Pharmacology
Aqueous Methanol Extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium
(A. Rich) Possess Analgesic and Anti-inflammatory Activities
Ahmed TS, Magaji MG1, Yaro AH2, Musa AM3, Adamu AK4
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal Government Girls College, New Bussa, Niger State,
1
Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 2Department of
Pharmacology, Bayero University, Kano, 3Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, and
4
Department of Biological Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
Address for correspondence: Mr. Mohammed G. Magaji; E-mail: magmas1@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Cochlopermum tinctorium A. Rich. (Cochlospermaceae) is a commonly used medicinal plant in the West
Africa sub-region for the management of various conditions including pain and inflammatory conditions.
In the present study, we report the analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of the aqueous methanol
leaf (20–80 mg/kg), root (7.5–30 mg/kg), and root bark (20–80 mg/kg) extracts of the plant. The analgesic
potentials of the extracts were studied using acetic acid induced writhing and hot plate tests in mice while
the anti-inflammatory activity was investigated using carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats.The extracts
significantly and dose dependently inhibited the acetic acid-induced writhing in mice. However, the highest
protection against writhing was produced by aqueous methanol leaf extract at the dose of 80 mg/kg
(96.65%) which even was greater than that of the standard agent, ketoprofen (82.30%). The extracts did
not significantly increase mean latency of response in the hot plate test. However, aqueous methanol root
bark extract at the dose of 20 mg/kg significantly (P < 0.05) increased the mean latency of pain response.
While the extracts of the root and root bark extracts of the plant afforded non dose-dependent protection
against carrageenan-induced edema, the aqueous methanol leaf extract significantly and dose-dependently
inhibited carrageenan-induced hind paw edema at the end of the third hour.The present study suggests that
the aqueous methanol leaf, root, and root bark extracts of Cochlopermum tinctorium possess analgesic and
anti-inflammatory activities which lend some credence to the ethnomedical claim of the use of the plant in
the management of pain and inflammatory conditions.
Key words: Analgesia, anti-inflammation,Cochlopermum tinctorium, hot plate, edema, writhing
Access this article online
Quick Response Code:
Website:
www.jyoungpharm.in
DOI:
10.4103/0975-1483.83774
Journal of Young Pharmacists Vol 3 / No 3
INTRODUCTION
The use of medicinal plants is an ancient practice common
to all societies.[1] About 80% of the world population
living in developing relies on traditional medicine for
their primary health care need. [2] The world Health
Organization encourages the inclusion of herbal medicine
237
Ahmed, et al.: Extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium possess analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities
of proven efficacy and safety in health care delivery
system of developing countries.[3] There is, therefore, a
need to validate the folkloric claim of the medicinal plants
used in traditional medicine so that the beneficial ones
can be deployed as phytomedicines while the bioactive
constituents from such beneficial plants could be isolated
and used as “leads” in drug discovery process.
Cochlospermum tintorium (A. Rich) (Cochlospermaceae)
is a bushy plant attaining about 50 cm in height. It has
widespread occurrence in the savannah and shrub land
throughout the drier areas of West Africa region. The
common vernacular names in Nigeria include rawaya,
kyamba (Hausa), obazi, abanzi (Igbo), and sewutu (Yoruba).[4]
The rhizomes of the plant are used traditionally against
fever, hepatitis, abdominal pain, and helminthes, and
bilharzias infestations.[5] The decoctions of the whole
roots are used as remedy for gonorrhea, jaundice and
gastrointestinal disease. [6] Some previous studies on
the plant have reported anti-ulcer, radical scavenging,
immunomodulating,[7] anti-malarial,[8] hepatoprotective,[9,10]
antibacterial,[11,12] anti-convulsant[13] activities. To our
knowledge, there is no report on the analgesic and antiinflammatory potentials of the plant in the literature.
This study is, therefore, aimed at evaluating the analgesic
and anti-inflammatory activities of the aqueous methanol
extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The whole plant, Cochlopermum tintorium was collected
from a secondary forest in New Bussa, Niger state,
Nigeria in January 2008 by Late Mal. Ahmed. Sani
Tijjani. The collection was authenticated by Messrs Musa
Mohammed and Umar Galla of the Herbarium Section
in the Department of Biological Sciences, Ahmadu Bello
University (ABU), Zaria-Nigeria by comparing with existing
specimen (Number 2314). The parts of the plants namely
leaves, root and root bark were cleaned, separated and
dried under shade. They were then size-reduced separately
into coarse powder with a pestle and mortar. Extraction
was carried out using cold maceration with occasional
shaking for 72 hr using 500 ml of 70% aqueous methanol
for each 100 g of powdered material. The extracts were
concentrated in vacuo and subsequently referred to as
aqueous methanol leaf extract (AMLE), aqueous methanol
root extract (AMRE), and aqueous methanol root bark
extract (AMRBE), respectively. Fresh aqueous solutions
of the extracts were prepared for each study.
238
Phytochemical studies
The extracts were screened for the presence of alkaloids,
saponins, tannins, flavonoids etc.using standard protocol.[14]
Animals
Albino rats of Wistar strain (150–200 g) and Swiss
albino mice (18-30 g) of either sex were procured
from the Animal House Facility of the Department
of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria, Nigeria. They were housed in standard
polypropylene cages and kept under controlled room
temperature (25 ± 2°C) in a 12 h light-dark cycle. The
animals were fed on standard laboratory animal diet
and water ad libitum. Food was withdrawn during the
experimental hours. All experimental protocols were
approved by the University animal ethics committee and
conducted in accordance with standard practice of animal
handling as accepted internationally.
Drugs
The following chemicals and drugs were used: carrageenan
(Sigma-Aldrich), Acetic acid (Ranbaxy Laboratories
Ltd., Punjab), Ketoprofen (Lek, Slovenia), Morphine
(Martindale, Essex) and Piroxicam (Roche laboratories,
Welwyn Garden City).
Acute toxicity study
Intraperitoneal median lethal dose (LD50) estimation was
conducted in mice using the method of Lorke. Briefly;
the method was divided into two phases. In the initial
phase, three groups of three mice each were treated with
AMLE at doses of 10,100, and 1000 mg/kg body weight
i.p. and observed for signs of toxicity and death for
24 h. In the second phase, four groups each containing
three mice was injected with four more specific doses of
AMLE. The LD50 value was determined by calculating the
geometric mean of the lowest dose that caused death and
the highest dose for which the animal survived (0/1and
1/1).[15] The same procedure was conducted for AMRE
and AMRBE.
Acetic acid-induced writhing test
The mice (n = 6) were treated with normal saline (10 ml/
kg), AMRE (7.5, 15, and 30 mg/kg), AMLE (20, 40, and
80 mg/kg), AMRBE (20, 40, and 80 mg/kg), or ketoprofen
(10 mg/kg), intraperitoneally. Thirty minutes after
administration, the mice were treated with 0.6 (v/v) acetic
acid, intraperitoneally and were immediately transferred
Journal of Young Pharmacists Vol 3 / No 3
Ahmed, et al.: Extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium possess analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities
to individual cages. The number of writhes was counted
using tally counter for each mouse for a period of 10 min
after 5 min latency period.[16] Percentage inhibitions of
writhes were calculated for the extract and the standard
agent using the formula:
Mean Number of writhes(control)
- Mean Number of writthes(test)
Inhibition(%) =
¥100
Mean Number of writhes(control)
Hot plate test
A 600 ml test beaker was placed on thermostat hot plate
(Gallenkamp thermostat). The temperature was regulated
to 50 ± 1°C. Each mouse was placed in the beaker (on the
hot plate) in order to obtain its response to electrical heatinduced nociceptive pain stimulus. Licking of the paws or
jumping out of the beaker was taken as an indicator of
the animal’s response to heat-induced nociceptive pain
stimulus. The time for each mouse to lick its paws or jump
out of the beaker was taken (reaction time). Each mouse
serves as its own control. Before treatment, its reaction
time was taken thrice at 1 h interval. The mean of these
three determinations constituted initial reaction time before
treatment of the mouse. The mean reaction time for the
groups was pooled to obtain the final control mean reaction
time (Tb). Each of the test mice was thereafter treated
with either normal saline (10ml/kg), AMRE (7.5, 15, and
30 mg/kg), AMLE (20, 40, and 80 mg/kg), AMRBE (20,
40, and 80 mg/kg), intraperitoneally or morphine sulphate
(5 mg/kg), subcutaneously. Thirty minute after treatment,
the reaction time of each mouse was again evaluated but
only once on this occasion. This was pooled for the mice
in each treatment group and the final test mean value (Ta)
for each treatment group was calculated.[17,18] This final test
mean (Ta) value represented the after treatment reaction
time (Ta) and was subsequently used to determine the
percentage thermal pain stimulus or protection by applying
the formula:
% protection against thermal stimulus
Test mean(Ta)-Control mean(Tb)
=
¥100
Control mean(Tb)
Carrageenan-induced hind paw edema
Wister rats were divided into five groups each containing
five rats. The rats were treated with normal saline (1 ml/ kg),
AMRE (7.5, 15, and 30 mg/kg), AMLE (20, 40, and
80 mg/ kg), AMRBE (20, 40, and 80 mg/kg), or ketoprofen
(20 mg/kg), intraperitoneally. Thirty minutes later, 0.1 ml
of freshly prepared carrageenan suspension (1%, w/v, in
0.9% normal saline) was injected into the sub plantar region
of the left hind paw of each rat.[19] The paw diameter was
Journal of Young Pharmacists Vol 3 / No 3
measured with the aid of a vernier caliper at 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 h
after the injection of carrageenan. The difference between
the readings at time 0 h and different time interval was taken
as the thickness of edema. The percentage inhibition of
inflammation was calculated for each dose at different hours.
Statistical analysis
The results were presented as mean ± SEM and were
analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test
for multiple comparisons. A P value <0.05 was considered
significant.
RESULTS
Acute toxicity study
The intraperitoneal median lethal doses of AMRE, AMLE,
and AMRBE in mice were found to be 118.32, 288.53, and
288.53 mg/kg, respectively.
Preliminary phytochemical studies
All the extracts were found to contain saponins, flavonoids,
tannins, steroids, cardiac glycosides, and alkaloids [Table 1].
Acetic acid-induced writhing test in mice
The extracts significantly and dose dependently inhibited
the acetic acid induced writhing in mice, However, the
highest protection against writhing was produced by AMLE
at the dose of 80 mg/kg (96.65%) which was greater than
that of the standard agent, ketoprofen (82.30%) [Table 2].
Hot plate test in mice
The extracts at the various doses tested afforded varying
protection against thermal stimulus in mice. However, the
increases in mean latency in response were not statistically
significant. However, AMRBE significantly (P < 0.05)
increased the mean latency of pain response. The standard
agent, morphine afforded more than 400% protection
against thermal stimulus [Table 3].
Table 1: Phytochemical constituents present in the
aqueous methanol extracts of C. tinctorium
Phytochemical constituents
Flavonoids
Tannins
Steroids/terpenoids
Cardiac glycoside
Alkaloids
Saponins
AMRE
+
+
+
+
+
+
AMRBE
+
+
+
+
+
+
AMLE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+: Present
239
Ahmed, et al.: Extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium possess analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities
Carrageenan-induced hind paw edema
AMRE did not significantly reduced the mean paw diameter
at the lowest dose tested (7.5 mg/kg). AMRBE significantly
reduced edema in rats at the third hour after treatment with
carrageenan. However, the effect was not dose dependent.
AMLE significantly and dosedependently protected the rats
against carrageenan-induced edema. The highest activity
obtained with the dose of 80 mg/kg was greater than that
produced by ketoprofen at the third hour [Table 4].
DISCUSSION
The data presented in this study showed that aqueous leaf,
root and root bark extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium possess
significantly analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities.
The median lethal dose of the extracts found to be less
than 300 mg/kg suggested that they are relatively toxic,[20]
Table 2: Effect of aqueous methanol extracts of
Cochlospermum tinctorium against acetic acid –
induced writhing in mice
Treatment
Normal saline
AMRE
AMLE
AMRBE
KETO
One-way ANOVA
Doses
(mg/kg)
10 ml/kg
7.5
15
30
20
40
80
20
40
80
10
DF:10,55
F = 11.596
µ < 0.001
Mean number of
writhes ± SEM
29.83 ± 2.90
14.50 ± 2.67a
13.83 ± 3.92b
12.33 ± 2.94c
4.50 ± 2.16c
2.67 ± 0.67c
0.83 ± 0.54c
7.33 ± 2.50c
8.17 ± 2.51c
2.83 ± 0.95c
5.28 ± 2.16c
intraperitoneally. However, they may be relatively safe at the
analgesic and anti-inflammatory doses used for this study.
The ability of the extracts to attenuate the acetic acid-induced
writhing in mice suggests that they possess analgesic activity.
The writhing response of the mouse to intraperitoneally
injected noxious chemicals such as acetic acid is used to
screen for both central and peripheral analgesic activity. [21]
The intraperitoneal injection of acetic acid produces
an abdominal writhing response due to sensitization of
chemosensitive nociceptors by prostaglandins.[22] The acetic
acid-induced writhing test is very sensitive and able to detect
analgesic effects of compounds at dose levels that may
appear inactive in other analgesic screening tests.[23] However,
the test is not predictive whether the activity is centrally or
peripherally mediated.[24]
Intraperitoneal injection of acetic acid has been reported
to significantly increase level of prostanoids, particularly
Table 3:Effect of aqueous methanol extracts of
Cochlospermum tinctorium against thermally induced
pain in mice
Percentage
inhibition
n = 5.aP < 0.05; bP < 0.01; cP < 0.001 (Dunnett’s post-hoc test for multiple
comparison)
51.39
53.63
58.67
84.91
91.05
96.65
75.43
72.61
90.51
82.30
Treatment
Doses
(mg/kg)
Control (n = 55)
AMRE
AMLE
AMRBE
Normal saline
Morphine
One-way ANOVA
7.5
15
30
20
40
80
20
40
80
10 ml/kg
5
d.f. 10,55
F = 22.019
α < 0.001
Mean latency
of response
1.56 ± 0.04
2.83 ± 0.34
2.93 ± 0.28
3.13 ± 0.28
2.72 ± 0.27
2.83 ± 0.35
2.35 ± 0.26
3.58 ± 0.71a
2.35 ± 0.17
3.08 ± 0.33
1.70 ± 0.12
9.27 ± 0.92c
%Protection against
thermal stimulus
83.77
87.82
100.64
74.36
83.77
50.64
129.49
50.64
97.44
8.97
494.23
n = 6. aP < 0.05; cP < 0.001 (Dunnett’s post-hoc test for multiple comparison)
Table 4: Effect of aqueous methanol extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium against edema in rats mice
Treatment
Mean paw diameter (cm ± SEM)
Dose (mg/kg)
Time (h)
N/saline
AMRE
AMRBE
AMLE
KETO
1 ml/kg
7.5
15
30
20
40
80
20
40
80
20
1
0.162 ± 0.014
0.128 ± 0.007 (20.98)
0.128 ± 0.001 (20.98)
0.148 ± 0.010 (8.64)
0.082 ± 0.013c (49.38)
0.098 ± 0.013b (39.51)
0.068 ± 0.012c (58.02)
0.116 ± 0.013a (28.40)
0.076 ± 0.012c (53.09)
0.070 ± 0.003c (56.79)
0.064 ± 0.007c (60.49)
2
0.166 ± 0.032
0.128 ± 0.010 (22.89)
0.116 ± 0.004 (30.12)
0.128 ± 0.019 (22.89)
0.098 ± 0.010b (40.96)
0.100 ± 0.011b (39.76)
0.080 ± 0.010c (51.80)
0.116 ± 0.005 (30.12)
0.090 ± 0.004b (45.78)
0.076 ± 0.008c (54.22)
0.088 ± 0.012b (46.99)
3
0.238 ± 0.031
0.176 ± 0.017NS (26.05)
0.150 ± 0.016b (36.97)
0.162 ± 0.014a (31.93)
0.118 ± 0.012c (50.42)
0.120 ± 0.010c (49.58)
0.078 ± 0.018c (67.23)
0.146 ± 0.011b (38.66)
0.136 ± 0.014c (42.85)
0.080 ± 0.009c (66.39)
0.114 ± 0.006c (52.10)
4
0.158 ± 0.031
0.112 ± 0.005 (29.11)
0.102 ± 0.002a (36.57)
0.124 ± 0.007 (21.52)
0.082 ± 0.007c (48.10)
0.092 ± 0.009b (41.77)
0.054 ± 0.004c (41.65)
0.084 ± 0.004c (29.64)
0.076 ± 0.011c (51.90)
0.076 ± 0.009c (51.90)
0.072 ± 0.011c (54.42)
P < 0.05; bP < 0.01; cP < 0.001; NSnot significant (Dunnett’s test for multiple comparison); (Figures in parentheses represent percentage inhibition of inflammation)
a
240
Journal of Young Pharmacists Vol 3 / No 3
Ahmed, et al.: Extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium possess analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities
PGE2 and PGF2α[25] as well as lipoxygenase products[26] in
the peritoneal fluid. In the acetic acid induced writhing
test, the abdominal constriction is sensitive to drugs with
analgesic activity similar to aspirin, antagonists of kinin
receptors as well as the centrally and peripherally acting
opioid analgesics.[27,28] The analgesic effect of the extracts
may, therefore, be due either to their action on visceral
receptors sensitive to acetic acid, to the inhibition of the
production of algogenic substances or the inhibition at the
central level of the transmission of painful messages. Hot
plate test is one of the most common tests of nociception
that is based on a phasic stimulus of high intensity.[29]
Thermally induced pain in hot plate test is specific for
centrally mediated nociception.[30] The inability of the
extracts to significantly prolong the reaction latency to
thermally-induced pain in mice suggests that their analgesic
activity may be peripherally mediated.
lend credence to the ethnomedical use of the plant in the
management of pain and inflammatory conditions.
Carrageenan-induced inflammatory process is believed
to be bi-phasic.[31] The initial phase seen at the 1st hour is
attributed to the release of histamine and serotonin.[32] The
second phase which occurs during the 2nd to 3rd hours is due
to the release of prostaglandins, bradykinins, and lysosome.
The ability of the extracts to significantly reduce the
paw edema suggests that they possess anti-inflammatory
activities.
2.
The coexistence of analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities
is well defined for various non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), particularly salicylates and their congeners.
The principal therapeutic effects of NSAIDs are derived
from their ability to inhibit prostaglandin G/H synthase
(cyclooxygenase or COX), which convert arachidonic
acid to the unstable intermediates PGG2 and PGH2, and
leads to the production of thromboxane A2 and a variety
of prostaglandins.[33] Prostaglandins are also known to
cause painand NSAIDs are particularly effective when
inflammation has caused sensitization of pain receptors
to normally painless mechanical or chemical stimuli.[34] It
is of interest therefore, that the extracts behaved similar
to the NSAIDs in this study.
6.
Flavonoids, tannins and saponins have been reported to
possess analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities.[35-38] It
is, therefore, plausible to suggest that these phytochemical
constituents which have been found to be present in
the various aqueous methanol extracts of Cochlospermum
tinctorium may be responsible for the observed effects.
In conclusion, the findings of this study suggests that
the aqueous methanol root, leaf and root bark extracts
of Cochlospermum tinctorium possess significant analgesic
and anti-inflammatory activities in laboratory animals and
Journal of Young Pharmacists Vol 3 / No 3
Further work is going on in our laboratory to isolate and
characterize the bioactive compound(s) responsible for
the observed analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of
various extracts evaluated in this study.
DEDICATION
The authors wish to dedicate this work to the loving memory
of Late Tijjani Ahmed Sani whose MSc thesis constitute the
cornerstone of this work.
REFERENCES
1.
3.
4.
5.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Usman H, Yaro AH, Garba MM. Analgesic and Anti-inflammatory Screening
of Newbouldia laevis flower in rodents. Trends Med Res2008;3:10-5.
Farnsworth N. Screening plant for new medicines. In: Wilson EO, Editor.
Biodiversity. Washington DC: Natural Academy press; 1998.
Amos S, Kolawole E, Akah P, Wambebe C, Gamaniel K. Behavioral effects
of the aqueous extract of Guiera senegalensis in mice and rats. Phytomedicine
2001;8:356-61.
Burkill HM. The useful plants of west tropical Africa. Kew: Botanical
Gardens;1985.
Traoré M, Guiguemdé A, Yago I, Nikièma JB, Tinto H, Dakuyo ZP, et al.
Investigation of Antiplasmodial compounds from two plants, Cochlospermum
tinctorium A, Rich and Gardenia sokotensis. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern
Med 2006;3:34-41.
Mann A, Gbate M, Umar AN. Medicinal and economic plants of Nupeland.
Bida: Jube-Evans Books and Publications; 2003.
Nergard CS, Diallo D, Inngjerdingen K, Michaelsen TE, Kiyohara H,
Yamada H, et al. Medicinal use of Cochlospermum tinctorium in Mali: Antiulcer-, radical scavenging – and immunomodulating activities of polymers
in the aqueous extract of the roots. J Ethnopharmacol 2005;96:255-69.
Benoit F, Valentin A, Pelissier Y, Marion C, Dakuyo Z, Mallie M, et al.
Antimalarial activity in vitro of Cochlospermum tinctorium tubercle extracts.
Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1995;89:217-8.
Diallo B, Vanhaelen M, Kiso Y, Hikino H. Antihepatotoxic actions of
Cochlospermum tinctorium rhizomes. J Ethnopharmacol 1987;20:239-43.
Etuk EU, Agaie BM, Ladan MJ, Garba I. The modulatory effect of
Cochlospermum tinctorium a rich aqueous root extract on liver damage induced
by carbon tetrachloride in rats. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol 2009;3:151-7.
Tijjani MB, Bello IA, Aliyu AB, Olurishe T, Maidawa SM, Habila JD, et al.
Phytochemical and antibacterial studies of root extract of Cochlospermum
tinctorium A. rich. (Cochlospermaceae). Res J Med Plants2009;3:16-22.
Magaji MG, Shehu A, Musa AM, Sani MB, Yaro AH. Pharmacological
evidence on the folkloric use of Cochlospermum tintorium A. Rich. in the
management of diarrhea. Int J Pure Appl Sci 2010;4:14-20.
Maiha BB, Magaji MG, Yaro AH, Hamza AH, Magaji RA. Anticonvulsant
Studies on Cochlospermum tinctorium and Paullinia pinnata extracts in laboratory
animals.Niger J Pharm Sci 2009;8:102-8.
Silva GL, Lee I, Kinghorn AD. Special problems with the extraction of
plants.In: Cannell RJ,editor. Methods in Biotechnology (Natural product
Isolation). New Jersey: Humana Press;1998.
Lorke D. A new approach to acute toxicity testing. Arch Toxicol 1983;54:275-87.
Koster R, Anderson M, de Beer EJ. Acetic acid for analgesic screening. Fed
Proc 1959;18:412.
Lanhers MC, Fleurentin J, Mortier F, Vinche A, Younos C. Antiinflammatory
and analgesic effects of an aqueous extract of Harpagophytum procumbens.
Planta Med 1992;58:117-23.
241
Ahmed, et al.: Extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium possess analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities
18. Mahomed IM, Ojewole JA. Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and Antidiabetic
properties of Harpagophytum procumbens DC (Pedaliaceae) secondary root
aqueous extract. Phytother Res 2004;18:982-9.
19. Winter CA, Riselay EA, Nuss GW. Carragenan induced oedema in the hind
paw of the rats as an assay for anti – inflammatory drugs. Proc Soc Exp
Biol Med 1962;111:544-7.
20. Matsumura F. Toxicology of Insecticides. New York: Plenum press;1975.
21. Trongsakul SA, Panthong D, Kanjanapothi T, Taesotikul T. The analgesic,
antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activity of Diospyros variegate Kruz.
J Ethnopharmacol 2003;85:221-5.
22. Sutharson L, Lila KN, Presanna KK, Shila EB, Rajan VJ. Antiinflammtory
and Antinociceptive Activities of methanolic extract of the leaves of
Fraxinus floribunda Wallich. Afr J Biotechnol 2007;6:582-5.
23. Bentley GA, Newtons SH, Starr J. Studies on the antinociceptive action of
agonist drugs and their interaction with opioid mechanisms. Br J Pharmacol
1983;79:125-34.
24. Chan YF, Tsai HY, Wu TS. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of
extracts from roots of Angelica pubescens. Planta Med 1995;61:2-8.
25. Derardt R, Jongney S, Delvalcee F, Falhout M. Release of prostaglandins E and
F in an algogenic reaction and its inhibition. Eur J Pharmacol 1980;51:17-24.
26. Dhara AK, Suba V, Sen T, Pal S, Chaudhuri AK. Preliminary studies on the
anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of methanolic fraction of the root
of Tragia involucrate.J Ethnopharmacol 2000;72:265-8.
27. Barber A, Bartoszyk GD, Bender HM, Gottschlich R, Greiner HE, Harting
J, et al. A Pharmacological profile of the novel peripherally-selective k-opioid
receptor agonist, EMD 61753. Br J Pharmacol 1994;113:1317-27.
28. Brignola G, Calignano A, Di Rosa M. Modulation of morphine antinociception in the mouse by endogenous nitric oxide. Br J Pharmacol
1994;113:1372-6.
29. Mandegary A, Sayyah M, Heidari MR. Antinociceptive and AntiInflammatory activity of the seed and root extracts of Ferula gummosa
Boiss in mice and rats. DARU J Pharm Sci 2004;12:58-62.
30. Parkhouse J, Pleuvry BJ. Analgesic drugs. Oxford: Blackwell Co.; 1979.
31. Vinegar R, Schreiber W, Hugo R.Biphasic development of carrageenin
edema in rats.J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1969;166:96-103.
32. Crunkhon P, Meacock SE. Mediators of inflammation induced in rats paw
by carrageenan. Br J Pharmacol 1971;42:392-402.
33. Burke A, Smyth E, FitzGerald GA. Analgelsic-antipyretic agents;
Pharmacotherapy of Gout. In: Brunton LL, Lazo JS, Parker KL,editors.
Goodman and Gilman: Pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 11thed. New
York: McGraw Hill Co Inc.; 2006.
34. Roberts JL, Morrow JD. Analgesic, Antipyretic and Anti-inflammatory
Agents and Drugs employed in the treatment of Gout. In: Hardman JG,
Limbird LE, editors. Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of
therapeutics. 10th ed. New York: McGraw Hill Co Inc.; 2002.
35. Ahmadiani A, Hosseiny J, Semnanian S, Javan M, Saeedi F, Kamalinejad M,
et al. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Elaeagnus angustifolia
fruit extract. J Ethnopharmacol 2000;72:287-92.
36. Reanmongkol W, Subhadhirasakul S, Thienmontree S, Thanyapanit K,
Kalnaowakul J, Sengsui S. Antinociceptive activity of the alkaloid extract
from Kopsia macrophylla leaves in mice. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol 2005;
27(Supplement -2): 509-12 URL : http://www.rdoapp.psu.ac.th/html/sjst/
journal/27-Suppl-2/07-Kopsia-macrophylla.pdf
37. de Araujo PF, Coelho-de-Souza AN, Morais SM, Ferreira SC, LealCardoso JH. Antinociceptive effects of the essential oil of Alpinia zerumbet
on mice. Phytomedicine 2005;12:482-6.
38. Choi J, Jung H, Lee K, Park H. Antinociceptive and Antiinflammatory effects
of saponin and sapogenin obtained from the stem of Akebia quinata. J Med
Food 2005;8:78-85.
How to cite this article: Ahmed TS, Magaji MG, Yaro AH, Musa AM, Adamu
AK. Aqueous methanol extracts of Cochlospermum tinctorium (A. Rich)
possess analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. J Young Pharmacists
2011;3:237-42.
Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared.
New features on the journal’s website
Optimized content for mobile and hand-held devices
HTML pages have been optimized of mobile and other hand-held devices (such as iPad, Kindle, iPod) for faster browsing speed.
Click on [Mobile Full text] from Table of Contents page.
This is simple HTML version for faster download on mobiles (if viewed on desktop, it will be automatically redirected to full HTML version)
E-Pub for hand-held devices
EPUB is an open e-book standard recommended by The International Digital Publishing Forum which is designed for reflowable content i.e. the
text display can be optimized for a particular display device.
Click on [EPub] from Table of Contents page.
There are various e-Pub readers such as for Windows: Digital Editions, OS X: Calibre/Bookworm, iPhone/iPod Touch/iPad: Stanza, and Linux:
Calibre/Bookworm.
E-Book for desktop
One can also see the entire issue as printed here in a ‘flip book’ version on desktops.
Links are available from Current Issue as well as Archives pages.
Click on
View as eBook
242
Journal of Young Pharmacists Vol 3 / No 3