on the seventh factor extracted and called Parental Rapport in this study. As can be 

seen, capital 40, Generally, I am satisfied with my social life, has the highest loading on factor seven (.54) preceded 

by capitals 35 and 9 relating satisfaction with social life to the ease with which students can talk about their feelings 

within an intimate and warm family environment. These results show that that grade three students become satisfied 

with their social life whenever parents choose appropriate schools, put their trust in them and create an intimate 

environment in the family where their children can express their feelings. 

116


Table 12: Acceptably loading capitals on the seventh factor Parental Rapport 


36 My parents trust my school in many ways (providing educational progress, having a good 

social, cultural and religious environment, and so on). 

39 As a whole, during my education, I have had excellent schools with high qualities. 0.37 

9 Our family environment is very intimate and warm. 0.44 

35 I easily talk about my feelings with my parents. 0.44 

40 Generally, I am satisfied with my social life. 0.54 

0.35 

Table 13 presents the three ALCs on the eighth factor extracted and called Family Religiosity in this study, i.e., 21, 

22, and 23. As can be seen, capital 22, My family takes part in mourning anniversaries of Imams, has the highest 

loading on factor seven (.76), showing the close relationship grade three high school students establish among 

feeling sorrow for the death of their twelve Imams, i.e., Ali, the Prophet Mohammad‟s (PBUH) cousin, his two sons 

and their grandsons who are accepted as the only rightful leaders of Islamic society by Shiites, offering Nazari, i.e., 

money paid or an action done because of a religious oath made for the fulfillment of a certain prayer, and Eftari, the 

dinner offered freely to some invited people to break their fasting in Ramazan, and worshiping God in mosques. The 

extraction of this factor thus provides support for Putnam‟s (2000) acceptance of “faith communities in which 

people worship together” (p. 19) as a latent variable of social capital. 

Table 13: Acceptably loading capitals on the eighth factor Family Religiosity 


23 We go to mosque to worship God. 0.45 

21 My family participates in religious activities (Nazri, Eftari, etc.) 0.52 

22 My family takes part in mourning anniversaries of Imams. 0.76 

Table 14 presents the three ALCs on the ninth factor extracted and called Helpful Others in this study, i.e., 29, 30, 

and 31. As can be seen, capital 30, When needed, I can easily get help from the others, has the highest loading on 

factor seven (.61). Helpful Others are also sought when grade three high school students wish to make important 

decisions. Furthermore, receiving help when needed assist these students develop trust in the majority of their 

people. These results thus provide support not only for connecting trust to social capitals as Harper (2002) did but 

alos on the dependence of trust on reciprocity as “people willingness to co-operate for mutual benefit” (p. 6). 

Table 14: Acceptably loading capitals on the ninth factor Helpful Others 


29 In my opinion most of the people are trustable. 0.44 

31 When I want to make a decision, I get help from the others. 0.54 

30 When needed, I can easily get help from the others. 0.61 

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Table 15 presents the two ALCs on the tenth factor extracted and called Parent Availability in this study, i.e., 1, and 

2. As can be seen, capital 1, My mother is often at home, claims an acceptable loading (.42) which is higher than 

capital 2 (.32), My father is often at home, indicating that mothers are more available in Iran that fathers and thus 

play a larger role in their children‟s social capital at grade three in high schools. The results though show that the 

availability of both parents plays a significant role in grade three high school students‟ functioning in educational 

environments. 

Table 15: Acceptably loading capitals on the ninth factor Parent Availability 


1 My mother is often at home. 0.42 

2 My father is often at home. 0.32 

Table 16 presents the correlation coefficients obtained among the factors underlying the SCS. As can be seen, the 

ten factors correlate significantly not only with the scale but also with each other and thus confirm the third 

hypothesis that the factors extracted from the SCS will correlate significantly with each other. Among the factors, 

the first, Self Volunteering, shows the highest relationships with the seventh, i.e., Parental Rapport (r =.50, p < .01) 

and Teacher Consultation (r = .45, p < .01), respectively, emphasizing the parents and teachers‟ unique role in the 

life of grade three high school students who are ready to help and trust the people of their community. 

Table 16: Correlations among the ten factors extracted from the SCQ 

Factors SCS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

1 Self Volunteering .71 * 1 .34 * .30 * .28 * .45 * .36 * .50 * .38 * .40 * .17 * 

2 Receptive Relatives .63 * .34 * 1 .32 * .31 * .26 * .28 * .39 * .37 * .31 * .08 * 

3 Maternal Supervision .60 * .30 * .32 * 1 .42 * .20 * .30 * .39 * .31 * .17 * .15 * 

4 Parental Monitoring .66 * .28 * .31 * .42 * 1 .28 * .48 * .51 * .19 * .22 * .19 * 

5 Teacher Consultation .61 * .45 * .26 * .20 * .28 * 1 .24 * .42 * .33 * .42 * .15 * 

6 Parental Expectation .60 * .36 * .28 * .30 * .48 * .24 * 1 .38 * .21 * .21 * .17 * 

7 Parental Rapport .76 * .50 * .39 * .39 * .51 * .42 * .38 * 1 .31 * .40 * .15 * 

8 Family Religiosity .56 * .38 * .37 * .31 * .19 * .33 * .21 * .31 * 1 .25 * .18 * 

9 Helpful Others .56 * .40 * .31 * .17 * .22 * .42 * .21 * .40 * .25 * 1 .11 * 

10 Parent Availability .31 * .17 * .08 * .15 * .19 * .15 * .17 * .15 * .18 * .11 * 1 

* Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) 

CONCLUSIONS 

A Social Capital Scale (SCS) consisting of 40 items was developed and administered to one thousand three hundred 

and fifty two grade three high school students in their English classes to explore its construct validity in this study. 

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The application of Principal Axis Factoring to the data collected from three low, middle, and high class districts of 

education organization in Mashhad, Iran, in 2010 and their rotation via Varimax with Kaiser Normalization revealed 

ten factors, i.e., Self Volunteering, Receptive Relatives, Maternal Supervision, Parental Monitoring, Teacher 

Consultation, Parental Expectation, Parental Rapport, Family Religiosity, Helpful Others, and Parent Availability. 

The results of this study show that not only the SCS but also its underlying factors are reliable and related to each 

other significantly. They also show that limiting the scope, i.e., a single component, i.e., social capital, instead of 

two, i.e., social and cultural capitals, and a more specific and homogenous population, i.e., only grade three high 

school students, brings about noticeable differences in both the number of factors extracted and their order in terms 

of the magnitude of variance they explain. While studies exploring social as well as cultural capitals in a single 

scale, for example, reveal ten factors for a sample consisting of three grades (see KAN11), this study extracted the 

same number of factors underlying the social capital of grade three high school students only. It remains, however, 

to be explored whether the SCS developed in this study will reveal any significant relationship with a host of 

variables such as gender and family income and abilities such as English language achievement. 

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APPENDIX 

The descriptive statistics of capitals (C) comprising the Social Capital Scale 

C Mean SD 

Missing Never Seldom Sometimes Often Usually Always 

% % % % % % % 

1 4.65 1.308 0.5 02.1 05.3 08.3 23.1 28.7 32.0 

2 2.87 1.368 0.5 14.9 29.9 25.3 16.5 07.6 05.3 

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3 5.37 2.147 0.5 03.4 03.8 04.6 04.7 08.7 74.3 

4 4.23 1.696 0.5 07.5 12.5 13.4 13.5 18.9 33.6 

5 4.44 1.610 0.5 06.0 08.9 12.0 16.0 19.3 37.3 

6 3.93 1.787 0.5 13.2 13.0 12.3 15.8 17.5 27.7 

7 2.12 1.502 0.5 50.7 18.9 13.0 05.7 05.8 05.4 

8 5.25 1.263 0.5 02.0 02.8 05.5 09.3 15.5 64.3 

9 5.08 1.358 0.5 03.0 03.6 06.0 11.4 18.8 56.7 

10 5.21 1.280 0.5 02.4 02.8 04.9 10.6 16.7 62.1 

11 5.29 1.351 0.5 04.0 02.7 03.4 07.0 13.0 69.5 

12 4.24 1.645 0.5 09.5 07.6 11.2 19.4 22.2 29.5 

13 4.05 1.790 0.5 11.7 12.1 14.2 12.8 16.9 31.8 

14 4.20 1.663 0.5 07.5 13.7 10.0 16.0 23.2 29.2 

15 4.37 1.761 0.5 10.2 08.8 10.4 12.9 16.9 40.2 

16 3.22 1.998 0.5 30.5 15.3 10.8 09.8 09.2 23.9 

17 3.97 1.669 0.5 08.1 15.3 15.3 17.2 18.0 25.6 

18 4.46 1.565 0.5 05.1 08.7 11.9 17.1 20.6 36.0 

19 2.83 1.626 0.5 24.6 27.1 16.1 12.6 09.7 09.5 

20 3.96 1.557 0.5 05.3 14.9 19.4 19.5 17.9 22.5 

21 4.40 1.515 0.5 03.6 10.1 13.5 18.0 22.0 32.2 

22 4.67 1.533 0.7 04.2 06.4 11.3 14.4 19.1 43.9 

23 3.05 1.600 0.7 17.8 25.7 20.2 13.1 12.6 10.0 

24 4.08 1.651 0.7 07.3 12.0 17.2 17.0 17.3 28.5 

25 3.11 1.595 0.7 16.9 23.7 20.9 15.2 12.3 10.4 

26 4.05 1.646 0.7 09.4 10.8 12.4 22.0 19.6 25.1 

27 4.01 1.670 0.7 08.8 12.9 15.2 16.9 20.1 25.4 

28 2.14 1.474 0.7 47 23.1 12.4 05.8 06.1 04.9 

29 2.28 1.396 0.7 37.4 26.2 17.2 09.5 05.3 03.7 

30 3.21 1.885 0.7 12.2 25.2 23.6 16.1 12.0 10.1 

31 3.64 1.518 0.7 07.1 17.6 22.2 21.7 15.9 14.8 

32 4.77 1.374 0.7 03.1 03.9 08.3 17.6 26.9 39.4 

33 4.80 1.493 0.8 03.5 05.6 10.0 12.7 19.8 47.6 

34 4.76 1.395 0.8 01.7 05.9 11.0 14.5 25.1 40.9 

35 3.57 1.699 0.8 13.8 15.9 18.5 17.2 15.8 18.0 

36 4.36 1.562 0.8 05.2 08.7 12.8 19.2 21.2 32.2 

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37 4.43 1.511 0.8 03.7 08.0 14.8 16.9 23.1 32.7 

38 4.82 1.416 0.8 03.2 04.7 07.8 15.0 25.0 43.4 

39 3.60 1.693 0.9 15.5 12.8 14.9 20.7 19.5 15.7 

40 4.39 1.617 0.9 06.7 08.4 10.7 16.5 23.3 33.4 

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PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES OF DEMOCRACY IN 

NIGERIA 

AYENI, M. A.* and ADELEYE, J. O. 

Department of Educational Foundations and Management, Faculty of Education, 


*E-mail address for correspondence: dr_ayeni2006@yahoo.com 

_______________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: Philosophy of education is said to be application of philosophical methods and principles to solve any 

problem in education. One of the goals of Nigerian philosophy of education is geared towards the development of a 

free and democratic society. Education is the weapon of any good democracy and without education for all, 

democracy will not be successful. Philosophy must influence the government by educating the policy makers in the 

formulation of policy that will create within the people a sense of purpose and unity. Bearing this in mind, this paper 

examines philosophy of education and the challenges of democracy in Nigeria. Issues like the philosophy of Nigerian 

education is looked into, it also examined the Nigerian philosophy of education and the attainment of equality of 

access to educational opportunities, and challenges of democracy in Nigeria. 

Keywords: Democracy, education, philosophy of education 

_________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

Prior to independence in 1960, Nigerians had seriously criticized the British Colonial regime on issues of relevance, 

comprehensiveness and focus of the system of education provided to Nigerians. Among several other agitations, 

Nigerian leaders and educators were particularly worried that the British system of education laid emphasis on 

academic subjects; Educational opportunity was restricted to few people and that the British grammar school system 

of education was trans-imposed on Nigeria without due consideration to the culture, environment and the aspirations 

of Nigeria as a country. The above agitations culminated in the 1969 National conference on curriculum 

development. The conference was to fashion out a philosophy for Nigerian education the outcome of the conference 

was the inauguration of a National policy on Education in 1977 for the entire country. After this, the nation still faced 

a lot of challenges in its democratic system. Thus, to transform its democratic experiment into a true democracy that 

nation must control social disturbances, establish and nurture the essential political institutions to protect the people‟s 

rights, lives and properties. The absence of true federalism in Nigeria is a stumbling block to the nation‟s ongoing 

democratic enterprise. The federal government is very overbearing as it controls 80 percent of the resources in the 

country, leaving, state and local governments at its mercy. Therefore, true federalism would enable each region, 

state, or geopolitical zone to control their resources and to have access to the necessary funds for community 

development programs. It is only true democracy that can guarantee fairness and justice in the society. A durable and 

enforceable people‟s constitution is an indispensable tool to make this feasible, as the constitution protects the people 

and determines socio-political activities in a society. This justified the philosophy of Aristotle, that “we can decide 

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the identity of a state only by examining the form (and contents of its constitution”. To realize the above, the nation 

needs a virile and functional education. 

The Philosophy of Nigerian Education 

The philosophy of Nigerian education is embedded in the National policy on Education. According to the policy 

document, the five national goals which Nigeria‟s philosophy of education draws its strength are: 

i. A free and democratic society; 

ii. 

iii. 

iv. 

A just and egalitarian Society; 

A united, strong and self-reliant nation; 

A great and dynamic economy; 

v. A land full of bright opportunities for all citizens. 

In order to make philosophy of education work harmoniously for Nigeria‟s goals, education in Nigeria has to be 

tailored towards self realization, right human relations, individual and national efficiency, effective citizenship, 

national consciousness, national unity as well as towards social, cultural, economic, political, scientific and 

technological progress (NPE, 2004). To this end, the Nigerian education system is value-laden and aims at the 

betterment of the citizens in order that they may live a better live and contribute to the advancement of society. It 

may be necessary at this point to examine each aspect of the national goals for which education is set to achieve in 

Nigeria. 

Free and Democratic Society 

The question that readily comes to mind here is what does a free and democratic society entails. And how can this be 

achieved through education A free society is a society where the citizens do not suffer restrains or undue 

interference. They are at liberty to achieve whatever they want to achieve that the least capable person can attain. 

Just like freedom, democracy implies: 

a. That all men possess certain inalienable rights; 

b. That all humans are to be regarded equal in certain respect 

c. Faith in human intelligence; 

d. Enhancement of individual freedom; 

e. Right to peaceful dissent (Omotoso & Aladejana, 2003) 

The needed level of awareness of the citizens of the Nigerian society on the benefits of a free and democratic society 

as outlined above can be achieved through a virile education system that is guided by national policy, which the 

society itself has evolved for its own benefit (Omatsaye, 1992). 

Just and Egalitarian Society 

The attributes of a just and egalitarian society entails that all persons should be considered of equal importance and 

their opinions treated equally and seriously. Underneath a just and egalitarian society is the principle of justice and 

fairness; and the principle of fairness to all is also the principle of equity. The goals of a just and egalitarian society 

can indeed be pursued through education. Here, education can be used to deliberately inculcate in the learner the 

spirit of fairness and help to recognize individual differences and needs. 

A Great and Dynamic Economy 

A dynamic economy is an economy that is capable of enhancing equitable income distributed by: 

i. Eliminating absolute poverty; 

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ii. 

iii. 

iv. 

Participation of broadly based group in public matter affecting the citizens; 

A reduction in the level of literacy. 

A greater control and manipulation of the resource endowment of the nation by the internal forces. 

The role of education in achieving a great and dynamic economy for Nigeria cannot be underestimated. Skilled 

manpower of various categories and their diverse qualities is needed in the various economic sectors to pursue the 

goals of economy growth and development. It is through the process of education that these skills are developed and 

used to implement any meaningful economic development plan. 

A United, Strong and Self-Reliant Nation 

This stipulated that the nation must be political indivisible, strong to defend the territory and able to provide for her 

citizen. Philosophy of Nigeria education believe that education perform all these roles. A nation without education is 

a dead nation but Nigeria with her level of education ought to be united, strong and self-reliant one. 

A Land Full of Bright Opportunities for all Citizens 

A country that will have full opportunities for all citizens must be the one that provide all the social amenities for 

them so that individual can explore the opportunity at his disposal to become what the natural abilities they endowed 

to be. Education should be able to inculcate in every Nigerian the ability to contribute to the development or 

upliftment of the country. 

The Nigerian Philosophy of Education and the Attainment of Equality of Access to Educational Opportunities 

in Nigeria 

Pursuant of the attainment of the broad national goals examined earlier, the National policy provides that the 

philosophy of the Nigerian education shall among others be based on “The provision of equal access to educational 

opportunities for all citizens of the country. In order to realize equality of access to educational opportunities the 

policy framework provides that government shall undertake the following measures: 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

(f) 

(g) 

(h) 

(i) 

(j) 

(k) 

Education shall continue to be highly rated in the national development plans. 

Life long education shall be the basis of the nation‟s educational policy. 

Education and training facilities shall continue to be expanded in response to societal need and 

progressively accessible to afford the individual a few more diversified and flexible choice. 

Education activities shall be centred on the learner for maximum self development and self-fulfilment. 

Universal Basic education in a variety of forms depending on the needs and possibilities, shall be provided 

for all citizens; 

Efforts shall be made to relocate education to cover all community needs. 

Educational assessment and evaluation shall be liberalized by their being based on whole or in part on the 

continuous assessment of the progress of the individual: 

Modern educational techniques shall be increasingly used and improved upon at all levels of the education 

system; 

Education shall be structured to develop the practice of self-learning, and government shall in this regard 

continue to encourage the establishment of young learner clubs in schools. 

At any stage of the educational progress after junior secondary education an individual shall be able to 

choose between continuing full time studies, combining work with study, or embarking on full – time 

employment without excluding the prospect of resuming studies later on; 

Opportunity shall be provided for religious instruction; no child will be forced to accept any religious 

instruction which is contrary to wishes of his or her parents; and 

(l) Physical and health education shall be emphasized at all levels of education system (NPE 2004) 

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A critical examination of the extent to which the stated philosophy of education in Nigeria has achieved the desired 

goals reveals that the policy was more Utopian than practical. There are clear indications that educational programme 

implementation has been generally defective and largely ineffective, and have shown disappointing outcomes: There 

are no practical evidence to show that all Nigerian children have equal access to education. In the words of Omotseye 

(1992) „the fact that only those who can afford the cost of schooling send their children to school is anything but a 

just and egalitarian system”. 

It has been impossible for government to eliminate situations in which the children of the poor are attracted to illequipped 

public schools and those of the wealthy to well staffed and better – equipped schools. Until that day when 

the children of governors, ministers, Commissioners and highly – placed in society will be sent to public schools 

which they have built, shall the populace take government educational policies serious. The national goal of „a united 

strong and self-reliant nation‟ will remain a mere dream if every Nigerian child does not have the right to education, 

not just by mere policy proclamation and directive but by matching words with appropriate actions. The Nigerian 

education system as presently constituted is in serious crisis. The different levels of public school suffer from poor 

conditions of learning, high students–teachers ratio, overcrowded classrooms among the others. 

Presently, many Nigerian do not have faith in the country anymore; talk less of faith in the leaders who stash away 

Nigerian wealth illegally to foreign countries. Nigerians have lost faith in themselves and have more than even 

before become neutrally suspicions of each others. No respects for culture, industry, honesty and respect for values 

have been eroded. The land is bright but not full of opportunities (NTI 2006) very high levels of unemployment have 

come to stay with us. Crimes of all sorts have taken over our streets. Many Nigerians cannot attend a University 

because of inability to finance their education. That the Nigerian education system has not been able to achieve the 

desired goals as enumerated in the policy document leaves much to be desired. Fifty-one years of independence, we 

are still counting our losses. In the words of Okoh (2005) “our nation is at risk because we have been committing 

acts of unthinking, unilateral educational disarmament. We have ended up producing graduates who are completely 

irrelevant to themselves and their society; graduates who have been miss-educated”. Scientific Dand critical thinking 

have been sacrificed for mediocrity And this posed challenges to the democracy and democratic systems in Nigeria. 

The Challenges of Democracy in Nigeria 

Before going proper to the challenges facing democracy in Nigeria, it is expedient to discuss briefly what democracy 

is all about. Democracy is a very controversial term. It may be described as a system of government under which the 

people exercise the governing of power either directly or representatives periodically elected by themselves. One of 

the important reasons why democracy is very controversial and difficult to define is that it has become very 

fashionable for different types of government to lay claim to being democratic. However, a useful way of clarifying 

the concept of democracy as to realize that it is used to refer both to a system of government and to a set of 

principles. 

(1) As a system of government, it implies rule by the people through their elected representatives. It can also 

take the form of either direct or indirect democracy. 

(2) As a set of principle, it pre-supposes the ideal that political power originates from the people and that 

government is therefore, legal or legitimate only when it is based on the consent of the people. 

The major challenge facing democracy in Nigeria is illiteracy and ignorance. It is appropriate to note that more than 

one half of the Nigerian population seems to be illiterate. Thus, a certain level of education would enable the citizen 

to differentiate right from wrong and evaluate the principles of political leaders and political office seekers so as to 

make an informed political decision. Regrettably, Political Parties and Politicians in Nigerian society are not 

ideologically, ingrained. The situation where political parties and those elected (or appointed) to manage the affairs 

of the nation do not represent nothing other than bribery and corruption make the sustenance of true democracy 

impracticable. 

Poverty, reinforced by mass unemployment, is another challenge to the Nigeria‟s guest to true democracy. The 

federal government had announced a war on poverty but joblessness has not lessened. Any individual deprived of the 

basic wherewithal cannot participate effectively in a democratic political process. Therefore, a poor person is not a 

full-fledge social individual, as he or she lacks the basic freedom to engage in the lives he or she enjoys. Thus 

Amartya Sen observers in “Development as freedom” (2011) that “Expanding the freedoms that we have reason to 

value not only makes our lives richer and more unfettered, but also allows us to become full social persons, 

exercising our own volition and interacting with and influencing the world in which we live” . One can then safely 

argue that poverty constitutes a challenge to true democracy since economic chaos can topple democratic institutions. 

The problems of poverty and injustice are good part of Nigeria and the citizens do not seem to understand what is in 

their culture that prevents them from achieving a just, prosperous, dignified life and true democracy. It is essential to 

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note that about 70 percent of the Nigerian population are estimated poor. Is there any wonder why the society is 

chaotic 

Discrimination, ethnicity, tribalism and poverty are closely related, as they affect the people‟s ability to secure 

employment and earn a living. Consequently, many people are concerned more by their daily struggle for economic 

survival than the empty term– democracy, which they believe would not feed them. The government should therefore 

engage in social policies to spur economic growth (expansion of basic education, health care and equitable 

distribution of resources) to enlarge the economic pie, so as to reduce poverty. To prosper and have true democracy 

the society must create a “sound macroeconomic, political and legal environment” which would enable business 

organisations and citizens to be productive. (A sound microeconomic policy is equally important). As Michael 

(2011) warns in culture matters, “unless companies operating in a nation become more productive, an economy 

cannot become more productive”. If the citizens and companies are not productive and innovative the nation cannot 

compete in the global market place and therefore cannot meet the people‟s needs toward this end. It has been 

maintained that economic development creates the social space that makes democracy possible and gives a newly 

democratic government the breathing room to deliver on its promises. The promises the government has been 

incapable of fulfilling include the prompt payment of workers salaries, maintenance of roads and the funding of 

schools and hospitals. 

Thus, Nigeria‟s reward system, which is perhaps, the poorest in the world, is among the causes of the poverty of the 

people. Workers work for months without getting their salaries and the retired are not paid their pension benefits. 

Sadly, national priorities are turned upside down in the society; hard work is not rewarded, but rogues are often 

glorified. And these have adversely affected the lives of the citizens thereby making the attainment of democracy a 

difficult endeavour. Prosperity therefore is the ability of an individual, group, or nation to provide shelter, nutrition 

and other essential commodities that enable people to live a good life. 

The most pressing challenge facing Nigeria is leadership ineptness. The society will continue to have problems 

realizing its dream until its political leaders are capable of making tough decisions with vigorous enforcement of the 

laws of the land to deter anti-social and anti democratic behaviours, in other words, the nation‟s democratic 

enterprise will not be fruitful until the leaders, to borrow from Lawrence (2002) begin to “initiate activities that 

promote progressive values and attitudes “perhaps, the nation‟s traditional culture is a handicap! Nigeria has for long 

entrusted its democratic enterprise in the hands of non-democrats. Could one without democratic ethos deliver true 

democracy to Nigeria You cannot give what you don‟t have! Related to this is uncertainty of a military coup d‟etat. 

In a place like the lawless Nigeria nobody is certain what the “Khaki” boys would do. Abacha regime in Nigeria 

justified this lawlessness. However, we now live in a global village; any bloodthirsty military officers venturing to 

overthrow a duly constructed Nigerian government would face the wrath of the international community, as the 

world would bomb them to submission. 

Another challenge is the absence of basic democratic values in the society. Some of the nation‟s political leaders 

have often left many in doubt about their respect for democratic norms. Ethical crisis and fraud perpetrated mostly by 

the lawmakers are approaching an alarming proportion. This includes politics of greed and lust for power (Political 

office holders should learn to resign if they cannot perform), electoral frauds, political intolerance, thugs and political 

assassinations, kidnapping strewn all over the landscape. To attain a true democracy the agencies in charge of 

elections must ensure a level playing field for all political parties to participate in the political process and political 

differences and disagreement among citizens should be tolerated and protected.‟ As Dahl (1964) wonders in On 

Democracy “If we don‟t believe in Political equality, how can we support democracy” And without credible 

opposition, democracy dies. 

Finally, it is a known fact that corruption is a bane of Nigeria; as a nation and this has affected every facet of the 

society. Nigeria is a place where political leaders with access to national treasury convert public fund to private use; 

it is a place where the congress works to undermine anti corruption campaign; and it is a society with corrupt 

judiciary and petty jealousy. Consequently, political corruption is endemic in Nigeria, with bureaucratic and electoral 

corruption, bribery and fraud, embezzlement and extortion with favoritism and nepotism widespread on the political 

scene. To reach its destination, the political immunity enjoyed by the corrupt politicians should be scrapped to enable 

the society hold them accountable for their action while in office. True democracy demands that citizens should 

create and maintain a supportive political culture. 

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CONCLUSION 

Without any iota of doubt, Nigerian philosophy of Education has made it cleared what should be excepted in true 

democratic system of the country. Education is the bedrock of any successful democracy. Democracy without 

education is a contradiction in term. Education is the weapon of democracy. For Nigerians to get the good 

governance, distributive justice, transparency, accountability and the rule of law they deserve, they must address the 

critical issues and challenges facing democracy in the country. The challenges should be tackled by Nigerians 

themselves since it is only Nigerians who can make Nigeria what Nigeria must become. 

REFERENCES 

Adiele, A. A. (2006). Reflections on the philosophy of the Nigerian education and the attainment of equality of 

access to primary education. International Journal of African and African American Studies. 

Dahl, R. (1964) Modern Political analysis. Engle wood Cliffs, new jersecy prentice hall inc. 

Ekwueme, A. (2005). Sustainable democracy in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. A paper delivered at the 

International Conference held at Imperial College, , South Kessington Campus, London on Saturday 25th 

June. 

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press. 

Lawrence, A. (2004). Challenges of democracy. http://www.goggle search.com. Retrieved on September 1, 2011. 

National Teachers Institute (2006). PostGraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE by DLS). PDE 107: Philosophy and 

education. Kaduna: National Teachers Institute. 

Okoh, J. D. (2005). The risk of an educational system without a philosophical base. Inaugural Lecture Series, 38. 

University of Port Harcourt. 

Omoteso, B. A. & Aladejana, T. I. (2003). Politics and democracy in the Nigeria‟s philosophy of education. Journal 

of African Philosophy. 

Victor, E. D (2011) citing Amartya Sen: Barriers to true democracy in Nigeria. Retrieved from Google Search. 

Victor, E. D. (2011) citing Michael, E. P. Barriers to true democracy in Nigeria. Retrieved from Google search. 

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Department of Primary Education, University of Botswana 

E-mail address for correspondence: mhlaulim@mopipi.ub.bw 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: The major purpose of this study was to explore the Social Studies teachers‟ perceptions of the problems 

and challenges teachers face in the teaching of Social Studies in primary schools in Botswana. I used critical theory 

to understand the teachers perceived problems and challenges in the teaching of social studies. The study was 

qualitative and anchored within the naturalistic inquiry paradigm. Qualitative methods were used to collect data. 

Data were analyzed using grounded theory and employed the constant comparative technique. The findings of the 

study revealed that social studies teachers are faced with enormous challenges in their effort to develop ideal 

citizens. I argue that these challenges that are embedded within the structural inequalities regarding social studies are 

a deliberate act on the part of the government to depoliticize social studies and develop a certain kind of citizenry 

ideal to the political climate of the country. Such efforts by the government to ignore the fact that social studies is a 

political subject have in fact turned to be its nemesis. 

Keywords: Botswana, Social Studies, Nemesis, Citizenship Education, Challenges, Critical theory, Primary schools. 

__________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

There is consensus in the Social Studies literature that the major goal of social studies is citizenship education 

(Ajiboye, 2009; Adler & Sim, 2008; Ross, 2006; Hahn, 2001). In some countries social studies and citizenship 

education are regarded as synonymous. Social Studies has been identified as the subject within the school 

curriculum that is used as a vehicle for equipping students with the requisite knowledge, skills and values, attitudes 

and dispositions relevant for producing functional and effective citizens (Mhlauli, 2010). In Botswana, Social 

Studies is one of the core curriculum subjects that is offered across the different levels of education from primary to 

junior secondary levels of education. The introduction of social studies in the school curriculum in Botswana was a 

result of the 1968 Mombasa Conference where African countries agreed to set up the African Social Studies 

Program (ASSP) now referred to as the African Social Studies and Environmental Studies Programme (ASSESP) 

(Adeyemi, 2008). 

In Botswana, social studies emerged for the first time as a school subject in 1969 as part of the standard one and two 

curriculum (Mautle, 2000). It was not until 1982 that the subject was introduced into the whole primary school 

curriculum and eventually became part of the Junior secondary schools curriculum in 1986 (Ministry of Education, 

2005). The rationale for introducing social studies in primary and secondary schools in Botswana was to focus on 

issues and problems relevant to the learners „experiences (Mautle, 2000). It was discovered that history and 

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geography were no longer relevant to the needs of the children hence social studies was seen to be an ideal subject 

that will be able to address the children‟s realities in a contemporary world that is constantly changing. The aims of 

the social studies curriculum are based on “the philosophical view that social studies must play a leading role in 

developing the individual learner into a functional citizen of Botswana” (Mautle, 2000). However, Social Studies 

was later introduced in other higher levels of education. 

Since its introduction in the primary school curriculum in Botswana in 1969, there have been doubts as to whether 

the subject is achieving its major goal of developing good citizens. These doubts emanated from recent trends and 

evidence from studies that suggest that products of schools are exhibiting behaviors that are not in tandem with good 

citizenship as encapsulated in the social studies curriculum (Ajiboye, 2009; Preece & Mosweunyane, 2004). Like in 

many developing countries, the discourse on citizenship education through social studies in Botswana is still at its 

infancy stages and is to be implemented by teachers, yet very little is known about what social studies teachers‟ 

think and say and their perceptions of problems they face in teaching Social Studies and or citizenship education 

within the Botswana context. It is therefore, critical that social studies teachers understand its goals and intent (Sim, 

2008) and their voices are captured in order to understand their challenges. The major research question focused on 

“What are the teachers‟ perceptions on the problems or challenges facing social studies in primary schools in 

Botswana In asking this question the study sought to hear from the teachers what challenges they are faced with in 

the development of citizens through social studies teaching. The identification of challenges faced by the social 

studies teachers‟ may pave way for instructional recommendations that may impact on the delivery of the subject. 

RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

The following broad questions guided the study: 

1. What are the Social Studies teachers‟ perceptions on the problems and challenges in the teaching of social 

studies 

2. What are the socio-cultural challenges experienced in the teaching of social studies 

3. If there are any challenges, how can they be addressed 

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

In this article I use critical theory to understand the nature of the power relations embedded in educational 

institutions and schooling in particular in order to understand the Social Studies teachers‟ problems and challenges 

in their teaching of the subject It is noteworthy to understand that, “critical theorist begin with the premise that men 

and women are essentially unfree and inhabit a world rife with contradictions and asymmetries of power and 

privilege” (Mclaren, 2003, p. 69). Critical educators advocate for theories that are dialectical since they recognize 

the problems of society as more than isolated events of individual deficiencies within a social structure. The 

dialectical nature of critical theory enables the researcher to view the school not only as a socialization agent of 

instruction but also as a site for both domination and liberation (Mclaren, 2003). The dialectical nature of schooling 

further opposes the dominant view of mainstream academic theory which conceives of schooling as mainly 

providing students with the skills and attitudes necessary for developing a certain kind of citizenry ideal to the 

society. 

I employ a critical lens to interrogate the social studies teachers‟ perceptions of the problems and challenges 

experienced in the teaching of social studies and to show how mainstream academic knowledge continues to under 

privilege other forms of knowledge. Mainstream academic knowledge continues to dichotomize knowledge through 

seeing other subjects such as mathematics, English and science as more superior than other subjects such as social 

studies. This binary representation of the world was instituted during the colonial era and continues to manifest itself 

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in more subtle ways (Said, 1978), what Tickly (2006) would refer to as the new imperialism. Critical educators 

argue that any worthwhile theory of schooling must be fundamentally rooted to the struggle for a better life for all 

through the construction of a society based a non exploitative relations and social justice; as well as being cognizant 

of the influences of class, gender, ethnicity and race to every problem (Mclaren, 2003). Therefore, critical theory 

becomes an invaluable tool for the analysis of the teachers‟ perceptions of the problems and challenges they face in 

the teaching of social studies. I use critical theory in view of the fact that the teachers challenges are rooted in 

structural inequalities and socialization processes which are often seen as universalistic without any consideration of 

those they affect and that in practice, Social Studies within the Botswana context remains a marginalized curriculum 

subject. 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

Social Studies and Citizenship Education in Africa 

In this review, I examine how Social Studies has been used to develop citizenship among African nations since 

independence. I focus on two ways in which Social Studies has been used to develop citizenship among African 

nations mainly: Africanization of the social studies curriculum and Promotion of Inquiry-based learning. Social 

Studies has been used as a tool for national development. Its purposes, content and rationales differ from one 

country to another (Kissock, 1981). Among African nations it has been used to “improve the image of people in the 

society after a colonial heritage (Sierra Leone); to learn ways of improving the economy after military rule (Ghana); 

to transform the political culture (Ethiopia); and to inculcate concepts of nationalism, unity, and interdependence 

among a citizenry of new nations with diverse populations (Nigeria) (Kissock, 1981, p. 1). The major question here 

is how does it do all this The answer lies in the ability of Social Studies to prepare a well informed citizenry that 

have the requisite knowledge, skills and values (Adeyemi, 2000). One way in which Social studies was used to 

develop citizens has been through what Merryfield & Tlou (1995) refer to as the Africanization of the curriculum. 

Africanization of the Social Studies Curriculum 

Social studies provide knowledge, skills, competencies, attitudes and values which enable the youth to be good 

citizens (Merryfield, 1995). The development of a good citizen in Africa was done through the Africanization of 

the social studies curriculum (Merryfield & Tlou, 1995). Merryfield & Tlou further define Africanization in terms 

of an African-centered education that refers to “instruction that is developed from and centered on African peoples‟ 

experiences, thought, and environments (p. 2). This view is based on the premise that the curriculum has to be 

changed to reflect the views of the Africans as opposed to those of the colonizers. This Africanization of the social 

studies was done in different aspects of the curriculum which necessitated that the objectives, content, methods and 

resources or teaching materials be redirected to reflect the content and knowledge, values and attitudes as well as the 

skills of the indigenous people it is supposed to serve. This called for reforms in the social studies curriculum more 

especially the syllabus to be Africanized. 

Merryfield & Tlou (1995) in their study where they examined the primary social studies curriculum in Malawi, 

Botswana, Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe found that most of these countries had revised their social studies 

curriculum to reflect their culture, language, literature and traditions. For example in Botswana the move towards 

Afrocentric social studies included among others developing a strong moral code of behavior that is compatible with 

the ethics and traditions of Botswana. In Kenya the social studies syllabus emphasized Kenya‟s economic 

development, cultural heritage, and National political unity as well as the knowledge and appreciation of their local 

communities and the nation as a whole. In Malawi more emphasis was put on teaching about Malawi and its 

neighbors as opposed to non-African content. In Nigeria, the Africanization of the social studies was noticed in that 

it concentrated on the local community, family, culture, health and economic well-being. 

In Zimbabwe, the syllabus reflected a new ideology that was oriented towards a socialist model. The primary 

curriculum focused on the study of Zimbabwe as a nation, its history and culture. Most importantly there was a call 

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for Zimbabweans to rewrite history to reflect their experiences and perspectives of the pre-colonial, colonial and 

postcolonial eras in Zimbabwe (Merryfield & Tlou, 1995). This reform in the social studies curriculum to embrace 

the African environments and cultures was pivotal in the development of good citizens as it equipped them with the 

knowledge, values, attitudes and skills that allowed them to be conversant with their culture, heritage and societal 

systems and such knowledge is relevant for nation building (Adeyemi & Asimeng-Boahene, 1999). 

It is further argued that part of the Africanization is to build national identity and unity. Tlou & Kabwila (2000) 

contend that a nation can only grow if its people have positive values towards their government, natural resources, 

social services, their society and themselves as a people. In Malawi this was exhibited through a curriculum that 

promotes national heritage through knowledge and respect of national symbols. The curriculum further instills 

positive values towards government by advocating for participatory democracy, care of the environment, effective 

citizenship and maintenance of high social and moral standards. Students are also trained in decision making, 

problem solving and critical thinking (Tlou & Kabwila, 2000). 

Social studies also inculcate the spirit of identity and togetherness through rituals such as national anthems, flags, 

and other ceremonies that provides a sense of belonging either to the community or nation (Merryfield & Tlou, 

1995). In Zambia students and teachers are expected to sing the National Anthem and to respect the National flag as 

symbols of national consciousness and these have been instituted in the curriculum through the Education Act of 

1966. Students are expected to observe all these tenets of the nation as a way of learning good citizenship 

(Chishimba & Simukoko, 2000). 

Promotion of Inquiry Based Teaching Methods 

Social studies as a field of study advocates for the use of inquiry and problem based learning as opposed to rote 

learning that previously characterized learning during the colonial era (EDC/CREDO, 1968). It is believed that the 

problem-solving method is necessary as it develops the child in such a way that she/he sees it as a democratic 

adventure, as well as the intellectual, critical, and cooperative aspects of the learners (Waghid, 2004; Salia-Bao, 

1991). Dewey believed that the most effective and natural education occurred when problem solving was applied in 

the classroom as it encouraged critical thinking (Salia-Bao, 1991). Following Dewey‟s principle of democratic 

education, it was believed that such a method encouraged participation among learners through engaging them in 

cooperative adventures that would turn the classroom into a microcosm of democracy and thereby allowing the child 

to acquire skills and values of democracy. 

However, some scholars in social studies argue that the use of problem-based learning has been an ideal in most 

social studies classrooms in Africa as teachers have not been trained towards the use of such methods (Adeyemi, 

2000; Asimeng-Boahene, 2000; Merryfield & Muyanda-Mutebi; 1991). Further research carried out in seven 

member countries of the African Social Studies Programme (ASSP) have shown that inquiry based learning is 

talked about in schools but does not translate into teaching as classroom activities are teacher driven and dominated 

by the chalk-and- talk styles of teaching (Harber, 1997). Other studies carried out in primary and secondary schools 

in Botswana revealed that teachers used teacher centered methods as opposed to child centered methods in social 

studies classrooms (Mautle, 2000; Tabulawa, 1998). In Kenya, research into classrooms in general and social studies 

in particular have revealed that lecture method is still dominant (Harher, 1997). 

In Botswana there have been attempts to train in-service teachers in child-centered approaches that were meant to 

develop critical thinking among learners such as the Project method. This initiative received criticism from some 

people that it was futile to try to alter the classroom relations while the enveloping school social structure remained 

oppressive (Tabulawa, 2003). Such pedagogies as learner-centered are said to be colonizing and domesticating and 

that their presentation as “a one-size-fits-all” approach to teaching and learning marginalizes pedagogies that are 

based on indigenous knowledge systems (Tabulawa, 2003). Tabulawa (2003) recommends that Africans need to 

invent alternative culturally relevant pedagogies and there is need to develop indigenous pedagogies. I tend to 

subscribe to the idea of developing indigenous pedagogies in Africa because it has been argued elsewhere that the 

African continent is replete with cultural tools that have nurtured vast civilizations as Ancient Egypt, Asante and 

Zulu kingdoms and has long been acknowledged as the cradle of civilization yet its cultural resources remain 

untapped (Grant & Asimeng-Boahene, 2006). It is through developing indigenous pedagogies that the cultural 

resources can be tapped into and be used to further our education and develop the citizens we need. 

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Challenges in Implementing the Social Studies Curriculum 

A number of challenges have been attributed to the implementation of social studies in Africa and among the many 

are a lack of instructional materials, definitional problems and lack of trained and experienced teachers (Mautle, 

2000; Asimeng-Boahane, 2000). It is interesting to note that in her study of some selected African countries 

Merryfield (1986) found that there was a problem of the definition of social studies and lack of instructional 

materials in schools. After about two decades the problems still exist. It has been observed that there is a serious 

lack of instructional materials for teaching social studies such as conventional materials like textbooks, audio, audiovisuals 

and other resources that are technology related in Africa in general (Asimeng-Boahene, 2000; Mautle; 

2000). Such materials where available, are also very limited in scope as they are usually content-related and not 

activity or problem-solving based (Asimeng-Boahene, 2000). 

The other problem related to social studies teaching and implementation is related to the definition of social studies. 

In her study in Malawi, Kenya and Nigeria Merryfield (1986) observed that people who are responsible for the 

implementation of social studies, teachers and teacher educators were not clear about the meaning of social studies 

and could not differentiate it from the subjects it replaced. Another problem that appears to be dominant in Africa 

relates to the training of teachers or teacher education. It appears that there is a great shortage of trained and 

experienced social studies teachers in most African schools (Mautle, 2000; Asimeng-Boahene, 2000). Problems in 

the provision of materials and resources continue to dominate in classrooms in Botswana (Adeyemi, Boikhutso & 

Moffat (2003).The current state of affairs with regards to social studies needs to be addressed if social studies is to 

achieve its goal of preparing citizens for the 21 century. 

METHODOLOGY 

The study was qualitative in its approach and employed the naturalistic inquiry paradigm. Naturalistic inquiry is said 

to demand a natural setting. This is so because “phenomena of study, whatever they may be-physical, chemical, 

biological, social, psychological- take their meaning as much from their contexts as they do from themselves” 

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985, 189). Lincoln & Guba further emphasize that naturalistic inquirers begin their research 

with the belief that constructions of realities cannot be separated from the world in which they occur or are 

experienced therefore emphasizing the relationship between time and context to understanding the phenomena under 

study. Due to the nature of naturalistic inquiry, I found it suitable for the design of my study as it was flexible, 

required more time in the natural setting and allowed the study to take shape and form as it progressed. 

Participants 

The study was undertaken among eleven social studies teachers in upper classes in six primary schools in one of the 

major villages in the central district in Botswana. For purposes of this study this major village was named 

Maretlweng village (Pseudonym). Of the eleven teachers, four were males and seven were females. The teachers‟ 

age ranged between 30 and 55 years, where four teachers were between 30 and 35 years, three were between 36 and 

45 years, two were between 46 and 50 and two were between 51 and 55 years. In this study, purposive sampling was 

used to select the teachers who participated in this study. This type of sampling requires that one establishes criteria, 

bases, or standards necessary for units to be included in the investigation (Patton, 1990). Therefore, these teachers 

were chosen on the basis that they are experts in the area of social studies, have taught social studies for more than 3 

years, are implementers of the curriculum and can explain what they do best. 

The naturalistic inquirer prefers purposive sampling because it allows for the increase of the scope and range of data 

and the likelihood that a full array of multiple realities will be uncovered, it also maximizes the researcher‟s ability 

to devise grounded theory that “ takes account of local conditions, local mutual shaping‟s, and local values” 

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 40). For this study, a type of purposive sampling known as snowball or chain sampling 

was used to select the participants. The teachers who were identified at the beginning were requested to refer the 

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researcher to other teachers in other schools who met the set criteria. After identifying such teachers, they were 

interviewed individually to get the final group that participated in the study. Those identified as potential 

participants were requested if they would like to participate in the study and that participation was voluntary. 

Pseudonyms were used to protect the confidentiality and anonymity of the participants. 

Data Sources 

Qualitative methods which included individual interviews, participant observation and focus groups were used for 

data collection. A total of 43 interviews, 22 participant observations and 2 focus group discussions were conducted 

over a period of three months (January-April, 2010). The individual interviews were used to solicit more in depth 

ideas on issues and problems encountered in their teaching; this informed the classroom observations and further 

interviews. The questions were based on what the teachers‟ think as opposed to asking content knowledge. 

Interviews have their own limitations, for instance, I interviewed teachers during break, lunch or after school. This 

made me rush over the interviews as teachers would either be in a hurry to go to the next class or tired after a long 

day of teaching. 

I observed the social studies teachers in different settings such as; classrooms and other outside activities in debate 

clubs, sports activities, staffroom and traditional music practices in an effort to understand what they do and why 

they do what they do in relation to citizenship development through social studies and to listen to their normal chats 

and gossips. The data obtained through observations was used to construct follow up interview questions and viceversa. 

Focus groups were used to enable both the participants and researcher to see how the individual responses 

contributed during discussions differ from or reinforce those of peers. Focus groups have their limitations in that 

they compromise confidentiality. At times teachers were not free to say what they would have said if interviewed 

individually. However, they enabled me to get the socio- cultural aspects of the study in that I was able to observe 

them when they are together on issues they agree or disagree on. 

Data Analysis 

This study adopted grounded theory techniques for data analysis (Strauss and Corbin, 1994). Data analysis involved 

making sense of what the researcher has seen, heard, and read. It also requires analyzing, categorizing, synthesizing, 

searching for patterns and interpreting the data (Glesne, 1999). Data were analyzed inductively using the constant 

comparative analysis (Merriam, 1998; Patton, 1990). Data collected were immediately transcribed, coded and 

categorized in order to inform the next interviews and focus groups. The constant comparative analysis is said to be 

a process that “combines inductive category coding with a simultaneous comparison of all social incidents observed 

and coded (LeCompte and Preissle, 1993, p.256). Data analysis took place at the same time with data collection and 

questions raised during transcription were used to shape the questions for the next interviews. 

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 

Historically, social studies as a vehicle through which citizenship education is taught has been plagued by 

controversies and debates over its nature, purpose and methods (Ross, 2006) and this has led to some people 

dismissing it as a school subject (Thornton, 2005 ). The findings in this study have revealed enormous challenges 

that social studies teachers in Botswana are faced with in their effort to develop citizens. All teachers in the study 

expressed frustration at the status of social studies within the curriculum and cited structural inequalities and 

socialization and cultural practices as the major impediments to the development of social studies teaching and 

learning. It is these deliberate roadblocks that have been placed on social studies that have turned out to be its 

nemesis in spite of the noble intent of which the subject was borne out of and introduced into the school curriculum. 

The findings are discussed according to the Research Questions (RQs) in the study and are divided into two 

categories mainly structural inequalities and socialization and cultural practices, their discussion follows below. 

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RQ1: Structural Inequalities 

Teachers lamented on structural inequalities that hamper the delivery of social studies and citizenship education in 

primary schools and among the many cited the following: lack of recognition; inadequate resources; lower 

qualifications and a lack of understanding of citizenship education. They also cited challenges emanating from the 

culture of the society they live in which included the socialization of children and lack of participation in class 

activities. 

Lack of Recognition of the Subject 

All of the eleven social studies teachers and the three school-heads interviewed expressed concern on how social 

studies is handled within the school curriculum. They expressed frustration at the appalling state of affairs 

concerning the status of social studies in the curriculum as they felt that it was totally ignored, not monitored nor 

supervised and argued that it was left at the mercy of those who teach it. Mr Tau elaborately commented on the lack 

of recognition that as social studies teachers they are concerned about, that: 

It is only that social studies on its own as compared to other subjects it is not that much monitored. If you 

look at other subjects you find that they are monitored, they have people who give reports on them on a 

term basis, but with social studies it is the burden of the teachers who are teaching it. You find that 

whether you are doing the right thing or not it is upon an individual. Or one would prefer to do it the way 

they understand it, or the way I was taught from the college. The most important thing is that the 

Government should recognize that teachers determine the nation or country because right now we have 

shortage of social studies teachers and there is no department that coordinates it like other subjects such as 

mathematics and science. 

Ms Lorato also talked about the non existence of a post of responsibility within the establishment and had this to 

say: 

It is only that social studies on its own as compared to other subjects it is not that much monitored. If you 

look at other subjects you find that they are monitored, they have people who give reports on them on a 

term basis, but with social studies it is the burden of the teachers who are teaching it. You find that whether 

you are doing the right thing or not it is upon an individual. Or one would prefer to do it the way they 

understand it, or the way I was taught from the college. 

The teachers‟ concerns were also augmented by the school-heads who expressed a lot of frustration on the state of 

affairs surrounding the status of social studies within the school establishment. Ms Joseph, who was a social studies 

teacher prior to being promoted, had this to say: 

There are also no workshops for social studies teachers compared to other subjects. The teachers normally 

don‟t even update themselves with information. They just teach outdated information. They just take things 

exactly as they are from the syllabus. 

Mr Jeremiah who is also a school-head, echoed more on the conspiracy within the government to sabotage their own 

efforts in citizenship development that: 

You See, Like I said earlier on, if people know what social studies is , we would be having somebody 

heading the department. To the Policy Makers social studies is not important, what is important is Maths 

and Science, Languages and Arts. That‟s why we are having heads of Departments in these areas. When 

you talk about social studies people will say no, Senior Teacher Sports and Culture would be rightly placed 

to head that department. Why Because people don‟t really want to know what social studies is about But 

somebody somewhere knows what social studies is, and because they think it‟s a political subject have 

decided to ignore it. 

He went on to say that: 

What I would like to say about social studies as a subject, very important as it is; to the “Powers that be” to 

know the importance of social studies particularly when we talk about citizenship education people need to 

know and understand their roles... Otherwise, if citizenship education is not taken aboard people will be left 

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behind. And I would be very happy if the “powers that be” meaning politicians and policy makers can 

listen and take note of this, so that at the end of the day we have Senior Teachers; HoD‟s for social studies. 

It is not only about creating jobs but all about educating people and informing them about citizenship 

education because it is very important. 

From these findings it is clear that both the teachers and school-heads expressed frustration and concern in the way 

social studies is handled and the lack of recognition of it as a curriculum subject that exists. The school-heads called 

on policy makers to inform themselves on social studies and its goals if indeed they are committed to the 

development a certain kind of citizenry ideal to Botswana. Though teachers were aware of the various challenges 

they are faced with, they also attributed them to conspiracy theories which they believed were political. This notion 

of conspiracy is explicitly stated by Mr Jeremiah that: “I think to some extent social studies on its own is a political 

subject and if this can be brought to the attention of the teachers there is going to be a problem”. Therefore, from the 

excerpt of Mr Jeremiah‟s interview, it can be deduced that the lack of recognition of social studies within the 

curriculum was seen as deliberate and aimed at producing citizens who are compliant, uncritical and cannot 

challenge the status quo. 

I also observed that social studies teachers were not specifically designated as such because they were teaching other 

subjects such as Mathematics, Setswana, English, Science and Practical subjects which were more recognized than 

Social studies. This observation solidified the teachers assertion that Social Studies was not recognized as a a subject 

and that it is not given any attention in terms of professional growth. This situation is troubling in that it defies the 

very fundamental principle within which social studies is grounded; that of preparing citizens in a democracy by 

equipping them with the knowledge, skills and values necessary for active participation (Adler & Sim, 2008; Ross, 

2006; Hahn, 2001). It is this paradox of introducing such a robust and important curriculum subject and the lack of 

its recognition thereof, which has turned to be the nemesis of social studies in primary schools in Botswana. 

Dearth of Teaching Resources 

All the teachers spoke about the shortage of resources as one of the challenges that limits citizenship development 

and the teaching and learning of social studies in their schools. Teachers also recognized the importance of 

technology in order to be active players in the world. This dearth of resources was experienced across the different 

subjects. The inadequacy of materials ranged from technology to teaching materials such as resource books for 

teachers and funds to carry out educational tours or field trips. Talking about the lack of technology in schools 

resulting in computer illiteracy Mr Tau said: 

I think we are living in a changing world and as such citizens need to have technological skills such 

as using modern technology devices like the computer, internet and all that is related to them. It 

appears Batswana are lacking in scientific skills and knowledge and therefore it is necessary to develop 

such skills. The government of Botswana has totally neglected primary schools when it comes to 

technology and therefore this affects the teaching of subjects such as social studies. 

Ms Thato explained how the availability of computers would facilitate learning and had this to say: 

The resources again i.e. computers, internet where pupils could be researching for themselves, our kids are 

computer illiterate, so if these things were here in our school, I think our pupils were going to manipulate, 

they will learn better. We are now living in modern society where all these things are now used. When they 

interact with other pupils of their age who are using this, they seem to be left behind in a way and those 

other kids will look down upon them. 

From the above dictum, it is clear that teachers are faced with a mammoth task of having to improvise on teaching 

resources in a world that is constantly changing and getting even more complex. Teachers also recognized that 

social studies is a living subject and as such requires them to embark on field trips, however, they expressed that 

their efforts are void in that there have financial limitations and Ms Neo had this to say: 

Lack of resources or teaching materials such as computers, globes, lack of funds as teachers are not 

provided with funds to help in teaching citizenship education. For example, if children are to go out for a 

trip, parents have to pay the money from their pockets and for those who fail to pay their children do not go 

for that trip. The government has to pay so that all kids benefit. We do not have places of research as the 

school library has insufficient resources. Even public libraries sometimes do not have relevant information. 

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Ms Thato also expressed concern on her inability to embark on field trips which are essential for students and 

lamented that: 

another one is lack of resources, sometimes you will find that we want pupils to visit certain places to take 

field trips and due to lack of funds it is difficult for us to search such places, for instance, we talked 

about different religions, our pupils are used to Christianity or African Traditional Religion 

because in Botswana these are the dominating religions, when we talk about Islam for instance, we 

don‟t have a mosque here in... Talking about a mosque which your pupil have never been to that place is 

very difficult for them to understand it, but taking them in a field trip, let‟s say to Gaborone to see a 

mosque, to see the Muslims in real life it becomes difficult. 

All these teachers expressed concern with the inadequate resources and argued that these problems militated against 

their efforts to effectively teach social studies and develop citizens in their classrooms. These findings reinforce 

those of an earlier study (Mautle, 2000) which was conducted among in-service primary teachers where it was found 

that there was acute unavailability of teaching resources and schools were in dire need of teaching materials. In the 

21 st century teachers are still required to improvise and teach subjects like social studies in abstraction. It is quite 

difficult to believe that up to now the recommendation of the Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE, 1994) 

on equipping students with skills for accessing and processing information through Information technology has not 

been implemented in primary schools. This situation both devalues and de-motivates teachers who are charged with 

the responsibility of the development of informed and effective citizens in this ever changing world. 

The inadequate resources in schools is generally disappointing given the country‟s economic growth over the years, 

one would expect schools to be widely resourced in terms of teaching and learning materials. These findings 

confirm the findings from previous studies that have found that there was a serious shortage of materials in social 

studies classrooms (Merryfield & Muyanda-Mutebi, 1991; Mautle, 2000; Adeyemi, Boikhutso & Moffat, 2003). 

One of the aims of the upper social studies curriculum as stated in the syllabus (MoE, 2005) is that: “Learners 

should have developed skills for accessing and processing of information using information technology (IT). This 

aim is ridiculous in view of the fact that schools are not equipped with computers and the very few schools that I 

observed with one or two computers which are white elephants because they are not in use were acquired through 

donations. Only one school had about twelve computers and all of them were acquired through a donation from the 

business community through the efforts of the school and their Member of Parliament. 

Some of the schools I observed did not even have a single computer. The question is “how do you expect students to 

acquire computer skills when teachers themselves do not have them and the majority are computer illiterate” This 

situation has serious implications for teaching and learning if indeed social studies is meant to facilitate in learners 

“the attainment of knowledge, develop skills and promote desirable attitudes needed to function as informed, 

productive and responsible citizens” (MoE, 2005, p. 147). Given the above mentioned state of affairs, it remains to 

be seen how teachers can perform miracles of teaching information technology without the required resources. 

Low Teacher Qualifications 

Some of the teachers such as Mr Tau, Ms Kabo, Ms Thato and Mr Kgabo (Pseudonyms) also reiterated on the slow 

upgrading of teachers from primary teachers‟ certificate to at least a diploma or bachelors degree in primarily 

education. They attributed the delay to a lack of recognition of primary school teachers and the role they play in the 

development of children from a tender age; failure to see the need to improve primary education and a political 

agenda. One of the school-heads, Mr Jeremiah, expressed concern and frustrations when he mentioned that: 

It has taken the powers that be a long time to upgrade the qualifications of teachers at primary- it has 

taken time- this has brought a lot of challenges because if you are upgraded to a higher level/qualification, 

it means that it affects one‟s salary; therefore upgrading of teachers has financial implications. So it is 

better for them to leave the teachers at a lower qualifications level so that their remuneration should be 

there- but it has taken time for people to understand that it is not about paying somebody, it is about 

bringing quality education because for as long as you are upgraded academically, then you will be able to 

bring about quality education. 

The teachers‟ argument was that the slow upgrading of teachers to a higher level is not based on financial 

implications on the side of the Government but rather on the fact that a primary school teacher cannot earn that 

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amount of money. They believe that they are stereotyped and degraded at the expense of the quality of education 

provided. Teachers believed that as a result of these stereotypes, their morale was very low. This view where 

teachers‟ are undermined literally compromises the quality of education and negates the Government of Botswana‟s 

aspirations of developing a knowledgeable and informed citizenry by 2016 (Presidential Task Group, 1997). These 

aspirations and the realities of social studies education on the ground are contradictory, hence the nemesis of social 

studies in Botswana primary schools. 

Lack of Understanding of Citizenship Education/ Social Studies 

Though social studies is aimed at developing citizens in a democracy, teachers expressed the view that they did not 

know what it means. Almost all of the teachers including school-heads talked about a lack of understanding of what 

citizenship education is and felt that it was important for the concept to be redefined and re-conceptualized within 

the Botswana context. This lack of understanding was attributed to the ineffectiveness of teacher education and the 

government‟s reluctance to invest in teacher education. Ms Kabo raised an important issue regarding definitional 

problems that: 

I think citizenship education is not clearly defined in Botswana, there is need for teachers to understand 

what citizenship is and the teacher educators have to equip teachers to be with such knowledge. Teacher 

education has to play an important role in following their students after training to see if they are doing 

what they are supposed to do. 

Ms Thato slammed the pedagogical aspects of social studies as attributable to definitional problems and said: 

social studies, the way it is being taught in primary schools is not that effective, the teachers are not much 

into developing citizenship as they are more into imparting knowledge because some do not even 

understand what it is all about. 

The view held by Ms Thato reinforces other findings from studies undertaken at secondary and tertiary levels of 

education on the state of social studies classrooms and teaching which have revealed that social studies teaching is 

teacher dominated, didactic and predominantly authoritarian (Mautle, 2000; Tabulawa, 1998; Harber, 1997). The 

observation that classrooms are teacher centered is a widespread challenge across the continent of Africa (Harber, 

1997; Asimeng-Boahene, 2000) and has remained such despite the fact that such education systems have 

implemented a number of educational reforms geared towards improving the quality of teaching and learning. This 

authoritarian nature of schools in Africa has been associated with “the colonial legacy of school organization and 

curriculum institutionalized during colonialism in the first part of the twentieth century, which has come to be 

regarded as „normal‟ or the only available model” (Harber,1997, p.3). Classrooms are characterized by silence on 

the part of students who act as recipients of knowledge and are not challenged to take responsibility of their own 

learning (Tabulawa, 1998). 

One of the school-heads, Mr Jeremiah, who has majored in social studies education talked about the controversies 

that surround citizenship and remarked that: 

I was saying that may be the theory that supports the understanding of citizenship is not being understood 

well because proponents of this theory might be different themselves and they might be arguing about it 

themselves not what is real about citizenship so I am saying we have to have a better understanding of this 

theory to appreciate what they are telling us to know about citizenship. As a society or community in 

Botswana, we should understand issues of citizenship as they are taught in schools. We should also review 

them and make some additions where necessary. 

From Mr Jeremiah‟s comments it could be deduced that citizenship education as taught in schools is alien and 

therefore called for it to be re-imagined. He went further to talk about the ambiguity that characterizes citizenship 

education as he mentioned that: 

like I say I don‟t have much background particularly when we talk about citizenship education, we are just 

teaching social studies as a subject, we do not go deep to citizenship education; what social studies is and 

what it can be, how it can influence or change the lives to know what social studies is all about. When you 

talk of citizenship education, it‟s something that did not come into my mind, that some of these things you 

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just do them in principle, not knowing that we are educating citizens, how their expectations should be like 

particularly that they are the rulers of tomorrow 

The findings in this category raise serious issues with regards to the teachers‟ understandings and interpretations of 

citizenship education in primary schools in Botswana. There is clear evidence that not only are teachers faced with 

these challenges but even school-heads who are the drivers of curriculum implementation and change have shown 

that they do not understand what social studies or citizenship education is all about. 

RQ 2: Socialization and Cultural Practices 

Almost all of the teachers felt that the socialization and culture of their students presented challenges for them in that 

social studies calls for inquiry based and participatory learning. However, the socialization process that students 

come from is totally the opposite of what is required in school. Teachers argued that some students were not 

participating in class due to their perceptions on education and their socialization. 

Lack of Participation 

Teachers also cited the lack of participation by students in class activities as a challenge for developing citizens in 

social studies classrooms. This lack of participation was attributed to the socialization of the girl-child and the boy 

child in the Setswana culture. Teachers argued in their focus groups that that from a tender age boys and girls are 

socialized differently being told that “a man should be strong and never cries” and that “a woman is not heard but 

seen”. This differential treatment of girls and boys at home impacts negatively on their participation in class 

activities. Almost all the teachers talked about the challenge of students‟ participation. Teachers provided reasons 

for some of their students not participating in class. Some teachers argued that the way the girl child is socialized at 

home may be responsible for their lack of participation in class. 

Mr Tau said that: 

Culture is also a problem as girls don‟t want to become leaders in school but we try as much as possible to 

encourage them to be positive and have an input. 

Ms Batho though not focusing on the girl-child also talked about the socialization process saying: 

Whereas some due to how they have been brought up cannot feel free to say some issues concerning them 

and are at times unwilling to share their ideas with others. 

It is also crucial to note that the school culture where students have to participate through asking questions, speaking 

directly looking at the teacher‟s eyes, and supporting arguments totally contradicts the home culture where asking 

questions may be seen as being rude or inquisitive, and looking directly at an adult‟s (teacher‟s) eyes when talking 

to them and answering back (deliberation) may be viewed as disrespect. The teachers‟ arguments are supported in 

Tabulawa (1998) who contends that the Tswana society emphasizes structures of domination and subordination of 

the child to his or her elders and children internalize these at a tender age and when they come to school they bring 

with them that „cultural baggage‟. This, therefore, shows how the home experiences and relationships influence the 

teaching and learning process in the schools. 

Perceptions on Education 

Teachers felt that the socio-economic status of some students basically impacted their perceptions about education 

and the extent to which they participate in class. Mr Kgabo talked about the family background as influencing 

students‟ participation and said: 

Some lack motivation because of their family background, some are from poor families, their parents don‟t 

know the importance of education, so when the kids come here in school, they only wait for the bell to ring 

to go home. They just come because they are told to come but the parents don‟t tell them the importance of 

education 

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The challenges raised by these teachers under this category are important in that they reflect disparities between the 

realities of the school and the home. These realities are indicative that the culture of the school and the home are 

totally different which may explain why students are passive in class and call for teacher educators, curriculum 

developers and teachers to reconsider the cultural milieu that students bring to school and how it impacts their 

learning process. 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

The findings in this study reflect serious flaws in the way social studies and citizenship education in particular is 

perceived, interpreted and enacted in primary schools in Botswana. Teachers are demoralized as they find 

themselves teaching a subject that appears to be a white elephant as it is not monitored with no Head of Department 

or at least a Senior Teacher. The state of the teaching resources is still appalling more especially the lack of 

provision of basic technology such as computers and internet despite the Revised National Policy on Education 

(RNPE, 1994) recommendation for students to be equipped with Information Technology (IT) skills since they live 

in a technologically changing world. These findings have implications for policy makers. Policy makers need to be 

reminded that democracy is not genetically inherited, it has to be learned, cultivated and practiced for it to prosper 

(Harber & Serf, 2006) and citizens do not spring from nowhere as they need to be taught desirable attitudes, values, 

beliefs, skills and knowledge requisite for them to become effective citizens in a democracy. This can only be 

facilitated by the recognition of the importance of Social Studies in Botswana primary schools. 

The situation that the social studies teachers‟ find themselves in needs an immediate redress in order for it to achieve 

its intended goals. Paradoxically, Botswana is a democracy, and it is surprising that it does not take Social Studies 

serious. One wonders; what happened to the impetus that saw the development of Social Studies in the country and 

its implementation across the school curriculum The contradiction lies with the waning of the subject within the 

school establishment and the purported intent of providing Social Studies in primary schools which basically poses a 

dilemma for the social studies teacher. The status of social studies within the school establishment has turned out to 

be its nemesis as it now militates against the growth of the subject. 

There is need for policy makers to also recognize the role that Social Studies teachers play in developing and 

nurturing citizenship by creating a post of responsibility for Social Studies as their discontent may militate against 

any effort towards citizenship development. The teaching of Social Studies also needs to be re-imagined and reconceptualized 

within Botswana primary schools otherwise it will remain an illusion rather than a reality. The 

following recommendations are suggested for consideration: 

1. During teacher preparation citizenship education through social studies should be re-conceptualized to take 

into consideration the contextual factors. 

2. Ministry of Education must insure that posts of responsibilities are introduced for social studies teachers to 

cater for professional development, monitoring and assessment purposes. 

3. Policy Makers have to be cognizant of the role social studies plays in a democracy and insure that teacher 

development promotes equality among educators. 

4. Ministry of Education should equip schools with relevant resources and materials such as computers to 

promote learning required in the 21 st century. 

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT VARIABLES 

AND STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN 

EGOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, EDO STATE, NIGERIA. 

ROSELINE O. OSAGIE* and CHUKUJINDU J. OKAFOR 

Department of Educational Studies and Management, Faculty of Education 

University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria 

*E-mail address for correspondence: rosarugue@yahoo.co.uk 

_________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: This is a quantitative study which investigated how human resources management variables impacted 

the academic performance of students in secondary schools in Egor local government area of Edo State in 2006 

and 2007. Four hypotheses were formulated. A questionnaire of the human resources management variables was 

administered to test the hypotheses. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was used to analyse the 

relationship between the four dimensions of human resources management variables and the academic 

performance of students. Findings demonstrated support for the hypotheses relative to three dimensions of the 

variables and students’ performance. 

Keywords: Human resources variables, management, students’ performance, secondary schools, Edo State. 

_________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

Over the years, educational institutions have developed into complex and functional field of endeavour from the 

previous simple experiences. Changes in technology, economic, social and political sectors have contributed 

immensely to this development. Therefore, for educational institutions to stay abreast in this rapidly changing 

environment, they must adapt to the new technologies and the changing life world. These issues pose many 

problems and challenges for school managers. Consequently, the management of physical and human resources 

in the school system are of the utmost importance in order to achieve the overall goals and objectives of the 

schools. 

Technological advancement has resulted in the use of new methods of teaching while government intervention 

in education has induced constant changes in national educational policies in Nigeria. Also, the demand for 

better pay, more benefits, less work by the staff and the lack of basic infrastructure in the schools are some of 

the problems the human resources manager has to cope with and manage properly to enable him meet the set 

goals and objectives of the school system ( Peretomode and Peretomode, 2005). Human resources management 

in education implies effectively coordinating the activities of staff, students and parents so as to achieve 

educational aims and objectives (Adeniyi, 2004). The National Policy on Education (2004) clearly spells out the 

broad responsibilities of managing schools as employment, promotion, deployment and discipline of teachers 

among others. 

Successive governments in Nigeria have made efforts towards the effective management of human resources in 

educational institutions. However, certain challenges still persist with staff training and development, teachers’ 

147

workload, performance evaluation, supervision of instruction, conditions of service, staff turnover and 

motivation, disciplinary problems among students and teachers, promotion policies and so on. 

To adequately handle the forgoing challenges, efforts should be geared towards the effective management of 

staff and students in secondary schools. The importance of human resources management has been stated but 

there is not much information on its relationship with the academic performance of students in secondary 

schools. High academic performance is one of the objectives of secondary education in Nigeria. For secondary 

schools to achieve high performance in the public examinations, they must recruit qualified teachers, they 

should secure modern buildings, adequate facilities and equipment should be provided to enhance teaching and 

learning while supervision of teaching is carried out for quality control. Other bodies that could influence 

students’ academic performance are administrators, managers, guidance counsellors, Parents Teachers 

Association (PTA), curriculum specialist, funding agencies, non –teaching staff, inspectors and examination 

boards. 

There are diverse schools of thought on how students should be measured or evaluated to show academic 

performance. According to Marlow (2003), teachers’ written tests have been used for at least one hundred and 

fifty years to determine students’ academic performance. The report of Coleman (1966) supports the view that 

non – school resources inputs such as students’ family background factors contribute more to students’ 

academic performance than the impact of school resources such as expenditure on teachers’ salaries, laboratory 

facilities and equipment, books and quality of teachers. These variables according to Coleman (1966) have 

negligible effects on students’ academic performance. 

Any organisation that does not plan for its human resources will often find that it is meeting neither the 

personnel requirement nor its over-all goals effectively (Stoner, 1978). For example, a school may decide to 

introduce new subjects into its school curriculum, if the school does not make adequate arrangements for the 

teachers to handle these new subjects, the subjects will remain on the time table without being taught. To further 

buttress this point, when the federal government launched the 6:3:3:4 system of education, it spent huge 

financial resources on equipment for technical education. However, the human resources required to operate the 

equipment was not considered. Consequently, the equipment were left to rot in the rain and many of the 

equipment were eventually stolen by hoodlums. 

With regards to the current educational policy, the supervision of instruction is the process of overseeing the 

work of teachers with the aim of assisting them to solve their instructional problems so that students can benefit 

maximally from classroom activities ( Igwe, 2005). This can be effected with the involvement of the principal 

or any other official appointed by interacting with teachers and students in the classroom regularly to monitor 

the teaching and learning process. According to Nwagwu (2004), the supervisor has the responsibility of 

monitoring and evaluating all staff activities and programmes of their organisation. The major reason for this is 

to ensure dutiful compliance of all staff with established laws and declared goals through quality assurance, 

maintenance of standards and quality control. This view is in line with the National Policy on Education (2004) 

which declared that supervision is a device for quality control. The goals of the school can be achieved through 

the continuous supervision of the teaching staff and the non- teaching staff. 

The evaluation of staff is conducted as it determines their performance, in as much as it also determines the 

academic performance of students. In performance evaluation of staff, care should be exercised to ensure that it 

is the performance and not the personality of the employees that are evaluated (Okafor, 2006 ). In the study by 

Akposheri (1994), she found out that there was significant relationship between teachers who were highly rated 

during evaluation and the academic performance of students. 

Another aspect of human resources management in the school is the workload of the staff. This is the amount of 

work assigned to a teaching position. Staff workload include teaching subjects, administrative duties, 

supervision of students and other activities. In the research findings on teachers’ workload by Naylor and 

Malcomson (2001), teachers saw their workload increased because they spent fifty-three hours a week preparing 

their lesson notes for teaching and marking scripts. The teachers reported that they modified their teaching 

methods to enable them cope with the stress of the workload. When that happened, it was difficult for them to 

accomplish all their objectives because of the lack of time. Consequently, the performance of the teachers and 

the students was impaired. 

Ikworayebe (2005) stated that in Edo State the allocation of teaching load to teachers is done through the 

number of periods of teaching. The maximum teaching workload per teacher is twenty-five periods while the 

minimum is eighteen per week. This policy is not strictly adhered to. Some teachers may be allocated less than 

the minimum teaching periods while others may have more than the maximum. This affects students’ academic 

performance. In the junior secondary schools in the federal capital territory, Abuja, teachers’ workload was one 

of the factors that inhibited students’ performance ( Nwwikina and Nwanekezi (2010). They also stated that 

some teachers taught as much as thirty-five periods a week while others taught less than six periods. Such 

148

discrepancy indicated that the workload was not equitably distributed in the school. It would be preferable to 

have a uniform policy that will ensure an equitable distribution of teachers’ workload that will enhance teaching 

and learning. The National Policy on Education (2004) stipulates a teacher student ratio of one to forty. 

However, a visit to some of the schools in Egor local government area revealed a clear departure from this 

policy. Teachers had classes with over a hundred students. This is due to the population explosion and the 

inability of the local government to employ more teachers. This situation has led to too much workload for the 

teachers. This certainly affects the academic performance of the students 

PURPOSE OF STUDY 

The central research question that guided the study was, “What is the relationship between human resources 

variables and the academic performance of students in Egor local government area of Edo State, Nigeria” The 

human resources variables employed for this study were: planning, staff supervision, staff evaluation and staff 

workload. 

Hypotheses 

1 There is no significant relationship between human resources planning and students’ 

academic performance. 

2 There is no significant relationship between staff supervision and students’ academic 

performance. 

3 There is no significant relationship between staff evaluation and students’ academic 

performance. 

4 There is no significant relationship between staff workload and students’ academic 

performance. 

METHODOLOGY 

The research is a relationship study with “ex -post facto” design. The design was found suitable as the 

interactions between the dependent and independent variables have occurred before this study. The population 

of this study consisted of public senior secondary school teachers and SS3 students in Egor local government 

area of Edo state in Nigeria. All the teachers and SS3 students in these schools constitute the target population 

for this study. The four hypotheses were tested using Pearson Product- moment correlation coefficient (r) to 

determine the level of relationship between the variables and academic performance of the students. 

RESULTS 

1 It was hypothesized that there is no significant relationship between human resources 

planning and students’ academic performance. 

149

Hypothesis 1 

Descriptive statistics 

Human Resources Planning (HRP) 

Mean Std. Deviation N 

HRP 2.40 .1218 11 

Correlations Human Resources Planning (HRP) 

Stud Perf 

HPR 

Pearson Correlation 

Sig. (2tailed) 

N 


Sig. (2-tailed) 

N 

Stud Perf 

1.000 

- 

11 

.392 

.233 

11 

HRP 

.392 

.233 

11 

1.000 

Note: Positively correlated but not significantly related 

- 

11 

The hypothesis was accepted. The calculated correlation coefficient r was 0.392. Though it was not significant 

there was a positive relationship. Thus, the more there is human resources 

planning the better is the students’ performance. 

2 It was hypothesized that there is no significant relationship between staff supervision and 

students’ academic performance. 


Staff Supervision (Staff Sup) 

Mean Std. Deviation N 

Staff Sup 2.80 .1914 11 

Correlations Staff Supervision (Staff Sup) 

Stud Perf Staff Sup 

Stud Perf Pearson Correlation 


N 

1.000 

- 

11 

.273 

.417 

11 

Staff Sup Pearson Correlation 


N 

.273 

.417 

11 

1.000 

- 

11 


150

This hypothesis was accepted as the calculated correlation coefficient r was 0.273. Though it was not 

significant, staff supervision was positively related to students’ academic performance. Thus, the more the staff 

are supervised the better is the students’ performance. 

3 It was hypothesized that there is no significant relationship between staff evaluation 

and students’ academic performance. 

Descriptive statistics Staff 

Evaluation (Staff Eval) 

mean Std. Deviation N 

Staff Eval 2.49 .1344 11 

Correlations Staff Evaluation (Staff Eval) 

Stud Perf 

Staff Eval 



N 



N 

Stud Perf 

1.000 

- 

11 

.400 

.223 

11 

Staff Eval 

.400 

.223 

11 

1.000 


- 

11 

The hypothesis was accepted as the calculated correlation coefficient r was 0.400. Though it was not significant, 

staff evaluation is positively related to students’ academic performance. Hence the more the staff are evaluated 

the better is the students’ performance. 

4. It was hypothesized that there is no significant relationship between staff workload and students’ academic 

performance. 


Staff workload (StaffWor) 

mean Std. Deviation N 

Staff Wor 1.79 .2038 

. 

11 

151

Correlations Staff workload (StaffWor) 

Stud Perf 

Staff wor 



N 



N 

Stud Perf 

1.000 

- 

11 

-.106 

.756 

11 

Staff wor 

-.106 

.756 

11 

1.000 

Note: Negatively correlated and not significantly related 

- 

11 

The hypothesis was accepted as the calculated correlation coefficient r was -0.106. Staff workload has a 

negative relationship with students’ performance. This implies that the lower the workload of staff, the better is 

the students’ performance. 

DISSCUSSION OF RESULTS 

The positive relationship in human resources management planning is expected because planning is the bedrock 

of any organisation which intends to make an impact in society. The fact that there is no significant relationship 

indicates that much needs to be done in human resources planning sector in Egor local government area. The 

government should spend a considerable effort to recruit adequate staff in terms of quantity and quality and in 

particular to fill the areas of the most pressing needs. In–service training of staff should be a continual exercise, 

especially in their subject areas. Staff should be given the opportunity to attend seminars and workshops which 

would expose them to new methods of teaching and learning. 

On staff supervision, the more the staff are supervised the better is the performance of the students. The 

insignificant relationship implies that supervision is not well conducted in senior secondary schools in Egor 

LGA. In a study of one thousand and eight primary and one hundred and five secondary schools in Edo State, 

only fifteen supervisors were in the inspectorate department of the Ministry of Education and only six of the 

supervisors had degrees in Educational Supervision (Ogunu, 2001). The present study has provided an insight 

into how supervision is carried out in secondary schools in Egor local government area. Since supervision is an 

important element in human resources management, it is therefore recommended that the inspectorate division 

of the Ministry of Education should be strengthened with more personnel to effectively carry out the function of 

staff supervision that will have a meaningful impact on students’ performance. 

Staff evaluation is also an important human resources management variable. The more the staff is evaluated the 

better is the students’ performance. This result agrees with the views of Nwagwu (2004) that staff evaluation 

should be carried out to determine their performance because their performance also determines students’ 

performance. 

Staff workload has a negative relationship with students’ academic performance. Hence the lower the workload 

of staff, the better is the students’ performance. This finding agrees with those of Naylor and Malcolmson 

(2001) who reported that teachers had to adjust their teaching methods to enable them cope with the pressure of 

the workload. The finding from this study also agrees with the work of Nwikina and Nwanekezi (2010) who 

found out that in the federal capital territory (Abuja), teachers’ high workload hindered students’ academic 

performance but when their workload was reduced, students’ performance improved. 

152

CONCLUSIONS 

There is no doubt that to achieve quality learning that will improve the academic performance of students, it is 

important that a system is put in place that will ensure that teachers, students and management are guided 

toward the desired goals and objectives of the school. This study explored such a system, that is, human 

resources management variables and how these variables influenced the academic performance of students. The 

study determined that staff workload had a negative correlation with students’ performance while human 

resources planning, staff supervision and staff evaluation had a positive correlation to students’ academic 

performance. However, they were all not significantly related to students’ performance. The findings were 

consistent with those in the literature on school improvement. 

REREFERCES 

Adeniyi, (2004). Psychosocial Environment and Human Resource Management in Educational Institutions. 

Journal of Educational Management and Planning vol1 No1 p141 

Akposheri, R. O. (1994), The Relationship Between Students evaluation of Instruction and Students’ Academic 

Performance. An Unpublished Masters Thesis. University of Benin, Benin City. 

Coleman, J. (1966). Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington D.C Department of Health Education 

and Welfare offices of Educations. 

Igwe, S. O. (2005). Supervision, Evaluation and Quality Control in Education. In current Issues In Educational 

Management In Nigeria (Eds.) In N. A. Nwagwu., E. T. Ehiametalor, M.A Ogunu, Mon Nwadiani 

(Eds). Current issues in Educational Management in Nigeria ( pp. 32-45). Association for Educational 

Administrator and Planning (NAEAP). 

Ikworayegbe, M. G. (2005). The study Of Teachers Workload In Private and Public Secondary Schools in Edo 

North Senatorial District. Unpublished M.Ed Project, University of Benin, Benin City. 

Marlow, E. (2003). Philosophy and Measurement of School Achievement. Journal of Instructional Psychology. 

http://www.findarticles.com 

National Policy on Education (2004). Lagos: NERDC Printing press 

Naylor, C. and Malcolmsom, J. D. (2001). A study of workload of English teachers in B.C. secondary grades. 

BCTR Research Report. RT01-0036 pp 16-17. 

Nwagwu, N.A. (2004) Personnel Management. In N. A. Nwagwu., M. E. Ijeoma., C. C. Nwagwu (Eds). 

Organisation and Administration of Education. Perspectives and Practices (pp 48 -55) Benin City. 

Festa Printing Press Ltd. 

Nwikina, L. and Nwanekezi, A. (2010). Management of job-related teacher burnout in Nigerian schools. 

Academic Arena. 2(7). 

Ogunu, M.A. (2001). Problems of School Inspection in Nigeria. In N.A Nwagwu, E.T Ehiametalor. M. A. 

Ogunu and Mon Nwadiana (Eds). Current issues in Educational Management in Nigeria ( pp 60-65 ). 

Benin City. Association of Educational Administrator and Planning (NAEAP) . 

Okafor, C. A. (2006). Organisational Characteristics, Practices, and Performance in Nigeria. A Ph.D 

Dissertation Submitted to School of Postgraduate studies, University of Benin, Benin City. 

153

Peretomode, V. F. and Peretomode, O. (2005). Human Resources Management. Principles, polices and 

practices. Lagos: Onosomegboho Ogbinaka Publishers Ltd. 

Stoner, J. A. E. (1978). Management; New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. 

154




GENDER DIFFERENCES AND STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND 

RETENTION IN SOCIAL STUDIES AMONG JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN 

EKITI STATE 

B.O. ABDU-RAHEEM 

Department of Educational Foundations and Management, Faculty of Education, 

University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. 

E-mail address for correspondence: dr_boabduraheem@yahoo.com 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: This paper examined gender differences and academic achievement and retention of students in social 

studies among Junior Secondary schools in Ekiti State. The study adopted quasi experimental pre-test, post-test 

control group design. The sample for the study consisted of 240 Junior Secondary school class II students selected 

from 6 schools, 3 boys only and 3 girls only in Ekiti State. Simple random sampling was used to select 40 students 

from each single-sex school. The instrument used for the study was the Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT) 

designed by the researcher. Section A of the SSAT contained the bio-data of the respondents while section B 

consisted of 40 multiple-choice items designed to find the level of achievement and retention of students in social 

studies. 6 hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The data were analysed using 

ANOVA and ANCOVA statistical analyses. The findings indicated that there is no significant difference between 

the achievement mean scores of male and female students in the experimental and control groups. There is no 

significant difference between the retention mean score of male and female students in the experimental and control 

groups. It was concluded in the study that gender does not play any significant role on students‟ achievement and 

retention in social studies. It was therefore recommended that female students should be more encouraged both at 

home and school in order to develop their untapped intellectual resources and erase the old gender stereotype against 

them. 

Keywords: Gender differences, academic achievement, retention significant relationship, stereotype, significant 

role, significant difference, social studies, junior secondary schools 

____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

One of the most topical issues in the current debate all over the world has been that of gender differences and 

academic achievement among students in schools. Over the years, there has been a growing awareness of the role of 

women at home, in schools, and community in general. However worries have equally been expressed about the role 

of women in the political, social, cultural, psychological, economic, spiritual, scientific and technological 

155


development of the nations. A major area of concern has been the effects of gender differences on academic 

achievement and retention of students in secondary schools. 

However, the major focus of this paper is to examine the differences between the achievement mean scores of male 

and female students and the difference between the retention mean scores of male and female students. Also, the 

paper will find out whether or not there is a significant relationship between gender and academic achievement of 

students in school. The study will therefore give insight on the effects of gender on students‟ academic achievement 

and retention in social studies in secondary schools in Ekiti State. 

Fisho-Oridedi (2001) in her book The Girl Child noted that “the Nigerian population in 1991 was 88,514,501. The 

population of men (male) is 44,544,053 which is 50.32% while that of women (female) is 43,969.970 which is 

49.7% of the total population”. The above data indicate that women constitute almost half of Nigerian population 

and their potentialities in contributing to the national development cannot be over-emphasised. Ibraheem (2001) 

confirmed the above statement that “women constitute about 50% of Nigerian population and their potentiality in 

contributing to the national development cannot be ignored”. 

In African culture, girls are not familiar with toys that promote interest in science and technology. Their major duty 

is home management and child-bearing. They are expected to cook and clean while the boys engage in activities 

such as playing football, making bows and arrows, playing with catapults, flying kites and so on. Bozimo (1991) 

noted that these activities promote scientific knowledge and thus give them an edge over girls. Babalola and Adedeji 

(1997) also confirmed that women, throughout the ages and everywhere in the world, have always been considered 

inferior to men. Scottish local authorities did not introduce gender policies until the early 1990s (Ridwell 2000). 

Jekayinoluwa (2005) lamented that schools and the nation at large are making profound contributions to the creation 

of positive learning environment that could motivate learning achievement more in boys than girls. 

In their own study, Jegede and Inyang (1990) worked on gender differences and academic achievement in integrated 

science in Junior Secondary Schools. They confirmed that males performed better than females. They affirmed that 

males demonstrated significantly more positive attitudes towards science than females. Schibbeci (1984) also noted 

that females exhibit more positive attitudes towards Biology and males towards Physics. Owuamanam and 

Babatunde (2007) noted that the girls tend to go for courses that do not require more energy and brain tasking such 

as home making while boys looked for jobs in management, engineering, banking and other brain-tasking 

professions. 

In her own research carried out in London, Osler (2002) confirmed that girls excluded or self-excluded from formal 

education were rampant among African girls than White girls. In another research carried out in London, Claire 

(2005) highlighted the high number of black girls being excluded from school and also looked at the way language 

is used in education. Both ethnicity and social class are factors which combined with, and interacting with gender, 

are seen as having a direct bearing on achievement (Plummer 2000 and Arnot 2003). Archer (2003) noted that 

gender inequalities are interwoven with social class, ethnicity, sexuality and disability. Another factor identified as 

influencing attainment is ethnicity (Arnot 2003). 

In his own findings, Murphy (2001) linked academic achievement with patterns of behaviour. He noted that there 

are signs of boys being vulnerable to becoming disaffected. He explained further that boys tend to be less careful 

about rules and more indifferent to being reprimanded. Head et al (2002) revealed that boys are also more likely to 

be referred to Behavioural Support Services. Younger et al (2005) cautioned by pointing out that there are many 

boys who continue to do well in school and only few of them become affected. 

Of particular interest is the fact that girls, to a large percentage, avoid physical science subjects when choice is 

offered. Studies indicated that girls are more satisfied with school life and their school-related attitudes are more 

positive than those of boys (Balogun 1983 and Yoloye 1983). They explained further that the intellectual potential 

of girls is an untapped labour resource for science and technology. Average levels of attainment for boys are lower 

than those of girls at all stages and across almost all areas of the curriculum (Croxford, 2000). A similar picture can 

be observed in England and Wales (Younger et al 2005). 

In Social Studies, sex factor has no influence on the academic achievement of students. Their achievement is based 

on their levels of understanding and commitment. In his study on differences in the cognitive achievement towards 

Social Studies, Akinbote (1999) confirmed that there is no significant difference between the cognitive achievement 

and attitude towards Social Studies of boys and that of the girls. In his own contribution, Adeosun (2002) confirmed 

that there is no significant difference in the achievement score between males and females while conducting studies 

156


on effects of multimedia packages on students‟ achievement and retention in Social Studies. Abdu-Raheem (2010) 

also concluded that gender does not play any significant role on students‟ achievement in Social Studies. 


In spite of the fact that women constitute almost half of the Nigerian population and contribute immensely to 

economic development, they are still been discriminated against by the society especially in the African countries. It 

has also been observed that the stereotype against ladies is affecting their academic achievement adversely. This 

paper therefore aims at investigating the effects of gender on students‟ academic achievement and retention in Social 

Studies in Ekiti State Secondary Schools. 


1. There is no significant difference between the achievement mean scores of male and female students in 

the experimental and control groups. 

2. There is no significant difference between the retention mean scores of male and female students in the 

experimental and control groups. 

Purpose of the Study 

The purpose of this study is to proffer a lasting solution to the problem of gender differences and its effects on 

academic achievement and retention of students in Social Studies in schools. The outcome of this study could also 

create enabling situation for girls to develop their untapped intellectual sources and improve on their achievement. 

METHODOLOGY 

The study is a quasi experimental pre-test, post-test control group design. The sample consisted of 240 Junior 

Secondary School class II students selected from 6 single-sex schools(3 boys and 3 girls) in Ekiti State. Simple 

random sampling was used to select 40 students from each school for the study. 

Instrument 

The instrument used for the study was the Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT) designed by the researcher. The 

instrument consisted of 40 multiple choice items used as pre-test, post-test and retention test respectively. The 

validity of the instrument was ascertained by the experts in Educational Management, Guidance and Counselling 

and Social Studies. Face, content, construct validity and item analysis procedure were done to validate the 

instrument. The reliability of the instrument was determined through test-re-test and estimation of internal 

consistency. The reliability coefficient of 0.73 and 0.71 were obtained respectively. 

Experimental Procedure 

The students were first exposed to pre-test to check their knowledge base line. The students were then randomly 

assigned to experimental and control groups where they were exposed to different treatment. The experimental were 

157


exposed to treatment through problem-solving and discussion methods while the control group continued with their 

lessons through the normal conventional lecture method. 

Data Analysis 

The data were analysed using ANOVA and ANCOVA statistical tools. 


Hypothesis 1 

There is no significant difference between the achievement mean scores of male and female students in the 

experimental and control groups. 

Table 1:ANCOVA Summary of Gender and Treatment on students‟ Achievement in Social Studies. 

Source Ss Df Ms Fcal Ftable 

Corrected model 36625.918 6 6104.320 545.773 2.09 

Covariate 

(pretest) 

126.429 1 126.429 11.304 3.84 

Sex 5.390 1 5.390 .482 3.84 

Group 36392.432 2 18196.216 1626.882 2.99 

Sex Group 43.668 2 21.834 1.952 2.99 

Error 3948.205 353 11.185 

Corrected Total 40574.122 359 

Total 275992.000 400 

P>0.05 

The null hypothesis is accepted (F=.482, P>0.05). Therefore, there is no significant difference between the 

achievement mean scores of male and female students in Social Studies. The interaction of gender and treatment on 

students‟ achievement in social studies is not statistically significant at 0.05 level (F=1.952, P>0.05). However, the 

main effect of treatment on students‟ achievement is significant at 0.05 level (F=1626.882, P


Table 2: ANOVA summary of Gender and treatment on Retention Mean Scores of Social Studies Students‟ 

Source Ss Df Ms Fcal Ftable 

Corrected model 46036.656 5 9207.331 966.463 2.21 

Sex 2.844 1 2.844 .299 3.84 

Group 46000.572 2 23000.286 2414.263 2.99 

Sex Group 33.239 2 16.619 1.744 2.99 

Error 3372.500 354 9.527 

Corrected Total 49409.156 359 

Total 249726.000 360 

P>0.05 

Table 2 shows that Fcal (.299) is less than F table (3.84) at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis is 

accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the retention mean scores of male and female 

students in the experimental and control groups. Similarly, the interaction effect of gender and treatment on 

retention mean scores of the students in social studies is not statistically significant at 0.05 (F=1.74, P>0.05). 

However, the effect of treatment on retention mean scores of students in Social Studies is statistically significant at 

0.05 (F=2414.263, P


Conclusion and Recommendations 

It was concluded in the study that gender does not play any significant role on students‟ achievement and retention 

in social studies. It was therefore recommended that girls should be assisted and encouraged by the parents, teachers 

and the society in order to develop their untapped intellectual resources, to improve on their academic achievement. 

REFERENCES 

Abdu-Raheem, B.O. (2010). Relative effects of problem-solving and discussion methods on secondary school 

students‟ achievement in social studies. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti. 

Adeosun, O.V. (2002). Relative effects of three multi-media packages on students‟ achievement and retention in 

social studies. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti. 

Akinbote, O.A. (1999) Sex differences in the cognitive and effective outcomes in social studies of primary school 

pupils. African Journal of Educational Research 5(1). 34-38. 

Arnot, M. (2003). Male working-class in identities and social justice: a reconsideration of Paul Willis‟s „Learning to 

Labour‟ in light of contemporary research. Inc Vincent (ed.) Social justice, education and identity. London: 

Routledge Falmer. 

Balogun, T.A. (1983). Obstacles to teacher effectiveness in Nigeria school setting. Paper presented at the 2 nd 

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Bozimo, H. (1991). Role modelling and concomitant attitude change strategies as determinants of achievements of 

girls in integrated science. An unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan. 

Claire, H. (Ed.) (2005). Gender in education 3-19-A fresh approach. London: Association of teachers and Lecturers. 

Pdf http://www.atl.org.uk. 

Croxford, L. (2000). Gender and national curricular: shifting agendas in the UK and Europe. London: Routledge. 

http://www.ero.govt.nz/publications/pubs2000/promoting%20boys%20achmt.htm. 

Fisho-Oridedi, D. (2001). Developing the potentials of the girl-child-A National challenge. Nigeria: The REGENT 

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Head, G. Kane, J. & Cogna, N. (2002). An evaluation of behaviour support in secondary schools in south 

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Ibraheem, I. (2001). Winning more girls and women for science and technology: A challenge for Women. In O. 

Busari, (Ed) Women in science, technology and mathematics education in Nigeria, 43 rd STAN Annual 

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Jegede, O.J. & Inyang, N. (1990). Gender difference and achievement in integrated science among junior secondary 

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Murphy, P. (2000). Equity, assessment and gender. In J. Salisbury and S. Ridwell, (eds.) Gender policy and 

educational change shifting agenda in the UK and Europe, London: Routledge. 

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Osler, A. Street, C. Lall, M. & Vincent K. (2000). Not a problem Girls and school exclusion. London: National 

Children‟s Bureau. 

Owuamanam, T.O. & Babatunde, J.O. (2007). Gender-role stereotypes and career choice of secondary school 

students in Ekiti State. Journal of Educational Focus. 1(1): 103-110 

Plummer, G. (2000). Failing working class girls. Stoke-on Trent: Trentham Books. 

Ridwell, S. (2000). Equal opportunities in Scotland in J. Salisbury & Ridwell (Eds.). Gender, policy and educational 

change: shifting agendas in UK and Europe. London: Routledge. 

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Schibeci, R.A. (1984). Attitude to science: An update. Studies in Science Education. 11, 26-59. 

Yoloye, E.A. (1983). The evaluation of teaching. Paper Presented at the Workshop on Effective Teaching, Institute 

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Younger, M., Warrington, M., Gray, J. Rudduck, J. McLellan, R. Bearne, E. Kershner, R. & Bricheno, P. (2005). 

Raising boys’ achievement. DFES Research Report 636. London: 

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