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MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING

PREMIUM è l’edizione aggiornata e ampliata del corso di grande successo SMARTMECH rivolto

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Rosa Anna Rizzo

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ESP

agli studenti degli Istituti Tecnici Tecnologici, indirizzo Meccanica, meccatronica ed energia. In linea con i nuovi orientamenti della formazione, il testo si caratterizza per il percorso fortemente incentrato sullo sviluppo delle competenze linguistiche e professionali.

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PREMIUM MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING

• Approfondimenti di attualità

VIDEO

CLIL • CIVILTÀ

Rosa Anna Rizzo

SMARTMECH

MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING

ISBN 978-88-536-25632

Quest’opera ha forma mista cartacea e digitale secondo le più recenti disposizioni di legge.

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ESP

Rosa Anna Rizzo

SMARTMECH

MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING

PREMIUM

Contents MODULES

Engineering p. 9

FOCUS on THEORY Engineering and Mechatronics

Careers

• What is engineering?

• Mechanics • Professional welders • Production stages: from product design to manufacturing

Roles in engineering • Mechanical engineers VIDEO Robotics and mechatronics

Safety first! • The importance of safety • Safety education VIDEO Fire extinguishers

2 3

Energy Sources p. 31

Non-renewable energy sources • Fossil fuel sources • Non-fossil fuel sources

Pollution • Pollution: environmental policies • Pollution parameters

Renewable energy sources • Inexhaustible sources VIDEO Climate change in sixty seconds

Materials

Materials science

Types of materials

p. 55

• What is materials science?

• Metals

Properties of materials • Mechanical properties • Thermal properties • Electrical-magnetic and chemical properties

VIDEO Aluminium cars • Polymer materials VIDEO Polymer • Composite materials • Ceramics • Cermet

Nanotechnology

• A smaller and smaller world • Nanomaterials VIDEO Nanoscience

Mechanical Drawing p. 83

Mechanical drawing

Multidisciplinary field

• Drawing tools • Tools: functions and shapes • Technical drawing VIDEO From 2D to 3D modelling • Standardised conventions

• Computer-aided design (CAD)

Multiple views • Parallel projection VIDEO Pictorial drawings • Types of axonometric projections • Orthographic and perspective projections

Machining Operations p. 103

Power-driven machines

Machine tool basic operations

• Machine tools • Machine tools classification

• Drilling • Boring • Milling • Grinding • Planers and shapers • Metal-forming machine tools VIDEO Flexible Manufacturing System • Non-traditional machining processes

The lathe • Parts of a lathe • Major types of lathes VIDEO Woodworking lathe

Electric circuits

• How electricity moves in a circuit

Metal Processes p. 131

Metalworking

Metal joining processes

• Steelmaking • Casting VIDEO Investment casting

• Welding • Brazing and soldering • Sheet metal processing VIDEO Recycling aluminium

Forming methods • Hot and cold processes • Powdered metal processes

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

CLIL

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary

Grammar

Safety in the workplace

• Safety in the workplace • Countable and Uncountable nouns

• Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns VIDEO • Il genitivo sassone / Whose

Engineering and Mechatronics Safety

VIDEO

CLIL: Ergonomics

Vocabulary

Grammar

• Non-renewable and renewable energy sources • Pollution

• Present simple active and passive VIDEO

Effects of global warming

Energy sources

CLIL: Natural Sciences

Vocabulary • Types of materials

Grammar

• Present continuous VIDEO

Sir Anish Kapoor and his dramatic sculptures

Materials

CLIL: Contemporary Art

Vocabulary

Grammar

• Drawing tools

• Comparatives and superlatives VIDEO

The work of a drafter

Technical drawing

CLIL: Technical Drawing

Vocabulary • Machines • Machine tools • Machining operations

Grammar

The Luddite Movement

• Linking words VIDEO

Machining operations Tools

CLIL: History

Vocabulary • Metalworking • Compound nouns

Grammar

Recycling

Metal processes

• Modal verbs VIDEO

CLIL: Natural Sciences 3

Contents MODULES

FOCUS on THEORY

The Motor Vehicle

What makes a car move

• The braking system • The cooling system • The exhaust system

• Drive train • The four-stroke engine • The two-stroke engine • The diesel engine • Biofuels

p. 157

Alternative engines

• Electric and hybrid cars • Fuel cell vehicles VIDEO Electric cars

Basic car systems

8 9

Systems and Automation p. 187

• The fuel system • The electrical system VIDEO Replacing a car battery

Motorcycling

The computer system

• Numerical control and CNC

Computer automation

• The computer evolution • Computer basics • Internet basics

Multidisciplinary field • Mechatronics • Automated factory organization VIDEO Factory automation

Heating and Refrigeration p. 213

• Structure of a motorcycle

Heating systems • Hot-water central system • Warm-air central heating • Alternative heating systems VIDEO Solar thermal heating systems

Refrigeration systems • Mechanical refrigeration

• Robots • Drones • Sensors • Domotics • Remote control

• Air conditioning • Car-cooling systems

Pumps

• Dynamic pumps • Positive displacement pumps • Centrifugal pumps VIDEO Regenerative turbine pumps and centrifugal pumps

Cultural Background DOSSIERS

1 2 3 4

GLOSSARY 4

Geography p. 234

History p. 250

Economy

UK vs USA • The UK – Quick facts • Geography of the UK

• The USA – Quick facts • Geography of the USA

• A brief history of the UK • The Industrial Revolution and the Victorian period • The British Empire • Key moments in the 20th century • Institutions: The UK political system

• A brief history of the USA • Mass production • The Great Depression • Key moments in the 20th century (1) VIDEO M. L. King’s I have a dream speech • Key moments in the 20th century (2) • Institutions: The USA political system

• UK economy

• US economy

p. 270

Literature p. 280

• William Shakespeare VIDEO The Merchant of Venice • Wordsworth’s Romantic Nature VIDEO The Lake District • Charles Dickens and the Industrial Revolution VIDEO Hard Times • Elizabeth Gaskell and the Social Novel VIDEO North and South

p. 300

• Herbert George Wells The father of science fiction • F. Scott Fitzgerald and the American Dream VIDEO The Great Gatsby • Sir John Betjeman and Social Satire • Big Brother is watching you George Orwell’s dystopia • Craig Anthony Raine and Culture Shock • Multicultural Britain? VIDEO Multicultural London

WORD BANK

p. 302

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

CLIL

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary

Grammar

Tesla electric truck

Motor vehicles

• Car parts • Car systems

• Relative pronouns and adverbs VIDEO • Relative clauses

CLIL: Mechanics

The computer world Mechatronics

Virtual reality

Vocabulary

Grammar

• Computer parts • Computer technology

• Past simple VIDEO • Present perfect VIDEO

CLIL: Information Technology

District heating

Vocabulary

Grammar

• Heating and refrigeration systems • Pumps

• Future VIDEO • First conditional VIDEO

Heating and refrigeration Pumps

CLIL: Energy Systems

English-Speaking World Current Commonwealth nations: • Canada • Australia and New Zealand • Singapore and India

THE IMPERIAL SYSTEM

Colonisation in Africa

p. 308

TAVOLE VERBALI

p. 309 5

Welcome to SMARTMECH PREMIUM SMARTMECH

PREMIUM è la versione ampliata e aggiornata del corso di inglese tecnico settoriale rivolto

agli studenti degli Istituti Tecnici Tecnologici, indirizzo Meccanica, meccatronica ed energia. In queste pagine troverai alcune indicazioni per imparare a usare il tuo libro di testo. Il volume si articola in 9 moduli dal contenuto tecnico e settoriale e 4 dossier di civiltà, organizzati in questo modo:

Roles in engineering

WARM UP

Do you know which are the main branches of engineering?

Mechanical engineers

power-generating machines: macchine produttrici di elettricità turbines: turbine power-driven machines: macchine elettriche elevators: ascensori escalators: scale mobili

Mechanical engineering is the second-largest field of engineering. The role of a mechanical engineer is to take a product from an idea to the marketplace. In order to accomplish this, a broad range of skills are needed as mechanical engineers are involved in the work on all stages of a product from research and design, to construction and testing. They work on various types of machines, tools, engines and thermal devices. Perhaps the one skill that is the mechanical engineer’s exclusive area is the ability to analyze and design objects and systems with motion.

DID YOU KNOW…?

Main tasks of mechanical engineers

simulations: simulazioni piping: tubature

VIDEO

Since almost every industry relies on mechanical systems and devices, mechanical engineers play a central role in many companies. Their work varies by industry and function. They often work in testing laboratories, in checking the manufacturing of machinery. They work on power-generating machines such as electric generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines. They also develop power-driven machines such as refrigeration and air conditioning systems, material handling systems, elevators and escalators, and robots used in the manufacturing process. They often work in offices, but sometimes they are asked to visit worksites to solve equipment problems.

Engineering is not a man’s world only: history has known a few women which contributed significantly to engineering. Helen Augusta Blanchard (1840-1922), with 28 patents, was one of the great inventors of the industrial era. Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972) was the first woman to be elected to the National Academy of Engineering (1977). Rear Admiral Dr. Grace Murray Hopper (19061992) first had the idea of the development of more user-friendly programming languages. Nancy D. Fitzroy (1927) was among the first engineers to work on nuclear reactor cores. Yvonne C. Brill (1924), a brilliant propulsion engineer, made satellites stay in orbit longer.

Mechanical engineers and their specialized fields Among the main specialized fields are mechatronics, energy systems, applied mechanics, automotive design, plant engineering and maintenance, pressure vessels and piping, heating and refrigeration. Besides, new job opportunities for mechanical engineers are created by many emerging innovations in biomechanics, energy conversion, laser-assisted materials processing, and nanotechnology.

Watch this video about the robotics and mechatronics course held by ECPI University and answer these questions. 1 According to the professor speaking, what is mechatronics? 2 What does the first student love doing? 3 What are his career goals? 4 What are the pros in working at the place the lady is talking about?

Mechanical engineers work in many industries as automotive, aerospace, computers and electronics just to mention a few.

Reading comprehension 3 Answer these questions. 1 2 3 4 5

What is the main role of a mechanical engineer? What ability can be considered an exclusive area of a mechanical engineer’s job? Can you give a few examples of industries where mechanical engineers play a central role? Which computers systems do they use to ensure the quality of all devices? What emerging innovations are creating new job opportunities?

Vocabulary 4

MODULE 1 | FOCUS ON THEORY

Find the English equivalents of these words in the texts. 1 motori ___________________________________ 4 turbine a vapore __________________________ 2 generatori elettrici _________________________ 5 meccanica applicata _______________________ 3 turbine a gas _____________________________ 6 riscaldamento ____________________________

Engineering | MODULE 1

La sezione FOCUS on LANGUAGE si divide in due parti: • Vocabulary, dove potrai sviluppare e consolidare il lessico specifico e tecnico già incontrato all’interno del modulo, così da ampliare gradualmente la quantità di termini pertinenti alla microlingua settoriale del corso di studi e rafforzare la capacità di usarli attivamente nel contesto adeguato; • Grammar, dove vengono brevemente presentate ed esercitate diverse strutture grammaticali con un approccio graduale e di contestualizzazione. La pagina di grammatica si chiude sempre con un esercizio di traduzione da e verso l’inglese.

Video tutorial All’interno del FLIP BOOK troverai tutti i video tutorials con la spiegazione di alcune delle regole grammaticali.

FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

Look at the picture of the lathe. Write the names of each part 1 __________________

in the correct space.

6 __________________ 5 __________________

2 __________________

3 __________________

4 __________________

Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 2 3 4 5 6

sagomatura ______________________________ fresatura _________________________________ vite _____________________________________ cinghia __________________________________ cuscinetto _______________________________ ingranaggio, ruota dentata _________________

A lathe is a machine tool that works by heating/spinning an object around on a vertical/horizontal axis. Almost all lathe designs have a saddle/bed, which is the main platform of the lathe. A machine tool is a piece of equipment used to shape plastic/metal. The variety of machine tools in use is almost unlimited/limited. Drilling is a cutting/grinding process that uses a drill bit to enlarge a hole. Turning is used to create rotational/ornamental parts. Boring is the process of a cutting action applied to external/internal surfaces. A machine called press brake is used to cut/bend sheets of metal. Broaches are used when the metal to be removed is thick/not too thick. Ultrasonic machining is an energy-based/chemical-based process.

headstock arbor tailstock saddle die back and forth ram laser

a b c d e f g h

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

the part of a lathe which slides on the bed the part of a lathe that carries the spindle a cylindrical shaft on which a cutting tool is mounted part of a lathe that holds the end of the workpiece first in one direction and then in the opposite one plunger, piston an artificial light source a tool used to form impressions on materials

Find the English equivalents in the text. 1 2 3 4 5

126

7 8 9 10 11 12

Match the words with their definitions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

tornio ___________________________________ macchina utensile _________________________ asse orizzontale ___________________________ basamento _______________________________ mandrino ________________________________ molatura _________________________________

Choose the correct alternative.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A tool with more than one point. ___________________________ __________________________________ Machine tools used to put weight on something in order to make it flat. _____________________________ The ultimate quality or appearance of the surface of a material. ____________________________________ To make a deep round hole in a hard surface. ___________________________ ________________________ A surface with no rough parts, lumps or holes. ___________________________ _______________________

Grammar VIDEO

LINKING WORDS

Linkers o linking words sono parole che

aiutano a collegare contenuti e concetti.

instance; - per dare esempi: for example; for - per aggiungere informazioni: in addition; is more; besides; as well as; also; moreover; what however, - per collegare idee contrastanti: but; contrary; on the other hand; yet; still; on the while;

Ecco una lista delle più usate:

lastly; of all; first(ly); second(ly); third(ly); - per elencare le idee in ordine: first for one thing; for another thing; in the finally; to begin with; to start with; first/second/third place, then; di causa e conseguenza: so; then; - per dimostrare la logica sequenza therefore; as a result; consequently; sum up; briefly; in short. - per concludere: in conclusion; to

Choose the correct linking word. well as/in short internally. external surface of the part therefore/as a 1 Turning can be done on the to perform not one, for example/but/so machine tools have been built 2 Moreover/Lastly/While many a carpenter’s whole series of operations. similar to working wood with working metal with a planer is 3 For example/In addition/But, secondly/then/ hand planer. a using hardened cutting tool; is removed from the workpiece motors. 4 In a metalworking lathe, metal handwheels or computer controlled with workpiece the often against is as well as it is moved in a machine shop, turning one of the most important operations 5 Therefore/Yet/As well as being metal. used to shape round pieces of of automobiles. tools are essential to the manufacture 6 But/Then/In short, machine

MODULE 5 | FOCUS on LANGUAGE

Ecological crises

Complete the sentences with

the words from the box.

− while − in addition to − for example first of all − as a result − in short

can be produced on a lathe. musical instruments and camshafts the motor 1 ______________, bowls, woodwind often contains parts to convert and its bearings, the headstock 2 ______________ the spindle speed into various spindle speeds. Others are larger and floor-mounted, and so they are semi-portable. 3 Some smaller lathes are bench-mounted special transportation. require they ______________ modes of using a lathe. 4 ______________ these are the wearing insulator rubber gloves. you’re sure make electricity, with a series circuit, 5 ______________ , when working by series connections it’s called all the devices are connected circuit. 6 An electric circuit in which connections it’s called a parallel devices are connected by parallel ______________ when all the

Schede di approfondimento online

Translation 3 Translate these sentences into Italian.

Puoi scaricare gratuitamente dal sito www.elilaspigaedizioni.it /libridigitali il tuo FLIP BOOK

by shearing, hammering or squeezing. they need 1 Machine tools shape metal tools to make the precise parts without the ability of machine 2 Refrigerators could not operate to operate. it frequently requires continuous in a traditional form of lathe, and 3 Turning can be done manually, by using an automated lathe. supervision by the operator, or

English. Translate these sentences into o orizzontali. di solito classificate come verticali 1 Le macchine per fresatura sono lappatura e la levigatura. un pezzo 2 La molatura include anche la meccanica. Consiste nel ruotare importanti operazioni in un’officina 3 La tornitura è una delle più tornio. taglio in una macchina chiamata di metallo contro un utensile a

Machining Operations | MODULE 5

Reading comprehension 2

CLIL: Informa tion Techno logy

Virtual reality WARM UP

Virtual reality means ‘reality that is not real’. How can reality be unreal?

virtual reality headset: visore per realtà virtuale lenses: lenti enhance: intensificare gaming: giocare con i videogames PTSD (Post-traumatic stress disorder): disturbo da stress post-traumatico commonplace: ordinario

In technical terms virtual reality (VR) describes a three-dimensional, computer-generated environment which can be explored and interacted with by a person. This artificial environment is created by software a and presented to the user in such and way that the user suspends belief accepts it as a real environment. On a computer, virtual reality is primarily experienced through two of the five senses: sight and sound. of virtual reality systems but the simplest form There are different types of virtual usually interactively on a computer screen, reality is a 3D image that can be explored image moves in the mouse so that the content of the by manipulating keys, joysticks or headset, which has Looking through a virtual reality some direction or zooms in or out. of view. out is world outside the lenses, two small screens instead of the user move their shows an image and as soon as the can In short, a virtual reality headset audio 3D it seems like they are really there. heads it modifies that image to make the user forget their physical surroundings. also enhance the experience and make the user moves user’s eyes and they react to the way The screens are very close to the placed of the presence of built-in sensors their head; this is made possible because and gaming, but virtual movies in used mainly is inside the headset. This technology training be used for distance learning, medical reality has other possible uses. It can There are therapy to treat disorders like PTSD. and procedures, and even psychological characteristics systems but they all share the same many different types of virtual reality to view three-dimensional images. such as the ability to allow the person of time before VR, it seems like it’s only a matter With all the possibilities in store for

Match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Virtual reality describes 2 A VR headset 3 There are built-in sensors 4 Virtual reality is mainly used 5 All types of virtual reality 6 Virtual reality can be also used

Vocabulary 3

PET Complete the text with the words

a ■ placed inside the headset. b ■ in movies and gaming. images. c ■ allow the users to see 3D ated d ■ a three-dimensional, computer-gener environment. training and e ■ for distance learning, medical procedures, and even PTSD treatment. of the lenses. f ■ has two small screens instead

ACTIVITIES

from the box.

________ our senses environment presented (1) _____________ Virtual reality is the creation of a virtual ________ if we were really that we experience it (3) _____________ in (2) _____________________ a way (5) _____________________ a mix of various technologies to achieve there. It (4) _____________________ ________ our perception and that has to account (6) _____________ goal and is a technically complex feat technology is becoming e Th uses. serious and entertainment cognition. It has (7) _____________________ ________ more widespread. We can expect to see (9) _____________ (8) _____________________ and more way in (10) _____________________ the future and perhaps a fundamental innovative uses for the technology in the possibilities of virtual reality. we communicate and work thanks to 1 A at 2 A kind 3 A like 4 A is using 5 A this 6 A to 7 A as 8 A cheaper 9 A most 10 A which

it becomes commonplace.

B in B such B so B used B these B for B also B cheap B much B that

C to C same C such C uses C those C on C both C cheapest C lots of C who

Chiude ogni modulo una sezione CLIL dedicata ad approfondimenti interdisciplinari relativi alle altre materie curriculari. Un ricco apparato didattico garantisce l’approfondita comprensione del testo e offre spunti per la produzione orale.

D into D as D as D use D such D with D together with D more cheap D many D whose

nitions. time Match the words with their defi things around a person at a particular a ■ the objects, buildings, natural 1 environment b ■ increase suddenly and quickly 2 software place c ■ the natural features of a 3 sight to happen d ■ something unexpected about 4 zoom see to ability e ■ the physical task 5 surroundings tell a computer how to do a particular f ■ the sets of programs that 6 in store

Speaking 5

the following questions. Work in pairs. Asks and answer 1 What is virtual reality? its aim? 2 How does virtual reality achieve 3 What are its uses? 4 What’s the future of this technology?

Systems and Automation | MODULE 8

210

MODULE 8 | CLIL

211

ACTIVITIES

Ogni modulo si suddivide in due parti principali, teoria e pratica. • La sezione FOCUS on THEORY presenta testi teorici che affrontano i temi tecnici e settoriali con testi descrittivi, numerosi approfondimenti, video esplicativi relativi a un argomento trattato nel modulo, con attività, collegamenti a Internet.

Mechanical engineers and computer systems Mechanical engineers do much of their work on computers. They use them to design new tools, test a machine’s functions, ensure the quality of all devices. Computers systems as 2D and 3D Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) are employed for design-data processing and for turning the design into the final product. These programs allow engineers to create simulations of the operation of products, as well as the manufacturing process to be used. So their final performance is optimized before settling on a particular design.

Engineering is a very broad study subject which divides into many different and highlyspecialised disciplines (civil, mechanical, chemical, environmental, electrical – just to name a few), so career choices are quite limitless. Engineering graduates develop a range of practical skills, such as logical thinking, numeracy and problem-solving, which are highly valued by employers in many sectors.

127

5 MAP your KNOWLEDGE In chiusura della sezione teorica di ogni modulo una pagina riassume i concetti e le parole chiave attraverso l'elaborazione di mappe concettuali. Queste mappe sono presenti nel FLIP BOOK in forma interattiva.

MAP your KNOWL EDGE

TRADITIONAL

MACHINING OPERATIONS NON TRADITIONAL

woodworking lathe

ultrasonic machining

metalworking lathe

Turning

abrasive jet machining

Mechanical

metal spinning lathe glass-working lathe

Boring

water-jet machining

lathe electrical discharge machining

ElectricalThermal belt grinders

laser-beam machining

bench grinders Grinding

cylindrical grinders surface grinders

Chemical

jig grinders gear grinders

knee-type

TOOLS CUTTING TOOLS

plain vertical/horizontal Milling

METAL FORMING TOOLS

universal horizontal

planers

presses

ram-type

shapers

punch presses

swivel cutter head ram-type

shears press brakes

metal drills Drilling

wood drills

drop hammers

reamers

forging machines

rock drills

130

WARM UP

Service sector

Can you remember what percentage of the workforce is employed in the service sector in the UK? Why do you think it is so high? Has it always been this way?

Current UK economic situation

At the end of 2008, the UK was in a serious recession as a result of the global crisis, with declining house prices and high consumer debt. In 2010, the government introduced a five-year austerity programme to lower the country’s level of debt, cutting public spending and services and increasing taxes. Between 2009 and 2010, the Bank of England injected £200 billion into the economy through quantitative easing in order to help the country climb out of the recession by increasing spending and economic growth. Towards the end of 2011 it added a further £75 billion due to growing fears connected to the eurozone crisis. Since 2013, the economy has grown, albeit sluggishly, every year with services increasing fairly strongly but manufacturing and construction showing a slight drop. Since early 2016 unemployment has been below 5%, and the employment rate is at a record high. After Brexit referendum the pound has fallen by about 10% against other currencies, rising the UK goods and services’ competitiveness. Quantitative easing is In 2017 inflation peaked at around 3%, as pound’s fall caused the price of import to a process by which a rise, but it will be Central Bank creates back down again soon, as exchange-rate effects fall out of the year-on-year comparison money and uses it to used to calculate it. Low inflation is a good thing: with nominal wages increasing at 2% buy assets such as a year, inflation should fall below 2% and real wages should rise again. government bonds and More, lower inflation means that the purchasing power is eroded less quickly. All high-quality debt from this suggests that private companies. the unanimity forecast for economic growth in 2018 – around 1.8% – is probably about right. The bigger risk, however, remains Brexit.

274

Read the text and discuss these questions in pairs. 1 What was the economic situation like in 2008 in the UK? And in Italy? 2 What measures did the government take to try to lower debt? Did the Italian government take any similar measures?

5 Internet shopping … over the last few years. 6 Employment in the tourism sector has… 7 Apart from London, many people are employed in financial services in… 8 Many bank employees lost their jobs due to…

3 What is the purpose of quantitative easing? 4 What signs of recovery have there been since 2013? Is the situation the same for Italy? 5 Why is low inflation a good thing?

Internet research 5

DOSSIER 3 | UK vs USA

ACTIVITIES

Reading comprehension & Speaking 4

Read the text and complete these sentences. 1 80% of the UK’s GDP is represented by… 2 … are examples of the tertiary sector. 3 … people are employed in the retail sector and … in the financial services sector. 4 It is not easy for independent retailers to compete with…

43 FIRST Listen to this profile of British businessman Richard Branson. Complete these sentences with a maximum of three words.

1 Branson’s first venture was set up when he was ____________. 2 The Virgin Group started as ____________ and recording studios. 3 Branson is classified as the ____________ person in the UK. 4 The non-profit foundation Virgin Unite is aimed at addressing ____________ issues. 5 So far, ____________ people have already registered to go on spaceflights. 6 The first spaceflight was supposed to happen in ____________. 7 He is considered a pioneer in both his commercial and ____________ life. 8 In 2004 Branson used an amphibious vehicle to cross the ____________ in record time.

Reading comprehension 2

ACTIVITIES

Listening

The tertiary sector is the largest in the UK and the economic output of the sector is worth 80% of all UK economic output. 86% of the workforce is employed by this sector which includes government, healthcare, financial services, banking, retail, education and tourism. The government, education, health and defence sector employs 7.6 million people, 27% of the total workforce. The retail and wholesale industry employs around 4.4 million people. The retail market has shown a slow, but gradual growth since the 2008 credit crunch decreased consumer spending. This market is dominated by large chain stores, which Britain’s Tesco is the world’s third credit crunch: stretta del operate in most sectors like largest retailer after America’s credito Walmart and France’s Carrefour. food, clothing and electrical goods. This means that smaller and independent shops find it more difficult to compete. For example, four supermarket chains – Asda, Tesco, Sainsbury’s and Morrisons – have over 75% of the market share. Most major stores also have online shops and the number of exclusive online retail businesses has grown rapidly over the last few years, following the sharp rise in internet shopping. Tourism is also a key part of the UK economy, with London being one of the top tourist city destinations in the world. It has been the fastest growing sector in the UK in terms of The Tower of London is one of London’s employment since 2010, and the tourism industry is predicted to most popular tourist attractions. be worth over £257 billion by 2025. Over 1 million people work in the financial services sector, and about one third are employed in London. Edinburgh, Leeds and the North West are also significant centres for the number of employees in financial services. The City of London is one of the leading international financial and banking centres in the world, with hundreds of foreign banks, offices and subsidiaries. It is home to the London Stock Exchange, the Bank of England and Lloyd’s – the world’s specialist insurance market. With London being such a significant international financial centre, the global financial crisis of 2008 hit the UK economy hard as banks had to make thousands of workers redundant and reduce their international operations. However, since then it has maintained The City of London a strong position within the global market and is predicted to or the ‘Square Mile’ continue to grow, thanks also to increased overseas investments.

Using the information on these pages, write a short essay about the UK economy and current economic situation, underlining any similarities or differences with Italy. Go to www.imf.org for more information.

Economy |

DOSSIER 3

M O D U L E 5 | MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Cultural Background • La ricca sezione di civiltà offre un confronto fra la geografia, la storia, l'economia del Regno Unito e degli Stati Uniti. • Troverai attività di preparazione alle certificazioni Cambridge English: Preliminary (PET) nei primi dossier e First (FCE) in quelli successivi. • La sezione English-Speaking World offre una panoramica generale dei paesi di lingua inglese.

275

PET indica le attività utili alla preparazione dell'esame PET FIRST indica le attività utili alla preparazione dell'esame FCE DOSSIER

Literature, la sezione finale dei quattro dossier di cultura, presenta un percorso letterario e video inerenti al tema affrontato nei vari dossier.

F. Scott Fitzgerald and the American Dream

1 Read the text about Francis Scott Fitzgerald and complete the biography card.

DATE AND PLACE OF BIRTH: ______________________ EDUCATION: ___________ ______________________ HIS CAREER: ___________ ______________________ HIS WORKS: ____________ ______________________ PERSONAL LIFE: _________ ______________________ LITERARY ACHIEVEMENTS: ______________________ DATE AND PLACE OF BIRTH: ______________________

THE IMPERIAL SYSTEM

The British Imperial System is the traditional system of weights and measures used officially in the United Kingdom from 1824 until 1995, when the metric system was adopted in most cases. Back in the 19th century, the system was extended to all countries of the British Empire but nowadays most of these too have officially adopted the metric system as their main system of measurement. In the United Kingdom the Imperial System is still used in road signs (miles and yards instead of kilometres). Office space and industrial units are usually advertised in square feet. Although official figures always include litres per 100 km equivalents, fuel consumption for vehicles is commonly stated in miles per gallon.

= = = =

Sign of the former Weights and Measures office in London.

about the width of a thumb about the length of a size 10 shoe about from nose to stretched finger about 15 minutes walking

1 foot 1 yard 1 mile ( m )

= = = =

about a paper napkin about the size of a card table about a football pitch

1 sq.foot 1 sq.yard 1 acre

= = =

MODULE 1

designer: progettista detrimental

= = =

0.093 m2 0.84 m2 4047 m2

UK Units of Mass or Weight 16 drams (dr) 16 ounces (ozs.) 14 pounds (lbs) 2 stone 4 quarters 20 hundredweight (cwt)

= = = = = =

1 ounce 1 pound 1 stone 1 quarter 1 hundredweight 1 ton

= =

a tablespoon of sugar a bag of sugar used in body weight less common unit 112 lb; bag of cement. 2240 lb.; about 14 men

= = = = = =

28 grams 0.45 kg 6.35 kg 12.7 kg 50.8 kg 1.016 tonne

UK Units of Capacity 5 fluid ounces 20 fluid ounces 2 pints (pts.) 4 quarts (qrt)

308

= = = =

1 gill 1 pint 1 quart 1 gallon

American Dream.

an English beer a German beer a large can of paint, maybe

= = = =

142 ml 568 ml 1.1 L 4.546 L

APPENDICE

: dannoso, nocivo earmuffs: paraorecchie elevator: ascensore emergency cut-out: interruttore di emergenza escalator: scale mobili feasibility: fattibilità fitter: installatore forging: contraffatto forklift: carrello elevatore frayed: logorato grinding: molatura hand tool: utensile manuale hands-on: pratico hazard: pericolo injury: lesione insurance: assicurazion e layer: strato layout: impostazione machine tool: macchina utensile melting: fusione piping: tubature power-driven machine: macchina elettrica power-generating machine: macchina produttrice di elettricità

protective gear: equipaggiam ento antinfortunistico prototype: prototipo servicing: far la revisione di shutdown: chiusura simulation: simulazione slippery: scivoloso tune-up: messa a punto welding screen: schermo da saldatura workplace: posto di lavoro

MODULE 2

boundaries: limiti, confini carbon dioxide: biossido di carbonio (to) cluster: raggruppare cooling tower: torre di raffreddamento (to) crush: frantumare dam: bacino idrico, diga (to) drill: trivellare environmentally friendly: rispettoso

300

Read the extract from The Great Gatsby and answer the questions

scene where a coupé has a wheel missing After attending one of Gatsby’s extravagant parties, the narrator sees a chaotic and has landed in a ditch two minutes after leaving Gatsby’s house. in the middle of the road, looking from A man in a long duster had dismounted from the wreck and now stood way. the car to the tire and from the tire to the observers in a pleasant, puzzled ‘See!’ he explained. ‘It went in the ditch.’ quality of wonder, and then the unusual The fact was infinitely astonishing to him, and I recognized first the man — it was the late patron of Gatsby’s library. duster: spolverino (un ‘How’d it happen?’ He shrugged his shoulders. tipo di soprabito) Owl Eyes: Occhi di ‘I know nothing whatever about mechanics,’ he said decisively. said Owl Eyes, Gufo (soprannome ‘But how did it happen? Did you run into the wall?’ ‘Don’t ask me,’ to next — dato al protettore della driving about little very know ‘I washing his hands of the whole matter. biblioteca) nothing. It happened, and that’s all I know.’ awed hush: silenzio impressionante ‘Well, if you’re a poor driver you oughtn’t to try driving at night.’ trying.’ pawing: palpeggiando ‘But I wasn’t even trying,” he explained indignantly, “I wasn’t even outa gas: (out of gas) An awed hush fell upon the bystanders. senza benzina suicide?’ commit to want you ‘Do ‘You’re lucky it was just a wheel! A bad driver and not even trying!’ car.’ the in man another There’s driving. wasn’t ‘I ‘You don’t understand,’ explained the criminal. “Ah-h-h!” as the door of the coupé swung The shock that followed this declaration found voice in a sustained had opened door the and when slowly open. The crowd — it was now a crowd — stepped back involuntarily, a pale, dangling individual stepped out of the wide there was a ghostly pause. Then, very gradually, part by part, shoe. wreck, pawing tentatively at the ground with a large uncertain dancing groaning of the horns, the apparition stood Blinded by the glare of the headlights and confused by the incessant swaying for a moment before he perceived the man in the duster. ‘Wha’s matter?’ he inquired calmly. ‘Did we run outa gas?’ stared at it for a moment, and then looked ‘Look!’ Half a dozen fingers pointed at the amputated wheel — he came off,’ someone explained. upward as though he suspected that it had dropped from the sky. ‘It

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or

false (F), then correct the false ones. F T ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

ed. 1 The man who dismounted from the wreck seemed terrifi 2 The narrator recognised the man. 3 He says the car ran into the wall. out of the wreck. 4 Everybody was shocked when they saw another man stepping

questions.

characters of the The story is narrated in the first person by Nick Carraway, one of the story, in 1922, he is a novel, who also takes part in most of the events. At the start of the Long Island. Carraway newly arrived resident of West Egg, a fictional town on prosperous young man, whose is Gatsby’s next-door neighbour and he tells us about this self-made woman, Daisy, dream of success and money is personified in a rich and beautiful young met and fallen in love now the wife of the wealthy Tom Buchanan. Daisy and Gatsby had or position. during the war when Gatsby was a young officer with no money, education later Gatsby reappears Daisy married Tom, the husband chosen by her family. Four years of money, partly from and tries to get her back. In the meantime he has made a great deal Despite Daisy’s bootlegging liquor. Daisy has had a daughter, while Tom has a lover. and follow her renewed attraction to Gatsby, she eventually refuses to leave her husband of Gatsby. old lover. The novel is ended by a series of tragic events and the death

below.

THE CAR IN THE DITCH

from BOOK to FILM Mrs Wilson, furious with her husband because he has discovered that she has a lover, rushes out of the garage into the dusk, waving her hands and shouting. A car comes out of the darkness running her down and disappearing. Who was driving the car? This scene takes place immediately after the car incident.

Watch the scene and answer the questions. 1 What does Nick accuse Gatsby of? 2 What is the truth? 3 Describe how the hit and run accident took place.

4 Compare this episode with the one you have just read about the car in the ditch.

Literature |

DOSSIER 4

291

D O S S I E R 4 | Literature

TECH NICA L GLO SSAR Y

25.4 mm assembly: assemblaggio 305 mm assessing: valutare 0.91 m (to) carry out: effettuare 1.61 km coating: rivestimento

UK Units of Area 144 square inch (sq.in) 9 square feet ( sq.ft) 4840 sq.yards (sq.yds)

the Great Depression. years were The Great Gatsby (1925), marks the peak of his art. The following breakdowns difficult ones for Fitzgerald. His wife suffered a number of mental problem. and spent regular periods in hospital; he himself developed a drink The Fitzgeralds travelled regularly between America and Europe but Fitzgerald’s rapid decline led to his early death in 1940 in Hollywood. He will be remembered as the chronicler of the aspirations and delusions and of the generation that came to maturity in the ‘20s, a time of wealth recurrent on concentrates work his All Age. Jazz hedonism, known as the position, themes like the theme of success, in the form of wealth and social as the closely linked with the aspects of American life usually referred to

1 How does Nick Carraway meet Gatsby? 2 Who is Daisy and why does Gatsby try to get her back? 3 How did Gatsby make money?

290

UK Units of Length 1 inch ( in. or " ) 12 inches ( ins.) 3 feet ( ft. ) 1760 yards (yds)

Read the description of The Great Gatsby and answer the

Bootlegging In 1919, Amendment 18 to the constitution prohibited the manufacture and sale of liquor. But many people resented the law, and drank in illegal clubs. Gangsters took over bootlegging, the illegal sale of liquor, and crime increased. Such figures as Al Capone rose to the top ranks of organized crime.

The Imperial System

LITERATUR E

TECHNIC AL GLOSSAR Y

dell’ambiente fossil fuels: combustibili fossili (to) give off: emettere global warming: riscaldamen to della temperature terrestre (to) harvest: raccogliere livestock: bestiame mammals: mammiferi non-renewable: non rinnovabile plant: (botanico) pianta; (industriale) stabilimento, centrale, impianto pollutant: sostanza inquinante pollution: inquinament o (to) power: alimentare (to) release: rilasciare (to) store: immagazzin are straw: paglia timber: legname wildlife: flora e fauna windmills: mulini a vento/aerog eneratori

MODULE 3

(to) bend: piegare brittle: fragile canning: inscatolame nto carrier bag: borsa di plastica coating: rivestimento composites: composti

corundum: corindone

fillings: materiale di riempimento fittings: attrezzature hardness: durezza harmful: dannoso insulation: isolamento polymers: polimeri rope: corda rubber: gomma rust: ruggine (to) shatter: frantumare (to) shear: spezzare sheet: lamina sleeves to package food: involucri per impacchettare cibo

soapstone: steatite

stainless steel: acciaio inossidabile strength: forza (to) stretch: allungare

(to) undergo: subire wax: cera

weight: peso wrought iron: ferro battuto

MODULE 4

(to) compute: calcolare cross-section: sezione trasversale depth: profondità (to) devise: ideare, inventare (to) dimension: dimensionar e features: caratteristic he/aspetti freehand: a mano libera height: altezza (to) intersect: intersecare length: lunghezza (to) mirror: riflettere prospective buyer: potenziale compratore protractor: goniometro range: gamma (to) rely on: basarsi su scale: scala, gradazione shading: ombreggiatu ra, sfumatura shape: forma size: misura skills: abilità (to) store: immagazzin are task: mansione, incarico width: larghezza

WORD BANK

The cylinder: il cilindro

MODULE 5

cooling fins dissipatori

spark plug candela

cylinder cilindro

fuel in

SMARTMECH

ingresso del carburante

anvil: incudine axle: asse bar: barra bed: banco di fissaggio reed valve bench grinder: panchina lamellare smerigliatricvalvola e blacksmith: fabbro ferraio camshaft: albero a camme cross slide: slitta trasversale crankshaft albero a gomito cutting edge: bordo tagliente cutting tool: utensile da taglio drop forge: maglio a caduta libera drop hammer: maglio a caduta libera glassblowing: soffiatura del vetro headstock: testa motrice hobbing machine: dentatrice keyway cutting: taglio chiavetta jig grinder: rettificatrice a coordinate line shaft: linea d’asse lathe: tornio lock knob: blocco motore metal spinning: filatrice del metallo milling macine: fresatrice (to) overheat: surriscaldare presses: presse press brakes: presse piegatrici

PREMIUM si chude con un TECHNICAL GLOSSARY in cui gli studenti troveranno termini specifici suddivisi per modulo e per area tematica. Il glossario è infine completato dal Word Bank con sei tavole illustrate e le tabelle di conversione delle varie unità di misura del British Imperial System.

exhaust out uscita fumi

piston

pistone

camshaft

albero a camme

exhaust valve

valvola di scarico

suction valve

valvola di aspirazione

connecting rod biella

WORD BANK

305

Il FLIP BOOK è la versione digitale interattiva del libro di testo, da utilizzare in classe con la lavagna interattiva (LIM) oppure a casa per studiare e ripassare in modo autonomo.

Il FLIP BOOK contiene l’intero volume in formato multimediale e sfogliabile e raccoglie tutte le risorse del corso in un unico ambiente: esercizi interattivi e auto-correttivi, audio e video.

Dalla barra degli strumenti potrai inserire all’interno del tuo libro digitale appunti, documenti, immagini, link e note vocali per esercitare la tua pronuncia. Sarà inoltre possibile costruire delle mappe mentali per la memorizzazione e il ripasso dei concetti chiave.

Tutti i video sono dotati di sottotitoli.

Accedendo al LIBRO LIQUIDO, potrai scegliere lo sfondo e il carattere del tuo libro digitale, e ascoltare la lettura dell’intero volume.

In più, il FLIP BOOK ti offre delle risorse extra: • accesso diretto al sito dedicato online dove troverai schede di approfondimento attinenti ad argomenti del corso • accesso diretto alla piattaforma di esercitazione grammaticale WebLAB • video tutorials di grammatica • una tavola interattiva con audio dei simboli fonetici della lingua inglese • mappe (UK and Ireland, The United States of America, English-speaking world)

MODULE

1 Engineering

FOCUS on THEORY

CLIL: Ergonomics

Engineering and Mechatronics Roles in engineering Careers Safety first!

Safety in the workplace

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary Grammar

FOCUS on THEORY

Engineering and Mechatronics WARM UP

Can you explain in your own words what engineering is?

2 Can you match the pictures to the engineering jobs? 1 n designer n electrical 2 engineer 3 n mechanical engineer 4 n machine operator 5 n civil engineer 6 n chemical engineer

dams: dighe carried out: effettuate fitters: installatori designers: progettisti run: gestire, condurre

What is engineering? In simple words we might say that engineering is the profession that puts power and materials to work for man. Engineers use steel and concrete to construct buildings, dams, roads, and bridges. They use metal, glass, plastics and many other materials to make hundreds of everyday products. They control the power of petrol and other fuels that drive our airplanes, trains, ships, and cars. They often discover or create new materials and sources of power that serve man. Engineering activities are carried out in a huge variety of industries. They are employed in car and aircraft industries, chemical industries, food manufacturers, clothing companies, electronics companies: almost every company that makes a product employs or uses the skills of engineers.

Main branches of engineering Engineering is a very large field. It is usually divided into four main branches (chemical, civil, electrical and mechanical engineering) which are, in turns, divided into many other specialized branches. So, there is a wide variety of jobs available in engineering. These range from practical roles, such as machine operators and fitters, to technical roles, such as designers and metallurgists, to line and factory management, to the directors who run the companies. As you can see there are many specialized fields, but the dividing line between some of them is not always clear. For example, aeronautical engineering involves some aspects of both civil and mechanical engineering.

MO DULE 1 | FOCUS on THEORY

Engineering as a subject to study We can easily affirm that engineering was born with man, in ancient times; inventions as simple as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley were the very first, basic examples of a discipline whose study is as complex as fascinating. Thanks to engineering the Egyptians built the Pyramids, the Romans built bridges, aqueducts, and roads, the Chinese built the Great Wall, and so on; without engineers, our world would be a completely different place.

aqueducts: acquedotti hand tools: utensili manuali machine tools: macchine utensili

MORE ABOUT...

As an engineer student, your choice about which branch to study is quite endless: infrastructure and building; communications and satellites; electronics, computers and robotics; energy and petroleum, structures and materials, vehicles and aircraft, and many others. To master power and materials in order to produce things, from nails to skyscrapers, an engineer must know and use principles of science and mathematics, physics and chemistry; he has to study constantly to keep up with the newest engineering developments. So, the steps of production in which an engineer may be involved are: • designing products, through drawing, modelling, testing; • selecting the materials to be used; • planning production activities; • making products using a wide range of different equipment, ranging from hand tools, to machine tools, to automated equipment.

Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary branch of engineering combining mechanics, robotics and electronics where the principles of electrical, mechanical, computer and industrial engineering merge together to give birth to all complex modern devices. In Module 8 the topic will be dealt with exhaustively.

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension 3 Match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Engineering is the profession 2 Engineering activities are carried out 3 Jobs in engineering range 4 Engineering involves 5 Almost every company that makes a product 6 Engineering is

a n from practical roles to technical roles. b n making products using a wide range of different equipment. c n employs or uses the services of engineers. d n a very exciting, creative and interesting subject to study. e n in a huge variety of industries. f n that puts power and materials to work for man.

4 Write under each picture the corresponding step of production, then put them in the correct order.

A _____________________

B _____________________

C _____________________

D _____________________

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. Using the sentences in exercise 3, give a short summary about engineering including the points below. • What engineering is • Types of jobs • What the subjects of study are

Engineering | MO DULE 1

Roles in engineering WARM UP

Do you know which are the main branches of engineering?

power-generating machines: macchine produttrici di elettricità turbines: turbine power-driven machines: macchine elettriche elevators: ascensori escalators: scale mobili

DID YOU KNOW…? Engineering is not a man’s world only: history has known a few women which contributed significantly to engineering. Helen Augusta Blanchard (1840-1922), with 28 patents, was one of the great inventors of the industrial era. Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972) was the first woman to be elected to the National Academy of Engineering (1977).

Mechanical engineers Mechanical engineering is the second-largest field of engineering. The role of a mechanical engineer is to take a product from an idea to the marketplace. In order to accomplish this, a broad range of skills are needed as mechanical engineers are involved in the work on all stages of a product from research and design, to construction and testing. They work on various types of machines, tools, engines and thermal devices. Perhaps the one skill that is the mechanical engineer’s exclusive area is the ability to analyze and design objects and systems with motion.

Main tasks of mechanical engineers Since almost every industry relies on mechanical systems and devices, mechanical engineers play a central role in many companies. Their work varies by industry and function. They often work in testing laboratories, in checking the manufacturing of machinery. They work on power-generating machines such as electric generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines. They also develop power-driven machines such as refrigeration and air conditioning systems, material handling systems, elevators and escalators, and robots used in the manufacturing process. They often work in offices, but sometimes they are asked to visit worksites to solve equipment problems. Mechanical engineers work in many industries as automotive, aerospace, computers and electronics just to mention a few.

Rear Admiral Dr. Grace Murray Hopper (19061992) first had the idea of the development of more user-friendly programming languages. Nancy D. Fitzroy (1927) was among the first engineers to work on nuclear reactor cores. Yvonne C. Brill (1924), a brilliant propulsion engineer, made satellites stay in orbit longer.

MO DULE 1 | FOCUS on THEORY

Mechanical engineers and computer systems Mechanical engineers do much of their work on computers. They use them to design new tools, test a machineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s functions, ensure the quality of all devices. Computers systems as 2D and 3D Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) are employed for design-data processing and for turning the design into the final product. These programs allow engineers to create simulations of the operation of products, as well as the manufacturing process to be used. So their final performance is optimized before settling on a particular design.

simulations: simulazioni piping: tubature

ACTIVITIE S

VIDEO 2 Watch this video about the robotics and mechatronics course held by ECPI University and answer these questions. 1 According to the professor speaking, what is mechatronics? 2 What does the first student love doing? 3 What are his career goals? 4 What are the pros in working at the place the lady is talking about?

Reading comprehension 3 Answer these questions. 1 What is the main role of a mechanical engineer? 2 What ability can be considered an exclusive area of a mechanical engineerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s job? 3 Can you give a few examples of industries where mechanical engineers play a central role? 4 Which computers systems do they use to ensure the quality of all devices? 5 What emerging innovations are creating new job opportunities?

Vocabulary 4 Find the English equivalents of these words in the texts. 1 motori ____________________________________ 2 generatori elettrici _________________________ 3 turbine a gas ______________________________

4 turbine a vapore ___________________________ 5 meccanica applicata ________________________ 6 riscaldamento _____________________________

Engineering | MO DULE 1

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 5

PET Read the description of a technical drawing course a school is offering its students, and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F).

Design has a crucial role in the creation of the products that surround us in our everyday life: furniture, buildings, cars, clothes, aeroplanes, computers, house appliances. Knowledge of the design process is essential for successful engineering: designers and engineers work closely in order to transform beautiful ideas into useful and required products. Our course combines academic study with practical work, introducing you to the essential skills, knowledge and practice of design, providing hands-on opportunities to create and assess technical drawings, getting experience in making measurements, reading prints, and creating engineering drawings. Our technical drawing classes will teach you about: • Design and manufacturing • Materials Technology • Technical publications Come over and visit us on our Open Days!

1 Design is involved in the creation of all the objects around. 2 Part of successful engineering is due to design. 3 Usually, designers and engineers don’t work together. 4 The course offers an academic study only. 5 Reading prints is one of the skills students will acquire.

T F n n n n n n n n n n

Listening 6

PET Listen to Peter O’Brien talking about his job as an engineer, and choose the correct option.

1 He started work as an engineer… A testing cars. B sitting in an administrative office. C producing drawings.

5 When you use computers… A you don’t need any training courses. B you improve your technology spontaneously. C as there are changes you need training courses.

2 When he used to draw… A he never used pencils. B he used hard or soft pencils. C he used only protractors.

6 The speaker… A is nostalgic about his drafting instruments. B doesn’t care about innovative technological systems. C is curious to know every technological innovation.

3 He found his first computer-aided design program… A useless. B exciting. C too complex. 4 He says that a computer… A can do the work he carried out by hand. B can’t correct mistakes. C is not as accurate as hand drawing.

MO DULE 1 | FOCUS on THEORY

PET Read the texts about the major areas of interest in mechanical engineering and match them to the pictures.

The mechanical engineering area continues to widen as technological development increases, and professionals interface with different disciplines. Here are some of the most common fields. 1 Manufacturing Manufacturing is perhaps the widest area of interest of a mechanical engineer, who has to keep up with technologyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s latest developments. Whatever the material (wood, metal, plastic, rubber, ceramics and more), development of tools, quality control, precision, automated manufacturing, and optimizing processes are essential to achieve all the requirements of the final product. A n

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

2 Materials Science Behind any single product or part of it is an accurate analysis of all of the materials being used and how their specific features may affect the design. Materials are carefully chosen according to their performance in relation to the specific applications required. Bn 3 Vehicle and Transport Systems The design of land vehicles and the planning of transportation systems are very intertwined. Both aim to find better ways to make people and goods move, considering vehicle dynamics, studying new forms of propulsion and engine concepts, minimizing environmental degradation and energy Cn consumption, considering alternatives energy sources. 4 Environment and Energy Systems Mechanical engineering is highly concerned about the effects of its designs on the environments, and vice versa. Mechanical engineers study how energy is stored, used, and controlled, considering a large array of possibilities. Thermodynamics and heat transfer are two of many topics of mechanical engineering, since they are implied in many production fields. Dn 5 Mechanical Design Mechanical design is the process through which an abstract idea becomes an actual object. It requires analysis and forethought too: through the knowledge of drafting practices and standards, a mechanical designer must be able to look past the initial design phase to further manufacturing steps, like what processes will be used, how quality will be assured, what its global En impact will be, and so on. 6 Systems and Control As the world becomes more and more automated, the impacts of this mechanical engineering field grow by the minute. It can be applied to a wide range of systems, from robotics (medical, household and industrial), to mechatronic systems such as those used in DVD players, positioning systems as well as in automotive, from energy and chemical Fn process industries to nuclear fusion reactor.

Writing 8

PET Consider the job of a mechanical engineer and say what its advantages and its disadvantages are. Would you like to start a job like this? Write your point of view in about 100 words.

Engineering | MO DULE 1

Careers WARM UP Work with a partner. Describe the picture and share ideas about what kind of work mechanics do.

ACTIVITIE S

Mechanics Mechanics are workers who keep the machines of modern life running smoothly and efficiently. These workers are related to various branches of mechanics. Some branches deal with fluids and gases while others work with disciplines connected to electricity. Vehicle mechanics are skilled in servicing and repairing cars and lorries. Their job tasks usually include inspecting the parts of a vehicle, evaluating its overall condition, diagnosing problems and making repairs. They also perform routine tune-ups and change the oil. A secondary school certification is the minimum educational qualification necessary to work as a mechanic. Positions require hands-on work as well as a working knowledge of computer technology. A mechanic should be fit in order to work in all sorts of positions: in, around and under the car and should have the hand strength to loosen and tighten nuts or bolts. They shouldn’t be afraid of a few scratches or scraped knuckles. During a typical day, a mechanic may replace entire engines or engine systems, repair or replace non-functioning parts smoothly: in modo in the engine and perform routine maintenance tasks. regolare servicing: far la revisione di A mechanic should be good at maths in order to work tune-ups: messe a punto with numbers including decimals, fractions and both hands-on: pratico standard and metric units of measurements for most scraped knuckles: nocche aspects of vehicle repair, including electronics. sbucciate

Reading comprehension

2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is mechanics? 2 What do mechanics do? 3 What basic tasks does this job include?

4 What are the educational requirements to be a vehicle mechanic? 5 Why should a mechanic be good at maths?

Vocabulary

3 Read the text again and find the English equivalents for these words. 1 motori ____________________________________ 2 manutenzione _____________________________ 3 camion ___________________________________

4 diagnosticare ______________________________ 5 allentare __________________________________ 6 stringere __________________________________

4 Read the text about working opportunities in the field of mechanics and complete it with the missing words. software − automotive − parts − business − auto-repair − departments vehicles − technology − machinery − areas − automobiles − equipment Mechanics work in a variety of (1) ___________________. They operate, adjust, repair, and maintain the complicated (2) ___________________ that produces aeroplanes, automobiles, electronic (3) ___________________, and thousands of other products. These experts also service radios, television sets, (4) ___________________, home appliances, and many other machines. As a result of the advances in (5) ___________________ technology, mechanics must now be familiar with computers and (6) ___________________ programs that are used in auto shops and (7) ___________________. The advancements in (8) ___________________ help operate the electrical and mechanical (9) ___________________ in the latest vehicles. Automotive mechanics work in (10) ___________________ shops and in the service (11) ___________________ of automobile dealers. Many work for trucking and bus companies. Others help maintain vehicles owned by (12) ___________________ firms. 16

MO DULE 1 | FOCUS on THEORY

Professional welders

WARM UP

The job of a welder is complex and challenging. Sometimes welders will spend the day cutting, shaping, and combining materials to make different parts for a variety of industries. Some of these may include the construction, engineering, automobile, or aerospace fields. Whichever field is chosen, the tasks tend to be similar across the board. Welders select the materials to be joined or cut, arrange them in an appropriate configuration, then follow a specific design or blueprint to create the desired product. Sometimes a welder has to perform certain melting methods on materials such as lead bars to complete a project. Welders are also in charge of fixing structural repairs and making sure welding machinery and equipment is in order. Several different types of materials are used on a daily basis including composite material, alloys, or metals. Some welders who choose to follow a more specific route, work with complex laser or ultrasound welding equipment. A career in welding will sometimes require working with dangerous tools in high-risk environments. Getting into the habit of wearing the appropriate protective gear is an absolute necessity. Welders should be familiar with the latest welding tools and methods and should have the ability to stay focused at all times. It would also be helpful to have a vast amount of knowledge of different welding design techniques and equipment preferences. Welding also requires someone with a confident building and construction ability to ensure effective repair and equipment maintenance. A person with excellent construction skills usually has a very logical mind and excels in problem-solving situations. A well-rounded mathematical understanding is a valuable trait for welders to have. It isn’t necessarily a requirement for a job, but is attractive to employers who are looking for welders able to perform many different tasks on the job site.

Reading comprehension

Here are some jobs you might choose at the end of your course of studies. Match the English with the Italian. 1 turner 2 fitter 3 toolmaker 4 welder 5 vehicle technician 6 mechanic a n meccanico n tecnico b automobilistico c n saldatore d n installatore e n tornitore f n attrezzista challenging: impegnativo across the board: generalizzati protective gear: equipaggiamento antinfortunistico well-rounded: completo

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F).

1 The work of a professional welder is both complex and exciting. 2 The working day of a welder is often repetitive: he does the same things every day. 3 Even though welders work in different fields, their tasks are similar. 4 Welders do not use a variety of materials. 5 Welders never work with dangerous tools. 6 Knowledge of welding design techniques and a good mathematical understanding are useless skills.

T F n n n n n n n n n n n n

Vocabulary

ACTIVITIE S

3 Read the text again and find the opposites of the following adjectives. 1 simple ____________________________________ 2 easy _____________________________________ 3 irrelevant _________________________________

4 safe ______________________________________ 5 useless ___________________________________ 6 worthless _________________________________

Listening 4

2 PET Listen to this representative of a school for welding talking about the kind of training needed to become a welder and answer the questions.

What are the most important things in a welding programme? 1 What does every welding job require? 3 4 Why is practice needed? 2 What does every school offer?

Writing 5 Send an email to a friend in which you describe what a welder is expected to do and express your opinion about this job. Is it a rewarding or an unsatisfying job? Give reasons.

Engineering | MO DULE 1

Production stages: from product design to manufacturing feasibility: fattibilità prototype: prototipo forging: contraffatto layout: impostazione grinding: molatura melting: fusione casting: colata coating: rivestimento

Design and drawing The first stage of production, the initial planning, starts when customers send product plans and quality specifications to the manufacturer. After considering the feasibility of the proposed product on a commercial scale, a prototype is crafted. The process of product development, prototype production and prototype evaluation is repeated until the prototype reaches the standard of quality required. Then a forging simulation of the prototype production is carried out using 3D modelling software CAD (Computer Aided Design); in this way, problem areas which show the theoretical stresses and strains on the product can be easily highlighted. Commercial production begins based on the manufacturing design and layout proposed in the prototype production planning stage. At this stage engineers make improvements and modifications.

Manufacture

ACT IV IT IE S

The manufacturing process takes place in the machine shop. The manufacture of material products involves many unit processes that alter the external form and surface as well as the interior structure of the material components and final assembly. These include such processes as grinding, melting, chemical processing, casting, deformation processing, forming, machining, coating, and joining just to mention a few.

Reading comprehension 1

Read the explanation of what a prototype is, and fill in the gaps with the words from the box.

step − look like − demonstration − model − simulation operates − in mind − innovations − feasibility − solid

Using few words, we may say a prototype is a (1) _____________________ of the final product you had (2) _____________________. It’s a primal working (3) _____________________ of a product, whose purpose are usually (4) _____________________ and studying the final product while we are still working on it. Making a prototype is a very important (5) _____________________ of the development process, since it help us to get a (6) _____________________ idea of what the product will be: it shows the basics of what a product will (7) _____________________, what the product will do, and how the product (8) _____________________. Beside showing the features of our product, a prototype also allows us to test its (9) _____________________, and sometimes, while working on it, unexpected discoveries that lead to real (10) _____________________ pop out!

MO DULE 1 | FOCUS on THEORY

Jobs in the production stages Stage 1 The first people involved in the initial planning stage of production are designers or design teams. They study all the factors that may influence the product design and then produce the final design in the form of a layout. Then draftsmen/women draw a prototype. Their drawing represent general assembly as well as individual parts. Mechanical drawing is exacting work, and expert draftsmen are in great demand.

Stage 2 Craftsmen/women are those involved in the manufacturing process. They receive and interpret the prototype sent by designers and draftsmen. Besides knowing about computers, tools and machines, craftsmen have to know the basic rules of workplace safety: they work in a potentially dangerous place, so safety is of the main importance when handling tools and operating machines.

draftsman: disegnatore tecnico, progettista assembly: assemblaggio backdrop: sfondo layer: strato

MORE ABOUT... A craftsman/woman, by definition, is someone with great skill in his/her craft. But the essence of the word has changed with its changing context. Against the backdrop of mass-production, ‘craftsmanship’ carries the implied meaning of something made with special care, time and attention. A craftsman is someone who manufactures the product by hand, using dedicated human reasoning to make it a high-quality, functioning piece.

2 Match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Production starts 2 The process of prototype development 3 The manufacturing process takes place 4 Designers and draftsmen 5 Expert draftsmen are 6 Craftsmen/women are those involved

a n in the machine shop. b n are involved in the first stage of production. c n when customers send in product plans. d n in great demand. e n in the manufacturing process. f n is repeated until the prototype reaches the standard of quality required.

Vocabulary

ACTI V IT IE S

Reading comprehension

3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 customer 2 specifications 3 forging 4 assembly 5 coating 6 designer

a b c d e f

n making an exact copy of something n the process of putting the parts of something together n to cover something with a thin layer of something else n detailed instructions about how a piece of equipment should be made n someone whose job is to make plans for equipment n someone who buys goods or services from a shop or a company

Writing & Speaking

4 Go back to exercise 2 and copy the sentences in the correct order, then work in pairs and give a short account of the content of this section.

Engineering | MO DULE 1

Safety first! WARM UP

The SAFE acronym stands for:

a n Slow down Attention Fire Escape n Stay b Away Fire Extinguisher c n Spot the hazard Assess the risk Find a safer way Everyday

workplace: posto di lavoro hazards: pericoli slippery: scivolosi frayed: logorati

The importance of safety Safety in the workplace is the priority of companies towards their employees. Regardless the size or type of the business, workplace safety procedures are mandatory for all the workforce. Moreover, a safe work environment is a productive one: avoiding or minimizing damage to equipment and facilities as well as injuries to people will result in fewer expenses and more profit for a business. Companies that put safety first turn out higher quality products. By working in a clean, efficient and safe environment, workers are able to reduce distractions and truly focus on the quality of what they do. To be actually effective, a safety program must include hazard identification and control, risk analysis, safety education and appropriate practice policies.

Spot the Hazards Hazards are usually classified into health and safety hazards. Health hazards are those situations which may result in occupational illnesses: chemical, biological, physical agents; noisy machinery that could affect your hearing, etc. Safety hazard are those which result in physical injuries. Slippery floors, shifting materials, frayed electrical cords (could result in electrical shock), boxes stacked precariously (they could fall on someone). It’s important for workers to stay alert on workplace, checking for anything that may be dangerous. If they see, hear or smell anything odd, they must take note and, if they think it could be any kind of hazard, they must tell the safety manager.

MO DULE 1 | FOCUS on THEORY

Assess the risk A risk is the chance a hazard may occur, causing specific harm or injury to people or damage to property. Assessing the risk means evaluating how likely it is that a hazard will harm someone and how serious the harm could be. Whenever a hazard is spotted, the risk must be assessed by asking how likely it is that the hazard could harm someone. When employees are unable themselves to fix hazards that could cause serious harm, it is crucial to ask supervisors or safety managers the safest way to do it. Employers are responsible for their companies’ safety policies but employees also play an important role in ensuring safety in the workplace. Their diligent compliance with the safety guidelines is essential in preventing accidents at work.

DID YOU KNOW…? Workers’ compensation is an insurance which pays monetary benefits to workers who become injured or disabled because of their employment. Depending on local legislation, it covers various job-related injuries, including death, due to an accident or occupational disease. It is a publicly-sponsored system; it provides compensation for economic loss (both past and future), reimbursement or payment of medical expenses, and benefits payable to the family of workers killed at work (functioning in this case as a form of life insurance). General damage (pain and suffering), and damages due to worker’s negligence are generally not included in compensation plans.

harm: danno assessing: valutare compliance: osservanza insurance: assicurazione

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones.

1 Safety measures are a necessity only for the equipment. 2 The quality of what workers do is improved if they work in a safe environment. 3 Health hazards cause physical injuries. 4 Safety hazards cause occupational illnesses. 5 Risk assessment is the evaluation of how serious a hazard is. 6 Safety guidelines are essential to prevent accidents at work.

T F n n n n n n n n n n n n

Engineering | MO DULE 1

AC TI V ITIE S

Reading comprehension

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary 3 Here are some important safety questions employees should ask their employers. Complete each question with the words from the box.

health − safety gear − compensation − hazards − responsibilities − equipment − emergency 1 What are the ______________ of my job? 2 What are the company’s safety and ______________ rules? 3 Do I need to wear ______________ and when will I be shown how to use it? 4 When will I be trained in ______________ procedures? 5 Where is emergency ______________ located? 6 Is this workplace covered by Workers ______________? 7 What are my safety and health ______________?

Listening 4

PET Listen to the speaker giving some useful safety tips, and choose the correct option.

1 All employees must be aware of… A the workplace regulations. B the workplace health and safety hazards. C the workplace potential problems. 2 When you work… A don’t pick up things. B don’t stoop your shoulders. C keep a correct posture so your back doesn’t get hurt. 3 Tools and machines… A should be used as fast as possible. B can be selected according to personal choice. C must be used properly and without taking shortcuts. 4 Wearing the correct safety equipment… A reduce the risks of workplace injury. B is a waste of time. C is just a personal choice.

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. Ask and answer the questions. 1 If you aren’t alert to the surroundings because you are tired there are more risks of workplace injuries. To avoid this risk when would you do the most difficult tasks? 2 If you don’t have a ladder is it a good idea to use something else? Why? Why not? 3 Do you avoid using appropriate mechanical aids to save time?

MO DULE 1 | FOCUS on THEORY

Safety education

WARM UP

It is your employer’s responsibility to fix hazards on workplace. Sometimes you may be able to fix simple hazards yourself, as long as you don’t put yourself or others at risk. For example, you can pick up things from the floor and put them away to eliminate a trip hazard. The best way to fix a hazard is to get rid of it. This is not always possible, but employers should try to make hazards less dangerous by looking at the following options (in order from most effective to least effective).

Elimination

Sometimes hazards – equipment, substances or work practices – can be avoided entirely; for example, cleaning high windows from the ground with an extendable pole cleaner, rather than by climbing a ladder and risking a fall.

Substitution

That is, when a less hazardous thing, substance or work practice can be used, such as using a non-toxic product instead of a toxic one.

Name three of the legal duties of employers about safety.

get rid of: liberarsi di welding screens: schermi da saldatura forklifts: carrelli elevatori earmuffs: paraorecchie shutdown: chiusura emergency cut-out: interruttori di emergenza

Isolation Separate the hazard from people, by marking the hazardous area, fitting screens or putting up safety barriers: welding screens can be used to isolate welding operations from other workers; barriers and/or boundary lines can be used to separate areas where forklifts operate near pedestrians. Safeguards can be added by modifying tools or equipment, or fitting guards to machinery. These must never be removed or disabled by workers using the equipment. Instructing workers in the safest way to do something This means developing and enforcing safe work procedures. Students on work experience must be given information and instruction and must follow agreed procedures to ensure their safety. Using personal protective equipment and clothing (PPE) If risks remain after the options have been tried, it may be necessary to use equipment such as safety glasses, gloves, helmets and earmuffs. PPE can protect you from hazards associated with jobs such as handling chemicals or working in a noisy environment.

Safety sign colours Meaning or purpose

Instruction and information

Red

Prohibition sign Danger

Dangerous behaviour Stop; shutdown; emergency cut-out devices Evacuate

Yellow Amber

Warning sign

Be careful; take precautions

Blue

Mandatory sign

Specific behaviour or action

Green

Emergency escape First-aid sign No danger

Doors; exits; escape routes Equipment and facilities Return to normal

Reading comprehension

2 Match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Never clean high windows 2 Substitute a potential hazard 3 Separate the hazard from people 4 Safeguards 5 Students on work experience 6 PPE can protect

a n by marking the hazardous areas. b n must never be removed by workers. c n must be instructed and follow agreed procedures. d n from hazard associated with some jobs. e n by climbing a ladder and risking a fall. f n with a less hazardous substance when possible.

Engineering | MO DULE 1

A CT IV IT IE S

Colour

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary 3 Label the pictures of safety garments with the names from the box. arm and leg reflective bands − ear plugs − elastic harness − flame-resistant garments/fireproof materials high-vis safety/reflective vest − protective gloves − safety earmuffs/ear protection safety goggles/eye protection − safety helmet − dust/safety mask − safety suit − steel-toe shoes

1 ____________

2 ___________

3 ___________

4 ___________

5 ___________

6 ___________

7 ___________

8 ___________

9 ___________

10 ___________

11 ___________

12 ___________

4 Label the pictures with the names from the box. sand bag − safety tape − fire hose − fire extinguisher − fire cabinet − traffic barricade light fire-fighting foam − fire hose − emergency assembly point − fire/emergency exit − first-aid box

1 ___________

2 ___________

3 ___________

4 ___________

5 ___________

6 ___________

7 ___________

8 ___________

9 ___________

10 ___________

5 Match the signs with their meanings. explosion risk − harmful/irritating substances − high voltage − inflammable substances hazardous substances − radioactive waste − risk of falling/sudden drop − suspended loads

1 _________________

2 _________________

3 _________________

4 _________________

5 _________________

6 _________________

7 _________________

8 _________________

MO DULE 1 | FOCUS on THEORY

footwear − gloves − mask − head − guards − protection − off − clear

1 protective _________ must be worn

5 welding _________ must be worn

2 _________ protection must be worn

6 safety ________ must be used/in place

3 face _________ / shield must be worn

4 wear _________

7 switch _________ when not in use

8 aisle must be kept _________

ACT IV IT IE S

6 Complete the mandatory signs with the missing information from the box.

Listening 7

4 PET Listen to this passage about safety signs and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones.

T F n n n n n n n n n n n n

1 Safety signs draw attention to health and safety hazards. 2 Safety signs are grouped in three categories. 3 Regulatory signs describe prohibition. 4 Warning signs with the shape of a square indicate caution. 5 Mandatory signs are circular and regulate public behavior. 6 Information signs have red circular shapes.

Speaking 8 In pairs, discuss what health and safety measures you should take in the situations in exercise 2.

Writing 9 PET

Guided writing: using the statements in exercise 7 write a short summary (about 100 words) about safety signs.

VIDEO 10 Watch this video showing the different types of fire extinguishers and answer these questions. 1 Which are the colours coding the fire extinguishers? 2 What are CO2 fire extinguishers used for? Why? 3 What are dry powder fire extinguishers suitable for? 4 Where can you find use instructions for each fire extinguisher?

Engineering | MO DULE 1

FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

Match the words to the pictures.

1 2 3 4 5 6

blueprint earmuffs welder hand tools engine welding screen

F E

2 Complete the sentences with the words from the box. assessing − carried out − handling − servicing − shop − simulations − productive − policies 1 Engineering activities are ____________________ in a huge variety of industries. 2 The manufacturing process takes place in the machine ____________________. 3 2D and 3D software programs allow engineers to create ____________________ of products. 4 Vehicle mechanics are skilled in ____________________ and repairing cars and lorries. 5 ____________________ the risk means evaluating the probabilities that a hazard will harm someone. 6 Employers are responsible for their companies’ safety ____________________. 7 Safety is of the main importance when ____________________ tools. 8 A safe work environment is a ____________________ one.

3 Write the words under the correct column. energy − job − illnesses − work − power − hazard − robotics − draftsmen − fire − profession COUNTABLE

UNCOUNTABLE

4 Write the Italian of the following words. 1 petrol 2 robotics 3 equipment 4 industry

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

MO DULE 1 | FOCUS on LANGUAGE

5 gear 6 feasibility 7 hazard 8 fire extinguisher

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

Grammar VIDEO

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS

Gli aggettivi possessivi si usano davanti a un nome per indicare appartenenza o relazione. In inglese hanno una sola forma per il maschile e il femminile, il singolare e il plurale, e si riferiscono sempre al possessore, non alla cosa posseduta. My computer is new.

She’s Helen, her daddy is a doctor.

He is Bob: his bike is red.

Their parents are English.

I pronomi possessivi si usano al posto degli aggettivi possessivi quando non si vuole ripetere il nome. My draft and yours are identical. Sia gli aggettivi che i pronomi possessivi non sono mai preceduti dall’articolo the. My friends and his study engineering.

Underline the correct option.

1 That red screwdriver over there is my/mine. 2 Hello, my/mine name is Andrea! What’s your/yours? 3 ‘Is this Jim’s helmet?’ ‘ No, this isn’t his/him: this is mine/my.’ 4 Tom and Jane’s house is new, our/ours is old. 5 I talked to Emma’s sister. Her/Hers name is Janet. 6 Give the new welders their/theirs welding screens. VIDEO

IL GENITIVO SASSONE / WHOSE

In inglese il possesso o il rapporto tra persone si esprime con il genitivo sassone. Si forma con il nome del possessore + ’s + nome della cosa o della persona, senza l’articolo: It’s Joe’s toolbox.

She’s David’s mum.

Quando due persone possiedono qualcosa insieme si aggiunge ’s alla seconda persona. This is Todd and Jamie’s workshop. Whose si usa per chiedere a chi appartiene qualcosa. Whose phone is it?

Whose is the red car parked outside?

2 Complete the sentences with a possessive adjective or possessive pronoun. 1 A Whose sunglasses are these? Are they Ann’s? 6 The dentist phoned for Amy this morning. B No, they aren’t _________. They’re _________. _________ appointment is at 12:30 p.m. on Monday. I bought them at the weekend. 7 A Are these our seats? 2 I update ________ blog everyday about my daily life. B No, the tickets we have say 12 and 13A. 3 Did you ride _________ bike to school today? So, _________ are over there by the stage. 4 A Whose tools are these? Do they belong 8 Emma and James went to the city centre to meet to John and Anthony? _________ friends at a restaurant. B Yes, they’re _________. 9 My toolbox is here. Where’s _________, Tom? 5 We took the car to the garage this morning. 10 A Are those Mark’s gym clothes? There’s something wrong with _________ engine. B Yes, they’re _________.

Translation 3 Translate these sentences into English. 1 La tua cassetta degli attrezzi è nuova, la mia è vecchia. __________________________________________ 2 ‘Di chi è la cianografica sul tavolo?’ ‘È di Jim. La tua è nell’armadio.’ __________________________________________

3 Il mio nuovo casco è giallo, il loro è rosso. __________________________________________ 4 I progetti di John e William sono sempre molto apprezzati. __________________________________________

Engineering | MO DULE 1

CLIL: Ergonomics

Safety in the workplace WARM UP

Work in pairs. Answer these questions: can chairs, work desks, heat, artificial lighting have detrimental effects in workplaces? If so why?

goal: obiettivo, traguardo injuries: lesioni displays: schermi detrimental: dannoso, nocivo keyboard tray: piano della tastiera to address: affrontare eyestrain: affaticamento oculare pinched nerves: nervi tesi squat: accovacciarsi

MO DULE 1 | CLIL

Ergonomics (from the Greek ergon, work, and nomoi, natural laws) is the scientific study of people in their workplace. The goal of ergonomics is to reduce stress and eliminate injuries and disorders associated with the overuse of muscles, bad posture, and repetitive tasks. This is accomplished by designing tasks, work spaces, controls, displays, tools, lighting, and equipment to fit the employee’s physical capabilities and limitations. The first step for good ergonomics is the selection of furniture that can be easily adjusted to meet the needs of the different users and the design of objects that can be better adapted to the shape of the human body. Common examples include chairs designed to prevent the user from sitting in positions that can have detrimental effect on the spine, and ergonomic desks with adjustable keyboard trays, desktops of variable height and other elements which can be changed by the user. Establishing a good ergonomics process can help reduce the frequency of MSDs (musculoskeletal disorders), address ergonomic risk factors and concerns, and control workers compensation costs. To minimize the risk of MSDs a workstation should provide: • good workstation chairs • proper keyboard and mouse placement • correct monitor positioning • sufficient lighting to help reduce eyestrain. And to avoid MSDs you should: • change your work position, chair height and angle, and keyboard position throughout the day • look away from the screen periodically to focus on distant objects • use the “alt” functions on your keyboards where possible to reduce mouse use. • hold the phone with a non-writing hand or use a headset: do not hold the phone with your chin and shoulder as this can lead to neck tension, headaches and pinched nerves • stand to reach for items on shelves above the desk, rather than from the chair • squat or go to one knee while getting materials from bottom drawers or shelves. Some rest periods must also be planned. For instance, working at the computer should include breaks every two hours to protect the worker’s eye. Changing work habits can increase workers’ safety and comfort through education and workstation modifications, rather than making costly furniture or equipment purchases.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

2 Answer these questions. 1 What is ergonomics? 2 What is the goal of ergonomics? 3 How does ergonomics achieve its aim? 4 What could help minimize the risk of MSDs in the workplace? 5 Which good habits are you expected to follow if you want to avoid MSDs? 6 What is the benefit of changing work habits?

PET Read the sentences below about ergonomics and decide if they are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones. T F

1 Ergonomics concerns the relationship between machines and the workplace. 2 Posture is important to preserve one’s health. 3 Furniture is often detrimental in ergonomics. 4 When working on the computer, never look away from the screen. 5 When you want to reach for items on shelves above the desk, do it from the chair. 6 Instead of making costly furniture it can be helpful to change work habits.

n n n

Vocabulary 4 Complete the passage with the words from the box. environment − workplaces − ergonomics − sight − pain − science − needs − limitations

Ergonomics is just the process of designing or arranging (1) _____________________, products and systems so they fit the people that use them. It is actually a branch of (2)_____________________ that learns about people’s abilities and (3)_____________________, and then applies the findings to the surrounding (4) _____________________. It’s not simply about the physical environment; (5) _____________________ also takes into consideration environmental factors that can impact things like hearing, (6)_____________________ and temperature. Back, wrist and shoulder (7) _____________________ are all common ailments reported by workers. The purpose of ergonomics is to create comfortable and safe work and home environments through desks and chairs that adapt to the individual (8) _____________________, size and strength of a person.

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. With the help of the answers in exercises 2 and 3 describe what you have learnt about ergonomics.

Engineering | MO DULE 1

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

ENGINEERING AND MECHATRONICS BRANCHES

ROLES

mechanical engineer

Chemical Civil Electrical Mechanical

mechanic manufacturing

Practical

machine operator

materials science

fitter

vehicle and transport systems

welder

mechanical design

designer Technical

environmental and energy systems

metallurgist Management

systems and control

SAFETY HAZARD IDENTIFICATION health (occupational illnesses)

safety (physical injuries)

RISK ANALYSIS

SAFETY EDUCATION

elimination

PPE

substitution isolation

MO DULE 1 | MAP your KNOWLEDGE

instructions safeguards

MODULE

2 Energy Sources

FOCUS on THEORY

CLIL: Natural Sciences

Non-renewable energy sources Renewable energy sources Pollution

Effects of global warming

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary Grammar

Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, Qinghai Province, China Longyangxia has the capacity to produce 850MW of power â&#x20AC;&#x201C; enough to supply up to 200,000 households. It is the largest solar farm in the world.

FOCUS on THEORY

Non-renewable energy sources WARM UP

Do you know any energy sources that will run out?

2 What are fossil fuels in your language?

ACT IV IT IE S

carbon dioxide: biossido di carbonio peat: torba moisture: umidità crude oil: (anche petroleum) petrolio greggio seeped: filtrò wells: pozzi waste: scorie

Fossil fuel sources Much of the energy used to power cars, televisions and computers comes from fossil fuels. They burn releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which can cause global warming. Fossil fuels can be solid, liquid, or gaseous. The most important solid fuels are coal, wood and peat. Coal ranks as one of the world’s main forms of fuel. It is also the dirtiest of all fossil fuels, but it is still used in several countries because it is cheap, abundant and available. The three main types of coal are: • bituminous coal, the most important coal used for generating electricity, making coke and producing heat; • anthracite coal, which has value as a fuel, because it burns slowly, producing a lot of heat and very little smoke; • lignite, which contains a great deal of moisture and produces less heat than anthracite and bituminous coal. Wood was once man’s main fuel, but coal, petroleum and other fuels have largely replaced it. Peat, like lignite, contains a great deal of moisture and therefore is a poor fuel. Liquid fuels include crude oil which is found in areas that are, or once were, covered by oceans. Microorganisms that sank to the bottom of the ocean were covered by sediment. Over millions of years the sediment changed into rock, and the organic matter changed into oil. The oil slowly seeped through cracks in the rocks to form pools, which are the focus of oil exploration. Gas fuels include natural gas coming from wells which are drilled deep underground. Natural gas, the cleanest fossil fuel, is a highly efficient form of energy and compared to other fuels it has fewer impurities, it is less chemically complex, and its combustion generally results in less pollution. It is composed chiefly of methane, a colorless, odorless, flammable gas which represents an ideal fuel and an important energy source. When burned it gives off almost twice as much heat as the common manufactured gases, and leaves no ash or other waste.

Reading comprehension 3 Read the text and match the two parts of the sentences. 1 fossil fuels n is not expensive and can be found in large quantities. a 2 natural gas n from organic matter sunk on the bottom of oceans. b 3 oil derives n doesn’t produce any waste. c 4 coal n pollute and damage the natural environment. d MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on THEORY

How coal was formed 1

Dense forests and wet lands covered much of the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface hundreds of millions of years ago. They were filled with huge, strange-looking trees.

When the giant plants died, they fell into the wet lands and formed a mass of decayed vegetable matter. This brown vegetable matter is called peat, the first material in the formation of coal.

New plants grew on top of the old ones. Then they, too, died and became part of the mass of peat. Water sometimes covered the area. Dirt and sand caused different layers.

Heat and the pressure of water caused different types of coal to be formed such as bituminous coal (soft) and anthracite (hard).

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 4 Look at the pictures and answer the questions. 1 What 2 What 3 What 4 What

was the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface covered with in ancient times? is peat? happened to the new plants which grew on top of the old ones? caused peat to turn into coal?

Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

mankind: umanità weights: pesi drilling: trivellazione (alla ricerca di petrolio) barrels: barili impact: impatto oil spills: perdite di petrolio

DID YOU KNOW…?

ACTIVITIE S

Crude oil is measured in terms of oil barrels: a barrel (bbl) is the unit of the volume of oil expressed in gallons (42 US gallons) or liters (159 liters). The numbers of oil barrels produced in a single day is referred to as ‘Barrels Per day’ (B/D). Oil companies listed on American Stock Exchanges usually report their production range with barrels of oil per day on a regular basis.

Petroleum: black gold Petroleum, or crude oil, is often called black gold because it is so valuable to mankind. It comes from the Earth as a dark flammable liquid which consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth’s surface. A fossil fuel is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and undergo intense heat and pressure. Petroleum is obtained mostly by drilling for oil. Once refined, it is used in a large number of consumer products, from petrol and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and pharmaceuticals. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials, and it is estimated that the world consumes about 88 million barrels each day. The use of fossil fuels such as petroleum can have a negative impact on the Earth’s biosphere, releasing pollutants and greenhouse gases into the air and damaging ecosystems through events such as oil spills.

Reading comprehension 1

PET Read the text again and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F).

1 Petroleum is also called black gold because it is very precious. 2 It comes from the Earth as a liquid form which burns easily. 3 It consists of a simple mixture of compounds. 4 Once refined, petroleum is used in a limited number of products. 5 The world consumes less than 100 barrels each day. 6 Petroleum has no negative impact on the Earth’s biosphere. 7 Oil spills can damage ecosystems.

PET Read the texts on page 32 and page 34 again and choose the correct option.

1 One of the most important fuels is... A wood. B coal. C gas.

4 Petroleum is called black gold because... A it is black. B it is worth a lot of money. C it is as yellow as gold.

2 The most important kind of coal is... A lignite. B anthracite. C bituminous coal.

5 Petroleum consists of... A hydrocarbons. B liquid organic compounds. C a variety of hydrocarbons and liquid compounds.

3 Natural gas produces... A less heat than other manufactured gases. B much more heat than other manufactured gases. C as much heat as other manufactured gases.

MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on THEORY

6 The use of petroleum... A leaves no ash or other waste. B leaves just a small quantity of pollutants. C damages the ecosystems.

3 Find the English equivalents for these words and expressions. 1 petrolio greggio 2 combustibile fossile 3 benzina 4 raffinato 5 infiammabile

_______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________

6 roccia sedimentaria 7 agenti inquinanti 8 reagente chimico 9 ecosistemi 10 mescolanza

_______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________

4 Read the text below and choose the correct word.

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

Crude oil, also (1) called / told / known / named as petroleum, is a fossil fuel, meaning that it was (2) made / used / done / designed naturally from decaying plants and animals living (3) at / from / by / in ancient seas millions of years ago. Crude oil (4) produces / contains / consists / is made hundreds of different types of hydrocarbons (5) each / every / some / all mixed together. They (6) have / are / can / want be separated by means of a process called oil refining. Different hydrocarbons have different boiling (7) numbers / types / points / kinds, so they can all be separated (8) by / with / on / from distillation. Petroleum provides man with many of his most useful fuels. Petrol is the (9) very / much / most / best important of these fuels. It powers the cars that families use for daily travel, and (10) much / most / very / many of the lorries that rumble along the motorways.

Listening 5

PET Listen to a teacher talking about fossil fuels, then choose the correct option.

1 Most ... used in our daily life need energy to run. A fuels B machines C energy

3 Petroleum is made ... from decaying plants and animals. A naturally B artificially C suddenly

2 Fossil fuels are non-renewable ... of energy. A gases B solar collectors C sources

4 Hydrocarbons are ... that contain 14% hydrogen and 84% carbon. A electrons B molecules C atoms

Speaking

5 Gas is found at the top of the pockets of... A oil. B coal. C wells.

6 PET

Work in pairs. Ask and answer questions about the characteristics of some kinds of fossil fuels, including the advantages and disadvantages connected to their use.

DID YOU KNOW…? The OPEC, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, is a permanent, intergovernmental organization, founded after the Baghdad Conference on September 10–14, 1960. The five founding members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela) were later joined by ten other countries: Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, Angola, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea. OPEC‘s headquarters are located in Vienna, Austria. The principal aim of OPEC is to co-ordinate and unify petroleum policies among member countries, in order to achieve prices’ fairness and stability, provide a steady petroleum supply to consumers, and improve its dialogue and cooperation with consumers, and non-OPEC producers.

Energy Sources 35 | MO DULE 2

WARM UP

Do you think non-fossil fuels, such as uranium, produce larger or smaller amounts of greenhouse gases? Can you say why?

Non-fossil fuel sources Uranium is a non-fossil fuel used in nuclear fission reactors to produce heat. Non-fossil fuel energy production usually generates much less pollution. Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. Atoms are tiny particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous energy in the bonds that hold atoms together. Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity, but the energy must be released first. It can be released from atoms in two ways: by nuclear fusion or by nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces energy. In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce electricity.

Nuclear fuel Atoms are made up of three major particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. The most fissionable atom is an isotope of uranium known as uranium 235 (U-235) which is the fuel used in most types of nuclear reactors today. Although uranium is quite common, about 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare. Besides U-235, the most common non-fossil fuel is plutonium 239. bonds: legami fission: fissione split apart: separati, scissi fissionable: adatto alla fissione (nuclear) reactor: reattore (nucleare) core: nucleo boiler: caldaia radioactive waste: scorie radioattive highly hazardous: altamente pericoloso

Nuclear power plants Most power plants burn fuel to produce electricity. However, nuclear plants use the heat given off during fission as fuel. Fission takes place inside the reactor of a nuclear power plant. At the centre of the reactor is the core, which contains uranium fuel. Fission generates heat in a reactor just as coal generates heat in a boiler. The heat is used to boil water into steam. The steam turns huge turbine blades. As they turn, they drive generators that make electricity. Afterwards, the steam changes back into water and cools in a separate structure at the power plant called cooling tower. The water can be used again and again. Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world’s energy and 13-14% of the world’s electricity. The use of nuclear fuel and the radioactive waste the nuclear industry collects is highly hazardous to people and wildlife.

DID YOU KNOW…? How nuclear fission works. Fission is another word for splitting: in nuclear fission the nucleus of one atom splits, releasing a significant amount of energy (as much as 200 times that of the neutron that started the reaction). When a nucleus splits, it produces several smaller fragments whose combined mass is about equal to half the original mass: the missing mass converted into nuclear energy. And the process goes on, for every uranium or plutonium isotope hit by neutrons. Uranium or plutonium isotopes are usually the most used fuel in nuclear plants, because their atoms are easy to split, especially when hit by neutrons. The fission process may happen either naturally, through radioactive decay, or, as in controlled nuclear reactions, because the atom has been bombarded by other subatomic particles.

MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on THEORY

DID YOU KNOW…? Nuclear energy around the world

805.3

The first commercial nuclear power stations started producing electricity in the 1950s. Today, 449 nuclear plants provide electric power to 31 countries, while 60 more reactors are under construction in 15 countries, and 160 are already planned to be built. 13 countries rely on nuclear energy to supply at least one-quarter of their total electricity. As to date, nuclear plants provide over 13% of the world’s electricity production, without carbon dioxide emissions.

384.0 210.5

U.S.

France

China

179.7

154.3

97.4

Russia South Korea Canada

“World’s top 10 nuclear generating countries”.

81.0

80.1

Ukraine Germany

65.1

60.6

Sweden

Seurce: International Atomic Energy Agency.

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is nuclear energy? 2 How is electricity produced in a nuclear plant? 3 How does the fission process generate electricity? 4 What is one of the major non-fossil fuels? 5 Why is the nuclear fuel cycle highly hazardous?

3 PET Read the text again and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). 1 Uranium generates more pollution than a fossil fuel. 2 Things all around us are made up of very small constituents called atoms. 3 Atoms can join together to form a larger one in nuclear fission. 4 Nuclear fusion is used in nuclear power plants to make electricity. 5 Protons, neutrons and electrons are larger than atoms. 6 The reactor is the place where the fission process happens. 7 Uranium fuel is inside the core of the reactor. 8 Radioactive waste is very dangerous.

T n n n n n n n n

F n n n n n n n n

Vocabulary 4 Match the words with their definitions. 1 to release 2 tiny 3 ash 4 to make up 5 to mine 6 to provide

n to supply a n to dig a hole in the ground with a tool or machine to find coal b n to let a substance flow out c n very small d n soft, grey powder that remains after something has been burnt e n to form f

Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

Renewable energy sources WARM UP

Look at the picture in this page: how is energy being produced? Is this energy renewable or non-renewable?

renewable: rinnovabili exhausted: esaurite exploitation: sfruttamento replenished: rifornite devices: dispositivi concave mirrors: specchi concavi sustainably: in maniera sostenibile concerns: preoccupazioni peak oil: picco di consumo

Inexhaustible sources Renewable energy sources are not exhausted by their exploitation and theoretically can be used indefinitely. Examples include solar, wind, and water energy, and other resources that may be replenished such as timber or livestock. Using sunlight to produce electricity through special devices such as solar collectors, photovoltaic plants and concave mirrors will not exhaust sunlight coming to Earth. The sun rises every day and its energy may be used â&#x20AC;&#x201C; no matter how much of its energy is used one day, it will still be there the next one. Over time, and under the right conditions, forests grow again and timber can be sustainably harvested indefinitely. Renewable sources and energy efficiency are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. Increasing levels of investment suggest that sustainable energy has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable sources decline. This is reinforced by climate change concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste, high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government support for renewable sources. These factors are commercialising renewable energy and enlarging the market; the demand for renewable energy is increasing, with the consequent adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a higher standard.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and complete the following sentences. 1 Solar collectors are _________________________________________________________. 2 Sunlight is a source of energy which ___________________________________________. 3 In the course of time forests _______________ again and timber ___________________. 4 Renewable energy sources are becoming _____________________________________ as the non-renewable ones ________________________________________________ . 5 Obsolete technology _______________________________________________________.

MORE ABOUT... To date, there are two ways to exploit sunlight to obtain energy. They have similar names but work differently. Solar panels, also called solar thermal, convert sunlight to heat and then heat to electricity. Photovoltaic cells, or solar cells, convert sunlight directly into electric current by way of carefully-engineered semiconductor materials. Though solar photovoltaics are more efficient converters of sunlight, they are also more expensive.

MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on THEORY

PET Read the text again and choose the correct option.

1 Renewable sources come... A only from the exploitation of the sun. B from the exploitation of the sun and natural phenomena such as wind, sea waves, tides. C only from the exploitation of timber or livestock. 2 Solar energy is produced... A by simply using sunlight. B by using solar collectors only. C by using special devices of different kinds.

3 Concave mirrors... A exploit artificial light. B exploit sunlight. C will reduce the amount of sunlight in course of time. 4 Government support for renewable sources... A is increasing. B is decreasing. C will definitely stop in the near future.

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary 4 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

in teoria legname bestiame per mezzo di raccolto nicchia sostegno antiquato

_________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________

5 Complete the sentences with the words from the box. demand − climate − replenished − renewable − produced 1 Timber is a resource which can be _________________. 2 Energy can be _________________ by using sunlight. 3 More and more people are worried about _________________ change. 4 The _________________ for nuclear energy is increasing nowadays. 5 Governments are supporting more and more _________________ energy sources.

VIDEO 6 Watch the video ‘Climate change in sixty seconds’ and write which climate changes can cause these effects: 1 flooding 2 threat to the ecosystem 3 lack of food

Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

Solar energy

ACT IV ITIE S

streaming toward: che fluisce verso stored: immagazzinata semiconductors: semiconduttori flow: flusso

The electricity produced from the sun’s rays is called solar energy. The sun sends out a never-ending stream of radiant energy. Most of this energy is called sunlight. The amount of solar energy streaming towards the Earth in only one day equals the energy that is produced by burning 550 tons of coal, but it is not easy to put the sun to work. In order to be used as an effective source of power solar energy has to be collected and, depending on its use, perhaps concentrated and stored. Solar energy can be produced directly from the sun: • by absorbing the heat and storing it to be used, for example for heating buildings and water; •b y converting sunlight to electricity using photovoltaic cells. This area is constantly being improved by research and development, and production costs are being reduced. Solar energy is captured by two types of solar panel systems called solar photovoltaic and solar thermal systems. The word photovoltaic comes from ‘photo’ (light) and ‘voltaic’ (electricity). Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as silicon. Basically, when light strikes the cell, a certain portion of it is absorbed within the semiconductor material. This means that the energy of the absorbed light is transferred to the semiconductor; then by a flow of electrons and by metal contacts placed on the top and bottom of the PV cell the energy can be collected for external use.

Reading comprehension 1

Read the texts on these pages again and answer the questions.

1 What is the name of the energy which is derived from the sun? 2 What is solar energy? 3 Why is the heat of the sun stored? 4 What do photovoltaic cells do? 5 What sort of materials are used in photovoltaic cells? 6 Does hydroelectric power cause pollution? 7 What are dams? 8 How can biogas be produced? 9 Make a list of any biomass fuels.

2 PET Read the texts again and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). 1 The energy which comes from the sun is limited. 2 It is very simple to put the sun to work. 3 The word voltaic means the same as light. 4 The solar photovoltaic system is the only way to capture solar energy. 5 Silicon is a semiconductor material. 6 The building of hydroelectric dams require a large amount of money. 7 It is better not to use biogas for cooking. 8 Biomass contains energy which comes from the sun. 40

MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on THEORY

T n n n n n n n n

F n n n n n n n n

Hydroelectric power is obtained by damming rivers and utilising the potential energy stored in water. Hydroelectric dams are very expensive to build, but, once the station is built, the water comes free of charge, and there is no waste or pollution. Tidal energy is a form of energy that comes from the ocean tides and the method is similar to a hydroelectric power plant. When waves come into the shore, they can be trapped in reservoirs behind dams. Biogas is gas produced by most mammals when they digest their food, but it can be also found in bogs and landfills where decomposed vegetation may accumulate. Biogas can be used instead of natural gas for heating and cooking. Biomass is organic material which has stored sunlight in the form of chemical energy. Biomass fuels include wood, wood waste, straw, manure, sugar cane, and many other byproducts from a variety of agricultural processes. Biomass is a renewable energy source because the energy it contains comes from the sun.

damming: arginare costruendo dighe tides: maree bogs: paludi landfills: interramenti di rifiuti manure: letame, concime

PET Listen to this expert explaining the advantages of alternative energy sources, then choose the correct option. 6

1 To produce energy, fossil fuels... A have been used. B have been consumed. C have been sold.

4 Alternative sources of energy are... A non-renewable. B clean. C renewable and clean.

2 Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide... A have a positive effect on the environment. B have no effect on the environment. C have a negative effect on the environment.

5 Solar energy can be exploited... A in many ways. B only in summer. C only when it is necessary.

3 The hole in the ozone layer is a consequence... A of the emission of pollutants in the air. B of the fact that sunlight is weaker. C of the increase of the world population.

6 Solar energy can heat water by means of... A photovoltaic cells. B solar collectors. C boilers.

ACTI V IT IE S

Listening

Writing 4 PET

You want to advertise in your local newspaper the solar photovoltaic systems you produce. Write an ad of about 100 words explaining how solar energy systems work and point out their advantages.

Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

Wind power

WARM UP

Do you know how a windmill works?

ACTI VITIE S

millstones: mole wind turbines: turbine a vento, aerogeneratori harnessing the wind: lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;utilizzo del vento blades: pale spins: ruota, fa girare propellers: propulsori copper wire: cavo di rame

Man has exploited the wind for thousands of years: the first windmills were built over 5000 years ago by the ancient Persians, and by medieval times there were hundreds of windmills in the UK and Holland. Some were used for turning millstones that crushed grain into flour, and others were used to pump water out of wells. Today, wind power is also used as another renewable energy source using wind turbines (modern windmills). Harnessing the wind is highly dependent upon weather and location. Therefore it is convenient to install wind turbines in very windy places. A wind turbine is a machine made of two or three propeller-like blades called the rotor which is attached to the top of a tall tower. As the wind blows it spins the rotor. As the rotor spins, the energy of the movement of the propellers gives power to a generator. There are some magnets and copper wire inside the generator that make electricity. As winds are stronger higher up off the ground, wind turbines are also about 30 metres tall to allow the rotor to catch more wind energy. The turbines are built with a device that turns the rotor so that it always faces the wind. Just one wind turbine can generate enough electricity for a single house, or the electrical energy to pump water or to power a mill which grinds grain. Places where wind turbines are clustered together are called wind farms. The electricity that is generated at a wind farm can be stored in batteries, or sold to electricity companies which provide the electricity for people who live in cities and towns. Main advantages of wind energy

Main disadvantages of wind energy

Wind turbines generate clean and renewable energy: as long as the wind blows there is power to turn the blades of the rotor.

Some people say that they spoil the look of the natural environment. They make a lot of noise. They kill birds that fly into them.

Reading comprehension

2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 Can wind turbines be placed anywhere? If not, why? 2 What is a rotor? 3 What gives power to the wind turbine generator? 4 What produces electricity inside the generator? 5 What are some of the advantages of wind turbines? 6 What are some of the disadvantages of wind turbines?

Vocabulary

3 Find synonyms in the text to the following words. 1 to use 2 to put 3 to fix 4 to permit 5 to create 6 to accumulate 7 to damage

Speaking

__________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________

4 Work in pairs. Ask and answer the following questions. 1 Have you ever seen a wind farm? If so, where? 2 Are there any wind farms in the area where you live? 3 Where do you think it would be suitable to install a wind farm in Italy? 4 Do you think that the advantages offered by a wind farm are greater than the disadvantages?

MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on THEORY

Geothermal energy The adjective geothermal originates from the two Greek terms geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning hot. Geothermal energy is generated and stored in the Earth. It is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The Earth’s geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from the radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. Geothermal energy has been used in hot springs for bathing since Paleolithic times and for heating buildings since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation. Geothermal power is cost-effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. The Earth’s geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply the energy needs of the population, but only a very small fraction may be exploited profitably. Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates.

WARM UP

Can the word ‘geothermal’ help you guess where this kind of energy comes from?

matter: materia decay: deterioramento hot springs: sorgenti termali bathing: balneazione tectonic plate: placca tettonica drilling: perforazione forecasts: previsioni

2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What does geo in the adjective geothermal stand for? 2 Where does geothermal energy come from? 3 What do you call the difference in temperature between the nucleus of the planet and its surface? 4 Why is geothermal energy only partially exploited?

Listening 3

PET Listen to some similarities and differences of renewable sources and fill in the gaps to complete the passage. 7

ACTI V IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Wind energy and geothermal energy have some (1) _______________________ and just a few differences. First of all (2) _______________________ of them are renewable sources of (3) _______________________ and using them means that less fossil (4) _______________________ needs to be burned to make (5) ______________________. Then both are sustainable and environmentally (6) ______________________. Talking about differences, (7) _______________________ resources might supply humanity’s needs if their (8) _______________________ were not so expensive. The exploitation of wind energy, however, is more limited, as wind (9) _______________________ can be installed only in windy places. Some people are against wind turbines because they say that they are noisy, they spoil the (10) _______________________ and they kill birds that fly into them.

Speaking

4 Prepare a short presentation about wind energy. Point out how a wind turbine works to exploit wind power. Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

Pollution WARM UP

Do you know what the main types of pollution are? Match these words with the pictures A-G.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

water pollution visual pollution radioactive contamination noise pollution air pollution light pollution soil contamination

particulates: particolati dust: polvere drainage: drenaggio sewage: scolo, scarico, fognatura trespass: sconfinamento, violazione overhead: aeree billboards: tabelloni pubblicitari junk: cianfrusaglia whereas: mentre (avversativo) coal-fired: a carbone heavy industry: industria pesante

The release of chemical, biological, physical or radioactive substances into the environment is called pollution. Some of the main kinds of pollution are: • Soil contamination (also known as land pollution): mainly due to human activities that cause an imbalance in the natural soil environment. The dumping of industrial waste, landfills and the use of harmful chemicals can all lead to soil pollution. • Air pollution: due to the release of chemicals and particulates (solid particles forming dust) such as nitrogen oxides that create smog and hydrocarbons. Industry and motor vehicles are responsible for the production of nitrogen oxides. Other examples of air pollution are carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide. • Water pollution: caused by industrial waste, agricultural drainage and sewage. • Radioactive contamination: caused by accidents happening in nuclear power stations and by the production and use of nuclear weapons. • Noise pollution: including roadway, aircraft and industrial noise and high-intensity sonars. • Light pollution: including light trespass and over-illumination. • Visual pollution: referring to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards or open storage of junk and municipal solid waste. Motor vehicle emissions are the main source of air pollution all over the world. In the USA there are very severe controls on emissions whereas in the countries of the European Community the guidelines for this problem are not so strict. However, due to the very high number of cars and vehicles, the USA is still the main contributor to mobile source air emissions in the world. There are many other sources that contribute to making this problem even worse: chemical plants, coal-fired power stations, oil refineries, incinerators, metal production factories, plastics factories and other forms of heavy industry. These are called stationary pollution sources. B

MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on THEORY

2 Read the first part of the text and complete the table. Type of pollution

Examples

soil contamination

dumping of industrial waste,

air pollution water pollution

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

radioactive contamination noise pollution light pollution visual pollution

3 Read the second part of the text and answer the following questions. 1 What is the main source of air pollution in the world? 2 Are there any emissions controls in the world? 3 Which country is the main contributor to mobile source air emissions? Why? 4 What are other sources of pollution? 5 What are they called?

Vocabulary 4 Find the synonyms of these words in the text. 1 exhalations 2 strict 3 checks

________________________ ________________________ ________________________

4 directives 5 cause

________________________ ________________________

Speaking 5 Write down a list of the sources of pollution that exist in the area where you live and prepare a short presentation (1-3 minutes) about possible solutions to these problems.

MORE ABOUT... The Great Smog of 1952 in London, was a serious air pollution event which killed at least 4,000 people. As a consequence, some of the first major environmental legislations were introduced, including the Clean Air Act of 1956.

Ecological crises

Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

WARM UP

Scan the text and match each paragraph with these headings.

A The consequences of the development of nuclear science B The causes of air pollution C Important legislation and the beginning of public awareness D The first changes in ecosystems

Pollution: environmental policies 1 Ecosystems, air and water quality were not altered to a significant degree by man until the end of the Middle Ages, when population increased and became concentrated in cities. In some places contamination, air and water pollution became evident. In particular, water pollution caused by untreated human waste became a serious problem as it often resulted in disease transmission. 2 Air pollution and more generally environmental pollution as we know it today began at the time of the Industrial Revolution because of population growth and the flourishing of basic industrial processes. The main reason why air pollution became a major problem was the creation of big factories and the use of huge quantities of fossil fuels, especially coal. Other serious problems were the increasing amount of untreated human waste and the huge quantity of industrial chemical discharges. 3 In 1881 the first two American cities in the USA to pass laws that ensured cleaner air were Chicago and Cincinnati, followed by other cities at the beginning of the twentieth century. At that time an Office of Air Pollution was created. During the late 1940s smog became a very serious problem in many other US cities, but it was not until the mid 1950s that this issue started to draw major public attention.

ACT IV IT IE S

4 Radioactive contamination on a large scale is a consequence of the development of nuclear science. Its effects can remain lethal for hundreds of thousands of years. Although extreme caution is exercised by the nuclear power industry, international incidents such as Chernobyl and Fukushima have shown that the nuclear power industry still represents a great threat to human health and can potentially lead to disasters that can affect humanity on a very large scale.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text again and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F).

T F 1 Towards the start of the Middle Ages the population increased and became concentrated in cities. 2 Environmental pollution as we know it today began before the time of the Industrial Revolution. 3 Air pollution became a major problem due to the creation of large factories. 4 In 1881 the first two American cities in the USA to pass laws that promised cleaner air were New York and Cincinnati. 5 During the late 1950s smog became a very serious problem in many other US cities. 6 The effects of radioactive contamination can remain lethal for hundreds of thousands of years. 7 Little caution is exercised by the nuclear power industry. MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on THEORY

Current commitments Scientists agree that if present trends of greenhouse gas emissions continue, the consequences of global warming will become irreversible. The issue of climate change was the concern of the climate talks of the 1990s: in 1992 (Earth Summit in Rio) governments adopted an international treaty to fight climate change but it did not establish what action to take. It was the Kyoto Protocol (1997) which required governments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50% by 2012. The protocol would have been binding if the nations representing 55% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s emissions had agreed, but this did not happen as the USA, the nation with the highest gas emissions, did not take part. The Kyoto Protocol did not become binding until 2004 when Russia decided to join it. But this was just a small step: the Copenhagen Conference (2009) ended up without a binding goal, and a treaty with the agreed targets was signed only the following year, in Cancun. The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place in Paris from 30th November to 12th December 2015. Its main objective was to produce a document (The Paris Agreement) to limit global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. All countries in favour of this initiative were asked to sign the agreement in New York (between 22nd April 2016, Earth Day, and 21st April 2017). In 2017, US President Donald Trump announced the USA would withdrawal from it, leaving the country out of the Agreement along with Syria and Nicaragua, the only two countries in the world which didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t sign it. We are conscious that there is still a long way to go, and other talks and negotiations will be necessary in order to establish an effective cooperation involving the whole planet, but global awareness is the very first step along the path of a cleaner and healthier world.

issue: problema concern: preoccupazione treaty: accordo binding: obbligatorio

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 3 Read the text and answer the following questions. 1 Are scientists optimistic about global warming? 2 When and where were climate summits held? 3 What difference did Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation make in 2004? 4 What was the 2015 Paris Conference main objective? 5 What were all countries in favour of the initiative asked to do?

Speaking 4 PET

Work in pairs and discuss if there is anything we can do as individuals to reduce pollution or if it is only a problem governments can deal with.

Writing 5 Do some research on the Internet about the latest summits on climate change. Find out where they have been held, what goals have been reached and what targets have been set.

Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

Pollution parameters Industry and a concerned general public have discussed the dangers of different forms of pollution for years. The main questions are: • Do pollutants affect everybody or just some people who are particularly vulnerable? • Are some species more vulnerable than others? • Are the consequences only direct, or are there subsequent effects? • Can the effects be insignificant today and evident only in the future? • Does a threshold for damage exist? • Will there be any consequences for employment or economic prosperity if a form of pollutant disappears?

threshold: soglia highlight: evidenziare

Some substances such as heavy metals and carbon dioxide are a natural part of some environments and have a specific role to play but, in other cases, huge quantities of these substances are released into areas where they did not exist previously, so they are considered a kind of pollution. Environmental interference can sometimes highlight the connection between different areas of pollution that are usually classified independently, such as water and air. Recently a connection has been found between the increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide and the rise in the acidity of ocean waters, whose consequences can be seen on marine ecosystems.

From pollution dilution to elimination

MORE ABOUT...

ACT IV IT IE S

According to recent studies, air pollution: • is the cause of three million deaths worldwide each year; • makes your brain age faster; • results in new-born babies being smaller; • has become a major issue in China: the air in Beijing is so polluted that breathing it does as much damage to the lungs as smoking 40 cigarettes a day.

Reading comprehension 1

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

1 The general public is only worried about the short-term effects of pollution. 2 They are also worried that people might lose their jobs if industries are not allowed to use certain pollutants. 3 Carbon dioxide is considered a form of pollution in any environment. 4 The introduction of a new substance can upset more than one aspect of an environment. 5 When discussing pollution, water and air are not usually grouped together. 6 Evidence shows that more carbon dioxide leads to a fall in the level of acidity in oceans. MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on THEORY

T F

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 2 Now answer the following questions. 1 Where can heavy metals and carbon dioxide be found? 2 Can you answer any of the questions in the text? 3 What example of environmental interference can you find in the text?

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents of these words in the text. 1 inquinamento 2 influenzare 3 danno 4 sostanze

___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

5 metalli pesanti 6 legame 7 biossido di carbonio 8 ecosistemi marini

___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

Reading comprehension 4 PET

Read the article and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F).

PLANS FOR UK’S ‘LEGACY’ OF NUCLEAR WASTE UNVEILED

uropean countries such as Germany and Switzerland modified their nuclear policies after the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011. In 2013, the UK government passed the Energy Act, a new law to build new nuclear power stations with minimum CO2 emissions. The UK was also very concerned about the storage of nuclear waste and in 2014 the government produced an official document on how to choose potential storage sites for most of the future waste from both civil and defence-related nuclear programmes. According to the Department of Energy and Climate Change, geological storage is the best choice. Local authorities have been asked to identify possible sites for storage – which will be judged according to approved norms – to help meet the target of putting the first waste into a disposal facility by the end of 2029.

The DECC has already established a Managing Radioactive Waste Safely programme, focusing on the long term disposal of higher activity radioactive waste in geological formations.

1 The Fukushima disaster in 2011 made some European countries think again about their own nuclear policies. 2 After the Fukushima disaster, the UK decided to stop building new nuclear power stations. 3 The UK government only cares about where to store nuclear waste from weapons. 4 Local authorities will be allowed to choose waste storage sites without any approval from the DECC. 5 The DECC hopes the first disposal facility will be ready within 2029.

legacy: lascito unveiled: scoperti storage: deposito disposal: smaltimento facility: impianto

T F

Speaking 5

PET Work in pairs and discuss the following points about nuclear power.

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power? • In 2011 there was a referendum on this subject in Italy and the people said ‘no’ to bringing back nuclear power. Do you agree with the decision of the majority of Italians? Why/Why not?

Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

Match the words to the pictures.

1 2 3 4 5

uranium petroleum coal natural gas wood

D C

2 Write the English equivalents for these words. 1 riscaldamento globale 2 combustibile 3 inquinamento 4 materia organica

______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

5 ceneri 6 reagenti chimici 7 energia delle maree 8 biosfera

______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

3 Choose the correct alternative. 1 Most of our energy is obtained from non-renewable/renewable energy sources. 2 Oil, natural gas and coal are fossil fuels/non-fossil fuels. 3 Uranium is another solid/nuclear non-renewable element. 4 Uranium atoms create heat through a process called nuclear fusion/fission.

4 Insert the words from the box to complete the passage. supply − run out − thousands − renewable − evaporates hydroelectricity − fuels − non-renewable − energy (x2) Non-renewable (1) ___________________ is something that is being depleted, and at some point there will be none left. One kind of (2) ___________________ resource is fossil fuels. Fossil (3) ___________________ such as oil, coal and natural gas which are made from dead animals and vegetation remains from millions of years ago, take hundreds of (4) ___________________ of years to be made. In a short time, fossil fuel will (5) ___________________ because it is being used up too quickly. Oil is already in short (6) ________________________. (7) _______________________ resources which can be used year after year, such as trees, water and solar (8) _______________________, can renew themselves quickly. It’s just like recycling paper. There is a confusion over the terms renewable resources and renewable sources of energy. All renewable sources of energy are also renewable resources. Water can become an energy called (9) _______________________. Water is a renewable resource as it keeps returning. As long as rain keeps falling on a country, it runs into the dams, into houses and then out again down to the sea, where it (10) _______________________ up into the rain clouds. A renewable resource is always there and will never run out.

MO DULE 2 | FOCUS on LANGUAGE

Grammar VIDEO

PRESENT SIMPLE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

Il Present simple si usa per descrivere azioni abituali, ripetute o dati di fatto sempre veri, validi e permanenti. Spesso questo tempo viene usato con avverbi di frequenza (always, never, usually, often, sometimes, etc.). Crude oil contains hundreds of different types of hydrocarbons. Renewable resources never run out. La forma passiva del Present simple si ottiene con il presente dell’ausiliare to be + il participio passato del verbo principale. Il soggetto della frase attiva diventa complemento di agente o di causa efficiente nella nuova frase passiva ed è introdotto dalla preposizione by. Three major particles make up atoms. ACTIVE Atoms are made up by three major particles. PASSIVE

Present simple active or passive? Write it next to each sentence.

1 Much of our energy is produced by coal. 2 Electricity comes in our life on wires. 3 Generators don’t create energy. 4 A never-ending stream of radiant energy is sent out by the sun. 5 Renewable energy sources are not exhausted by their exploitation. 6 Tidal energy comes from the ocean.

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

2 Underline the correct option, active or passive. 1 Solar energy is produced/produces electricity. 2 How does the fission process produce/is the fission process produced electricity? 3 Atoms make up/are made up by protons, neutrons and electrons. 4 Petroleum is used/uses in a large number of products. 5 Most power plants burn/is burned fuel to produce energy. 6 Solar energy is captured/captures by two types of solar panel systems.

3 Turn these sentences into the passive form. 1 Geothermal energy determines the temperature of matter. 2 We find crude oil in areas that are, or once were, covered by oceans. 3 Large quantities of dead organisms form a fossil fuel. 4 Nuclear fission reactors use uranium to produce heat. 5 Coal generates heat in a boiler. 6 Nuclear power provides about 13% of the world’s energy.

Translation 4 Translate these sentences into Italian. 1 Bituminous coal is the most important coal used for generating electricity. 2 Harnessing the wind is highly dependent upon weather and location. 3 Unlike those sources of energy derived from the combustion of fossil fuels, nuclear energy originates from the splitting of uranium atoms in a process called fission. 4 Energy can heat or cool homes and offices. 5 Today fossil fuels provide more than 90% of the world energy. 6 Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons.

Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

CLIL: Natural Sciences

Effects of global warming WARM UP

Work in pairs. Answer these questions.

1 What is the greenhouse effect?

2 How can you reduce emissions of CO2 in your everyday life?

heat waves: ondate di caldo drought: siccità blizzards: bufere di neve melt: disgelo glaciers: ghiacciai widespread: di vaste proporzioni diseases: malattie

Global warming is the gradual heating of the Earth’s surface, oceans and atmosphere, caused by human action principally by burning of fossil fuels that pump carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. It is expected to have long-lasting and, in many cases, devastating consequences, but it is already having measurable effects on the planet: let’s consider some of the most immediate ones.

Increase in average temperatures One of the most immediate effects of global warming is the increase in temperatures around the world: according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the average global temperature has increased by about 0.8°C over the past 100 years, 2016 being the hottest year on record worldwide since record keeping began in 1895. Scientists say that extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, blizzards, rainstorms and tornadoes are likely to occur more often and with greater intensity. One of the most dramatic manifestations of climate change so far is melt, that is the reduction in the Arctic sea ice, and glaciers retreating almost everywhere around the world.

Sea levels In general, as ice melts, sea levels rise: melting polar ice in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, coupled with melting ice sheets and glaciers across the world, are expected to raise sea levels significantly. Researchers project that by 2100, if greenhouse gas emissions remain unchecked, global sea levels could rise by as much as 0.9 meters.

Plants, animals and humans The effects of global warming on the Earth’s ecosystems are expected to be profound and widespread. Many species of plants and animals are already moving their habitat northward or to higher altitudes as a result of warming temperatures. Because of this, many animals may not be able to compete in the new climate regime and may go extinct. Consequences for humans may be even more devastating. The American Medical Association has reported an increase in mosquito-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever, as well as a rise in cases of chronic conditions like asthma, most likely as a direct result of global warming.

What can we do to stop global warming? The impact of climate change is becoming more and more evident, and to avoid further damages to our planet we need to reduce global warming. That means producing fewer carbon dioxide emissions and it might mean using less energy or using it more efficiently, that is doing the same things with less energy or using better technology. But reducing emissions is very hard. With global energy and fossil fuel use still increasing, major climate change seems almost unavoidable. 52

MO DULE 2 | CLIL

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

2 Answer these questions. 1 What is the major effect of global warming? 2 What happens to the sea levels? 3 What effects do changes in temperature and precipitation have on weather? 4 What effects does global warming have on animals? 5 What effects does global warming have on humans? 6 How can we help reducing global warming?

Vocabulary 3 Complete the passage with the words from the box. melting − glaciers − environment − migration − dropping − places − warming − global

Some think (1) _____________________ warming doesn’t exist. But its effects can be observed in real time in many (2) _____________________: ice is (3) _____________________ in both polar ice caps and mountain (4) _____________________. Lakes around the world are (5) _____________________ rapidly, in some cases faster than the surrounding (6) _____________________. Animals are changing (7) _____________________ patterns and plants are changing the dates of activity, so trees are budding their leaves earlier in the spring and (8) _____________________ them later in autumn. Do you still think global warming doesn’t exist?

Listening 4

PET You will hear an interview to the expert Roy Bell talking about global warming. For each question choose the correct option. 8

1 Global warming refers to… A changes in seasonal temperature. B an increase in average global temperature. C wind and humidity for a given area.

4 The United States emits… A 42% of the world’s total carbon. B 24% of the world’s total carbon. C 12% of the world’s total carbon.

2 The increase of average global temperatures has accelerated… A over the past few decades. B over the past few years. C after the industrial revolution.

5 China emits… A 20% of the world’s total carbon. B 21% of the world’s total carbon. C 12% of the world’s total carbon.

3 The countries which contribute the most to global warming are… A the richest. B the most populated. C the poorest.

6 To pollute less and conserve energy… A is useless to avoid climate change. B is only a duty of the governments. C is a way to contribute to reduce climate change.

Speaking 5 Read these examples of ‘green’ actions, then choose the things that you do, the ones you don’t, those you would like to do and say why. Give reason for your choices. • turning off lights and computers when they are not in use • driving less and using public transportation or carpooling • recycling • purchasing energy-efficient appliances or a more fuel-efficient car • insulating your water heater and home • choosing ‘green’ electricity (energy from renewable sources)

Energy Sources | MO DULE 2

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

ENERGY SOURCES

NON-RENEWABLE

RENEWABLE coal solid

wood

solar panels Solar energy photovoltaic cells

peat

Geothermal energy Fossil fuels

liquid

crude oil

hydroelectric Water energy gas

tidal

natural gases

Wind energy

wind turbines

nuclear fusion biogas Non-fossil fuels

nuclear energy

Biofuels nuclear fission

MO DULE 2 | MAP your KNOWLEDGE

biomass

MODULE

3 Materials

FOCUS on THEORY

CLIL: Contemporary Art

Materials science Properties of materials Types of materials Nanotechnology

Sir Anish Kapoor and his dramatic sculptures

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary Grammar

Plastic products Since 1950, humans have produced more than 9 billion tons of plastic and have junked more than 7 billion. Only 9% of junked plastic is recycled, while 12% is incinerated and 79% goes to landfill or the environment, particularly the oceans.

FOCUS on THEORY

Materials science WARM UP

You can see some pictures below, each related to a different age. Can you match each age to the appropriate picture? 1

Stone Age (10,000 BC)

Bronze Age (2000 BC)

Iron Age (500 BC)

Plastic Age (modern age)

Silicon Age (contemporary age)

bolts: bulloni nuts: dadi boundaries: confini alloys: leghe composites: composti strength: forza shape: forma silicon: silicio

What is materials science? Materials science or materials engineering is the study of all the materials that are around us every day. From simple things that are taken for granted such as bolts, nuts and pens, to materials pushing the boundaries of technology such as those used in aerospace, sports equipment or medicine. Materials science forms a bridge between the sciences and engineering and incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. It allows theory to be put into practice in a way which benefits everybody, since everything that is done involves materials. Materials scientists or engineers study all different types of materials, such as metals and alloys, polymers, ceramics and composites. They develop new materials for new applications, improve existing materials to give better performance and look at ways in which different materials can be used together. Materials experts have a careful understanding of how materials work. This means they are able to control the structure of a material, often on an atomic level, so that its properties, for example strength, can be made specially to suit a particular application. It is also important to understand how materials can be processed in the shape required and materials scientists and engineers have developed many new ways of making things. A good example is the silicon microchip found in computers. Materials science pays particular attention to nanoscience and nanotechnology, a branch of science which deals with dimensions and tolerances of 0.1 to 100 nanometres.

nanotechnology: scienza che si occupa dello sviluppo e della realizzazione di macchinari infinitamente piccoli ma molto potenti

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY

ACT IV IT IE S

MORE ABOUT... Today, all electronic devices use microchips. A microchip, or chip for short, is a small, flat piece of semiconductor material (silicon) carrying many integrated circuits which allow it to hold large quantities of information or perform mathematical and logical operations. Since their first appearance in late 1950s the size, speed, and capacity of chips have progressed enormously, driven by technical advances, making them smaller but more powerful: a computer chip of today possesses millions of times the capacity and thousands of times the speed of the computer chips of the early 1970s. The future, now, is the challenge towards the nanoscale.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and choose the correct answer.

1 What is materials science? A The study of metals and alloys. B The study of applied physics. C The study of all materials. D The study of nanotechnology.

3 What are materials experts concerned with? A They study carefully how materials work. B They advertise new materials. C They focus on very small pieces of material. D They study mainly big pieces of material.

2 Which elements does materials science include? A Elements of chemistry. B Elements of biology. C No particular scientific element. D Elements of physics and chemistry.

4 What is a microchip? A An alloy. B A small piece of silicon without electronic parts. C A small piece of iron with electronic parts. D A tiny piece of silicon with electronic parts.

Listening 3

9 PET Listen to a university professor introducing their Materials Science and Engineering courses, and complete the text with the words from the box.

course − interdisciplinary − skyscraper − smallest − structure − biology − inspiring chemistry − essential − synthesize − knowledge − technologies

Materials are (1) _____________________ to the construction of any engineering structure, from the (2) _____________________ integrated circuit to the tallest (3) _____________________. The effort to develop new materials and processes while improving the already existing ones makes this (4) _____________________ one of the most important and (5) _____________________ disciplines in this field. Materials scientists’ main goal is to understand the connections between the (6) _____________________ of materials and their properties, and use this (7) _____________________ to develop new ways for making materials or to (8) _____________________ new materials through the applications of materials to modern (9) _____________________. The field is highly (10) _____________________, drawing on aspects of almost every other engineering discipline as well as physics, (11) _____________________, and, most recently, (12) _____________________.

Writing 4 Write a short paragraph (about 70 words) with the help of the guidelines below.

• Elements incorporated by materials science. • Types of materials taken into account by materials experts. • Main interests of materials scientists. • New ways of making recently developed things.

Materials | MO DULE 3

Properties of materials WARM UP

Before doing the exercise look up the following words in your dictionary: A malleable B flammable C ductile D brittle

stress: sollecitazione strain: deformazione tensile: duttile cast iron: ghisa copper: rame wrought iron: ferro battuto

According to the reaction of some material to the appliance of a force, there are different materials properties which are included in the following categories: mechanical, thermal, electrical-magnetic, chemical.

Mechanical properties Strength

The most common mechanical property is strength, or the ability of a material to resist forces without breaking, bending, shattering or changing in any permanent way. For example: if elastic material is stretched, the change will be temporary; but it will be permanent with plastic or metal materials. When a force is applied to a material, as when a weight is put on the end of a rope, certain forces inside the rope cause it to stretch. In mechanics, the weight that is applied is called the load. The force within the rope that causes it to stretch is called the stress. The actual change, in this case the stretching, is called the strain. A material can undergo three changes due to stress. It can stretch, it can get shorter, or it may divide into layers. The stress that causes a material to stretch is called tensile stress. The stress that causes a material to get shorter is called compressive stress, while the stress that causes a material to divide into layers is called shearing stress. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS (in pounds per square inch) Material

Tensile

Compressive

Shearing

Aluminium

58,000

35,000

Brick

1,500 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3,000

Bronze

85,000

Cast iron

60,000

Concrete Copper

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS ON THEORY

70,000

2,000 50,000 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 70,000

Stone Wrought iron

145,000

8,000 48,000

25,000

38,000

Plasticity This is the ability of a material to be permanently changed in shape. For example, the plasticity of molten aluminium can be demonstrated by pouring it into a mould. Once the aluminium has cooled down, it can be removed from the mould and has a new shape. Malleability, which occurs when metals are hammered or rolled into thin sheets, is also a property associated with plasticity. Gold, for example, is one of the most malleable of metals. Other common metals in order of malleability are silver, copper, aluminium, tin, zinc, and lead. Ductility is the ability of certain solid substances to undergo permanent changes in shape without breaking, usually by stretching the length of the material. For example, a piece of copper or aluminium can be stretched to make a thin wire, but the shape of a brick cannot be permanently changed except by breaking it. Ductility is a valuable property of many metals including aluminium, gold, iron, nickel, and silver. The term malleability is often used in place of ductility when describing the property of metals that allows them to be hammered into thin sheets.

Elasticity

This is the ability of a substance to return to its original shape or volume after it has been changed by a force. All substances have some elasticity. Some familiar uses of elasticity are the springs in vehicles and the rubber and air in balls.

Hardness This is the resistance of a material to surface abrasion, scratching and indentation. The standard scale of hardness is as follows: soapstone, gypsum, chalk, fluorite, apatite, porcelain, quartz, topaz, corundum, diamond. Brittleness

This is the property of a material, such as ceramics and glass, that is hard but easily broken.

Fatigue

This is the ability to resist repeated stress cycles and tension.

mould: forma, stampo hammered: martellati rolled: laminati lead: piombo wire: filo metallico/cavo brick: mattone scratching: scalfittura indentation: intaccatura brittleness: fragilità

PET Read the text and decide if the statements are true (T) or false (F).

1 The ability of a material to resist forces is the most common mechanical property. 2 Strain means the weight applied to a material. 3 A material doesn’t undergo any changes when under stress. 4 Shearing is the stress that divides materials into layers. 5 Aluminium is less tensile than bronze, but more than brick. 6 Cast iron is as compressive as concrete. 7 The ability of metals to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets is called plasticity. 8 Diamond is the hardest and chalk is the softest.

T n n n n n n n n

F n n n n n n n n

AC TI V IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary

3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 brittleness 2 strain 3 plasticity 4 hardness

a n the state of a material which is distorted by forces acting on it b n resistance to cutting, indentation, abrasion c n the tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation and under low stress d n a property of certain materials by which deformation due to a stress is largely retained after removal of the stress

Materials | MO DULE 3

WARM UP

Thermal properties

The word thermal is related to or caused by:

Thermal properties describe how a material behaves when its temperature changes. Thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and melting point are among the main thermal properties.

A cold

B gas

C heat

Thermal conductivity In physics, thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. Metals in general have high thermal conductivity, as they are able to transmit heat energy. Thermal conductivity is important in materials science, research, electronics, building insulation and related fields, especially when high operating temperatures are achieved. Cooling solutions for electronics or turbines usually use high thermal conductivity materials such as copper, aluminium, and silver to cool down specific elements. However, applications in buildings or furnaces use low thermal conductive materials such as polystyrene and alumina for insulation purposes.

conductivity: conduttività melting point: punto di fusione

Thermal expansion

ACT IV I TIE S

This is the change in dimensions that occurs with most materials as the temperature is increased or decreased. Heat causes expansion because it increases the vibrations of atoms or molecules in a material. Obviously, different materials expand by different amounts when the temperature is raised by one degree. For example: aluminium expands twice as much as iron under MELTING POINTS OF METALS the same temperature increase. Metal °C Melting point The temperature at which a solid Aluminum 659 material turns into liquid is the material’s melting Brass 927 point. Since this process needs both temperature Bronze 913 and pressure to happen, the melting point of a Cast Iron 1204 substance is usually intended at standard pressure. For metals the maximum operating temperature Copper 1083 is usually around two thirds of the melting Gold 1063 temperature.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is the property of thermal conductivity? 2 Which materials are more able to transmit heat energy? 3 What is meant by thermal expansion? 4 Do all materials expand in the same way? 5 What happens when the temperature reaches the melting point?

Speaking 3 Work in pairs. Take turns with your partner at asking and answering questions about thermal properties. • What is heat energy? • Which are main conductors of energy? • How is energy transferred?

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY

Lead

163

Nickel

1452

Silver

951

Steel

1371

Wrought Iron

1482

Zinc

419

Electrical-magnetic and chemical properties

WARM UP

Electrical conductivity

This is the ability of a material to conduct electrical charge. All materials conduct electricity, but some materials such as rubber and glass allow so few electrons to get through that the current is hardly noticeable. These materials are called insulators. Other materials, such as metals, conduct current readily. These materials are called conductors. Metal, in general, is the best conductor, and silver, copper, gold, and aluminium are among the best metallic conductors.

The wires that conduct electricity are often wrapped in an insulating material. Do you know why?

Electrical resistivity This is the ability of a material to resist, or oppose, the transport of electrical charge in response to an external electrical field. A chemical property is any of the properties of a material that becomes evident during a chemical reaction. Chemical properties can be useful to identify an unknown substance or to purify it or separate it from other substances.

Resistance to chemicals

This is the ability of a material to resist chemical attack and to withstand corrosion processes such as oxidation.

Atomic volume This is the volume occupied by a gram-atom of an element in the solid state. Density

This is the mass of material per unit volume (kg/m3).

insulator: isolante withstand: resistere

2 Read the text and find the following information. • Difference between insulators and conductors. • Best electrical conductors. • The property related to electrical fields.

• Properties useful to identify unknown substances. • One of the chemical properties.

Vocabulary 3 Complete the text about insulators and conductors with the words from the box. heat − wire − conductors − insulators − thermal − material − hot − dangerous − electricity − copper

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension

Some materials let heat pass or flow through easily and these are called (1) ______________________ conductors. Other materials don’t let (2) _______________________ pass or flow through them and these are called thermal insulators. Among the best (3) _______________________ are carbon and most metals (especially silver and copper). The best (4) _______________________ include wood, cork, concrete, plastic and fabrics such as thermal vests and oven gloves. If a (5) ______________________ is a good insulator then it’s a poor conductor. Heat only moves from (6) ______________________ things to colder things. As well as conducting or insulating against heat, materials can also conduct or insulate against (7) ______________________. As a general rule, materials that conduct heat well are also good conductors of electricity (e.g. metals such as copper, iron, steel and aluminium). Wood, plastic, glass and rubber are both thermal and electrical insulators. These are very important and have really essential uses. For example, (8) _______________________ wires allow electricity to flow through them, but each (9) _______________________ is covered in plastic and all are encased in plastic tubing so electricity won’t flow out and give you a shock; it’s insulated. Remember, electricity can be (10) _______________________ . Electricity can even be conducted through the sweat on your body!

Speaking

4 Work in pairs. Take turns at asking and answering questions about electrical and magnetic properties. Materials | MO DULE 3

Types of materials WARM UP

What is the difference between a pure metal and an alloy?

2 Can you list the

Metals A metal is an element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat. Metals can be used in pure form or as an alloy, which is a mixture of two or more metals. Alloys are usually harder than pure metals with a lower melting point. Common alloys include:

names of some pure metals and alloys commonly used?

Name

brass: ottone solder: lega per brasatura duralumin: duralluminio germanium: germanio carbon: carbonio rust: ruggine drawn out: trafilato

MORE ABOUT...

ACT IV IT IE S

An electrolysis test consists of dissolving the element in acid and running an electric current through the solution. If the element is metallic, the tiny atoms which make it up will show a positive charge.

Made of

Used for

Brass

Copper and zinc

Ornaments, screws

Bronze

Copper and tin

Statues

Solder

Tin and lead

Joining metals

Duralumin

Aluminium, magnesium and copper

Aeroplanes

Steel

Iron and up to 1,5% carbon

Cars, bridges, ships

There are some elements such as germanium, used in transistors, which are between metals and non-metals in properties. They are called metalloids. When chemists wish to learn whether an element is metallic or non-metallic, they do what they call an electrolysis test. Metals can be divided into two broad categories: ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Ferrous metals Ferrous metals and alloys are iron-based materials and are used in a wide variety of industrial applications. Iron is the most vital industrial metal. Its chemical symbol, Fe, comes from the Latin word ferrum. It is almost always used in an alloy rather than as pure metal. Adding a small amount of carbon to iron makes it into steel. It unites easily with nonmetals such as sulphur, oxygen and carbon. When it unites with oxygen it forms iron oxide, which is known as iron rust. It can be hammered into thin sheets, or drawn out into fine wires. It is heavy, malleable, ductile and magnetic. It is used in construction, machinery, transport, and much more.

Reading comprehension 3 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What are ferrous metals and alloys made of? 2 What does the symbol Fe stand for? 3 Is iron often used as a pure metal? 4 What is steel made of? 5 Describe some of the advantages of stainless steel. 6 What are the main properties of cast iron? 7 What is one of the purest forms of iron in common use? 8 Which metal resists corrosion or rust better than stainless steel? MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY

The Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao Designed by architect Frank Gehry, it is made of stone, titanium and glass.

Steel

is the term used for many different alloys of iron. Each type of steel has its own distinct advantages. Steel containing nickel is very strong and highly resistant to rust and corrosion. Tungsten steel is a valuable alloy for such metal-cutting tools as power lathes, saws, and drills. Stainless steel is noted for its ability to resist rust and stains, it contains about 74 per cent steel, 18 per cent chromium, and 8 per cent nickel. One of the most important industrial uses of steel is the manufacture of cars, especially car body panels.

Cast iron contains 2 per cent or more of carbon. Cast iron is very hard and brittle, and cannot be worked at any

temperature. It is used mainly for castings and engines.

Titanium is a lightweight, silver-gray metal which resists sea-water and seaair corrosion or rust as well as platinum and better than stainless steel. It is ductile. It unites with nearly every material except copper and aluminium. It is used principally as an alloy in iron in aircraft and jet engines.

lathe: tornio saw: sega drill: trapano car body panels: pannelli per carrozzeria casting: colata/getto

Wrought iron is one of the purest forms of iron in common use. It contains only a very small percentage of carbon, which is found in nearly all types of iron and steel. Wrought iron is tough, but rather soft and easily worked.

PET Listen to this expert talking about steel and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T F 1 The speaker is talking about the properties of metals. n n 2 There is only one type of steel. n n 3 All steels are alloys of iron plus 3% of other elements plus carbon. n n 4 Mild steel has less carbon than high-carbon steel. n n 5 Mild steel is harder than high-carbon steel. n n 6 Steel is suitable for car manufacturing because it is stainless. n n 10

ACTIV IT IE S

Listening

VIDEO 5 Look at this video and answer the questions. 1 What are the advantages of using aluminium in car production? 2 What are the disadvantages for most people? 3 What happened when the editor hit the pickup aluminium body? 4 What did he expect instead?

Materials | MO DULE 3

WARM UP

One of the most common types of non-ferrous metals is aluminium. Can you give any examples of objects made with this metal?

soldering: saldatura piping: tubatura die-casting: pressofusione catalyst: catalizzatore

Non-ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals and alloys do not contain iron. Non-ferrous metals include aluminium, copper, brass, lead, silver and zinc. They are primarily used where their differences from ferrous metals can provide an advantage. For instance, non-ferrous metals are much more malleable than ferrous metals and also much lighter, making them well-suited for use where strength is needed, but weight is a factor, such as in the aircraft or canning industries. Because they contain no iron, non-ferrous metals have a higher resistance to rust and corrosion. They are also non-magnetic, which makes them perfect for use in small electronics and as electrical wiring. Finally, they can be recycled many times during their life cycle.

Aluminium is one of the most common elements in the Earth’s crust. It is light, strong and resistant to corrosion. It is a very good conductor of electricity and heat. It can be mixed with magnesium, silicon, iron and zinc to form stronger alloys. It has a wide range of uses: cans, boats, ladders, tubing, aircraft and kitchenware. Copper

DID YOU KNOW…? The new £1 coin Since 15th October 2017, the UK has a new £1 coin. It has a number of features that make it much more difficult to counterfeit. It is made of two metals: the outer ring is a nickel-brass alloy (gold coloured) and the inner ring is a nickel-plated alloy (silver coloured). It is 12-sided: its distinctive shape and the grooves on alternate sides make it instantly recognisable, even by touch. Moreover, it has an image like a hologram that changes from a ‘£’ symbol to the number ‘1’ when the coin is seen from different angles, and very small lettering on the lower inside rim on both sides of the coin.

is a malleable, ductile, reddish brown metal which can be easily beaten into

shape.

Brass

is a copper-based alloy, a mixture of copper and zinc. Among its main properties are resistance and durability. It is used for electrical fittings and ornaments.

Lead

is soft, heavy and ductile, and it loses its shape under pressure. It is mainly used in soldering, piping and batteries.

Silver

can be alloyed with copper (8%) to give sterling silver. It is malleable and ductile.

Zinc

is the third most common non-ferrous metal in the Earth’s crust (after aluminium and copper). It is used in precision die-casting and in copper-based alloys.

Gold and silver have long been used as alloys rather than as pure metals. Cheaper metals are added to them to reduce the cost of gold and silver articles while keeping the appearance of the precious metals. A common alloy of gold consists of about 9 parts gold and 1 part copper. This alloy is a bright orange-yellow, and is called yellow gold. It is used for jewellery, ornamental objects and for dental fillings. Platinum

is a rare metal which is very valuable. It is sometimes called white gold because of its silvery colour, and it has almost the same properties as gold. Because of its resistance to corrosion, it is found naturally in its pure state or in combination with other metals as an alloy. It has a high melting point and is resistant to chemical attack. It has similar uses to gold, being used for jewellery and electrical contacts. It is also an important industrial catalyst.

MORE ABOUT... Silicon, a smart material, is a very important element in modern technology due to its use in computer and smartphone chips. Its chemical symbol is Si and its atomic number is 14. Silicon is a metalloid (or semimetal) and a semiconductor which means it has electrical conductivity between metals and non-metals insulators like glass. It is used in a variety of applications but it is the small portion of highly purified silicon used in semiconductor electronics that is very important for today’s computer technology and electronic industries.

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY

2 Read the text and complete the table about the main features of non-ferrous metals. Metals

Properties

Use

Aluminium Copper Brass

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Lead Silver/Sterling silver Zinc Yellow gold Platinum

PET Read the text again and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T F 1 Iron is almost always used as pure metal. n n 2 Steel is the name given to many different alloys of iron. n n 3 Cast iron can be worked at any temperature. n n 4 Titanium is very ductile but it unites only with copper and aluminium. n n 5 Non-ferrous metals and alloys do not contain iron and can’t be recycled. n n 6 Brass is one of the most common elements and can be used for cans, boats and aircraft. n n 7 After aluminium and copper, zinc is the most common non-ferrous metal. n n 8 Platinum is a rare metal with almost the same properties as gold. n n

Vocabulary 4 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 rame _________________________________ 2 bronzo _______________________________ 3 piombo _______________________________ 4 zinco _________________________________ 5 lattina ________________________________ 6 gioielleria _____________________________ 7 materiale per otturazioni ________________ 8 argento sterling ________________________ 9 catalizzatore __________________________

Speaking 5 Prepare a short presentation about ferrous

Because MacBook Pro and iPads are made from aluminum, they are more likely to be recycled.

and non-ferrous metals with the help of the guidelines below. • Say how metals can be classified. • Explain the differences between ferrous and non-ferrous metals. • Say something about iron and steel. • List the main non-ferrous metals and their properties.

Materials | MO DULE 3

WARM UP

Work in pairs and find examples of hard plastic, transparent plastic and resistant plastic.

limestone: calcare anthropogenic: antropogenico, causato dall’uomo

Polymer materials Plastics The word plastics comes from the Greek word plastikos, which means ‘able to be moulded’, and plastics are man-made materials that can be shaped in almost any form. They can have the hardness of steel or the softness of silk. The substances used to make plastics are called synthetic resins. These synthetic resins are made from chemicals that come from such natural resources as coal, limestone, oil, salt and water. Synthetic resins consist of billions of tiny invisible particles called molecules. Each molecule contains even tinier particles called atoms – mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Chemists often picture a molecule of synthetic resin as a long chain. Each link of the chain is a group of atoms called a monomer. The chainlike molecule is called a polymer. Making synthetic resins can be thought of as building polymers. Plastics are of great importance in our everyday lives and these plastics are in fact, scientifically speaking, polymers. The process by which they are made is known as polymerisation. There are two kinds of polymerisation: addition and condensation polymerisations.

DID YOU KNOW…? Marine plastic pollution

A CT IV ITIE S

Lost in the South Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and Chile, marine scientists discovered an uninhabited coral atoll, a micro island detaining an unusual and sad record: Henderson Island has the highest density of anthropogenic debris recorded anywhere in the world, with 99.8% of the pollution plastic. The paradox of the quantity of plastic piling up on one of the most remote places in the world being also one of its most polluted ones, has been pointed to as evidence of the catastrophic extent of marine plastic pollution.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the texts and answer the questions. 1 What does the word plastics mean? 2 What do synthetic resins consist of? 3 How is a molecule of synthetic resins often described? 4 What is a monomer? 5 What is a polymer? 6 What is the difference between addition polymerisation and condensation polymerisation? 7 What are thermoplastic materials? 8 What are thermosetting materials?

3 Read the texts again and rearrange the following sentences in the correct order 1-8. a n Each molecule contains atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. n The substance used to make plastics is made up of molecules and is called synthetic resin. b n Plastics are man-made materials that can be shaped in almost any form. c n A polymer is a long chain of molecules. d n Finally, according to the way plastics act when they are heated, they are classified as e thermoplastic or thermosetting materials. n Polythene is the most common polymer, but polypropylene and polystyrene are often used. f n Unlike polythene, polyesters are made by a process of condensation polymerisation. g n They are made by a process called addition polymerisation. h

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY

Addition polymerisation consists in joining together small molecules (monomers) to form long chains. This is achieved by a series of addition reactions. The most common polymer is polythene which is made by joining together ethene molecules to form the long polythene chain molecule. It is strong, flexible and light. It has many uses, for examples carrier bags. Polypropylene is a strong, rigid, light polymer used in the manufacture of many plastic articles. Polystyrene is very light. It is a good heat insulator and is used in packaging.

Condensation polymerisation occurs when two molecules react to form a larger molecule leaving behind a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride. A condensation polymer is called polyester. Polyester is used to make synthetic fibres for clothes and furnishings. Nylon is an important condensation polymer. Products made from plastics are attractive, easy to use, and durable. Unfortunately plastic products are rather harmful for the environment because they are difficult to destroy.

All plastics are classified as thermoplastics or thermosettings, depending on the way they react when heated.

Thermoplastic materials can be melted again and again, much like the wax of a candle. They melt when heated to a certain temperature, but harden again as they cool. This process can be repeated many times so that plastics may be recycled into new products, a great advantage from the ecological point of view. Some of the most common are PVC or polyvinyl chloride, which is strong, transparent and flexible and used for imitation leather, packaging, paper coatings; nylon is used for hardware, electrical appliances; acetal is used for refrigerator and washing machine parts, wheels; vinylidene chloride is used for bristles, window screens, packages for meat and other foods; polyethylene is used for making many plastic articles such as sleeves to package food, medicines, toys and many other products. DID YOU KNOWâ&#x20AC;Ś? In 1920s, most phones were made of metal. In 1928 the Swedish company Ericsson began producing their phones in bakelite, and it was a real revolution: the time needed to make the casing was reduced from one week to about seven minutes. That was how long it took to mould the compound and then, when the press spit the casing out, it was ready to assemble over all components on the bottom metal plate. Bakelite proved being the perfect material for telephones at the time: it could be moulded into any shape possible, it is homogenous but resistant, evenly coloured and shiny.

Thermosetting materials cannot be melted and decompose at a high temperature. Most of them are harder than thermoplastic polymers. They are insoluble even in organic solvents. The difference between the two types of polymers is caused by the difference in their molecular structure. In thermoplastic polymers the chains of molecules are not linked to each other and may move freely when heated. In thermosetting polymers there are strong links between the chains which means that the structure remains rigid even at very high temperatures. After melting they harden as heat is added, much as an egg hardens when cooked. Some of the most common are bakelite, used for handles, knobs and laminates; melamine, used for electrical fittings; epoxy, used for adhesives and reinforced plastics. ethene: etilene electrical appliances: dispositivi elettrici bristles: setole

Materials | MO DULE 3

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

4 Complete the text about career opportunities in the plastic industry with the words from the box.

designers − methods − job − machines − courses − design − industry − chemists equipment − workers − students − properties

The plastics (1) ________________ offers a variety of (2) ________________ opportunities. Careers in research and development attract (3) _________________, physicists and engineers. Machine (4) ___________________ develop plastics processing (5) ____________________. Tool engineers design moulds and dies, and develop new production (6) ______________________. Other opportunities are open to sales engineers, buyers and management personnel. Skilled (7) ___________________ may be employed in quality control, testing, inspecting and scheduling. They also operate (8) _______________________ such as evaporators, mills, mixers, and stills. Engineering (9) _______________________ interested in careers in plastics should take special college (10) _________________________ that emphasise polymer chemistry. In these courses, students study the (11) ________________________ of plastics, methods of producing resins and the (12) _______________________ and fabrication of plastics products.

Writing

5 Write a short paragraph (about 50 words) about the most interesting job opportunities you think may occur in the plastics industry.

Speaking

6 Work with your partner.

Student A explains thermoplastics to Student B. Use these questions and their answers as a guideline.

• What happens to thermoplastics when they are heated? • Does any chemical change take place when they are moulded into new shapes? • Why is this process an advantage from the ecological point of view? • Which are the most common thermoplastics?

Student B explains thermosetting materials to Student A. Use these questions and their answers as a guideline.

• Can thermosetting materials be melted? • What are their main properties? • Which are the most common thermosetting materials?

VIDEO 7 Watch this video explaining what polymers are, and answer the questions. 1 What does the word ‘polymer’ mean? 2 Are polymers a synthetic product only? 3 Can you name some biological polymers? 4 What do the properties of a polymeric material depend on?

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY

Rubber

WARM UP

Rubber is one of the most interesting raw materials: natural rubber comes from the juice of a tree; synthetic rubber is made from chemicals. Rubber is not only elastic, but also waterproof and is a good electrical insulator. Natural rubber is resilient and is resistant to tearing. Some types of rubber are resistant to oils, solvents and other chemicals. In a raw state, natural and synthetic rubber become sticky when hot, and brittle when cold. The vulcanisation process modifies rubber so that these changes will not occur. In the typical vulcanisation process, sulphur and other substances are added to raw rubber and the mixture is then heated. The process tends to increase the elasticity of the rubber and its resistance to heat, cold, abrasion and oxidation. It also makes rubber relatively airtight and resistant to deterioration by sunlight. The molecules that make up rubber are long, coiled and twisted. They are elongated by a stretching force and tend to resume their original shape when the force is removed, giving rubber the property of elasticity. Vulcanisation sets up chemical linkages between the molecules, improving the ability of the rubber to return to its original shape after it is stretched. Rubber is made into articles as diverse as raincoats and sponges, bowling balls and pillows, electrical insulation and rubbers. Rubber is also used in toys, balls, rafts, elastic bandages, adhesives, paints, hoses, and a multitude of other products. The single most important use of rubber is for tyres. Most tyres contain several kinds of rubber, both natural and synthetic. Radial automobile tyres contain a greater percentage of natural rubber than other types of automobile tyres because radial tyres have flexible sidewalls that tend to produce a build-up of heat, to which natural rubber has a superior resistance.

Reading comprehension

Can you name any car parts made from rubber?

raw materials: materie prime resilient: elastica tearing: strappo sticky: appiccicosa airtight: a tenuta d’aria coiled: arrotolate rafts: gommoni hoses: pompe per innaffiare radial tyres: pneumatici sidewalls: fianchi

2 Read the text and answer the questions.

ACTIV IT IE S

1 What’s the main difference between natural and synthetic rubber? 2 What makes rubber sticky or brittle? 3 What helps to solve the problem of the above changes? 4 What are the advantages provided by the vulcanisation process? 5 What is one of the most important uses of rubber? 6 Why is natural rubber used in radial tyres?

Vocabulary

3 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 resistente all’acqua ____________________ 2 isolante ____________________ 3 fragile ____________________ 4 miscela ____________________ 5 elasticità ____________________

6 abrasione ____________________ 7 forza di allungamento ____________________ 8 collegamenti ____________________ 9 pneumatici ____________________ 10 aumento ____________________

Listening 4

11 Listen to the conversation between a teacher and his students about rubber and some of its uses. Then answer the questions.

1 Who first used the word rubber? Why? 2 What’s the British spelling of tyre? 3 What’s the shape of a tyre? What’s its function around the wheel?

4 What are pneumatic tyres mainly made of? 5 List some examples of types of vehicles using pneumatic tyres.

Materials | MO DULE 3

gaskets: guarnizioni joints: giunti leaks: perdite buffer: cuscinetto warping: deformarsi muffling: attutire flange: flangia asbestos: amianto second-hand: indirette

Gaskets Gaskets are small but crucial features of industrial applications: their main task is to seal joints in order to prevent leaks, limit vibrations, allowing an almost perfect mounting. Gaskets are classified by material, function, and application. Typically, a gasket is made of a soft, flexible material. Since its task is to act as a buffer between two separate surfaces, it is expected to deform and fill the space it is designed for, including the smallest imperfections. Different materials such as rubber, silicon metal, cork, plastic polymer aid and others are used to enhance the resistance effects of certain chemicals, extreme temperatures, and different types of pressures. The most used material for gasket is rubber: it is soft, easy to cast and, depending on what kind of rubber is used, highly resistant to different temperatures, from very cold to hot without warping. Rubber gaskets are mainly used for pipes and heat exchangers. Combined with rubber, cork gaskets are the best choice while using oil, fuel, and solvents.

Gasketsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; functions Gaskets are commonly grouped by their industrial most common uses: sealing, antivibration, and pipe mounting.

Sealing , that is to prevent leaks, is the primary function of a gasket. Most of them are made of rubber, as it is an excellent way to block water. A special kind of gaskets are the so-called environmental seals gaskets, because they seal against dust, dirt, wind, rain, and other micro to infinitesimal particles, and being UV resistant too. These seals are used in equipment that is vital to the larger industrial operation in outdoor weather conditions. Anti-Vibration Since all machines produce vibration and noise, these particular gaskets disrupt both vibration and noise. Moreover, by muffling vibration, the amount of energy that is wasted is limited. Pipe mounting

(or flange) gaskets are the most common way to connect a valve to pipework and other equipment. They are made from a composite of various materials such as rubber, non-asbestos, and graphite. Flange gaskets come in two different types: full-face or ring-type bolt. Full-face gaskets cover the whole flange and can be easily spotted because the holes for the bolts are cut directly into the material of the gasket. These gasket are suitable for use with flat-face flanges. In a ringtype (or inner bolt) gaskets secure the joint and form a ring of bolts that surrounds these gaskets. These gasket are suitable for use with raised-face flanges.

MORE ABOUT... Some gaskets for specific applications, such as high-pressure steam systems, may contain asbestos. According to the World Health Organization most asbestos-related illnesses (about 107,000 cases per year) relate to occupational exposure. But the risk is high even for some people not working directly with it, too. Many exposures are second-hand, that is families of workers who unintentionally carried the fibers home on their clothes and hair, exposing others to the mineral. Homes and apartments built before 1980 often are filled with asbestos: it can be found in floor tiles, roofs, furnaces, plumbing, appliances, and fireplaces, leaving almost everyone vulnerable.

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY 70

Kevlar Invented over 50 years ago, DuPont™ Kevlar® is a synthetic fibre type of plastic with a very high tensile strength: its specific tensile strength (stretching or pulling strength) is over eight times greater than that of steel wire. It is a kind of plastic, but it doesn’t melt: it only decomposes at about 450°C. And very low temperatures (-196 °C) don’t affect it, too. It is flammable, but burning usually stops when the heat source is removed. It can resist moisture as well as attacks from many different chemicals, though long exposure to strong acids or bases will degrade it over time. Although it can be used by itself, Kevlar is best known for combining with other materials to give them added strength: it is used for bulletproof vests and knifeproof body armour, as reinforcement in car tyres, in car brakes, in the strings of archery bows, and in car, boat, and aircraft bodies. It’s even used in buildings and other structures, although not (because of its poor compressive strength) as the primary structural material.

moisture: umidità

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones. T F n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

1 Gaskets help to seal joints. 2 Gaskets’ material is hard and rigid. 3 Rubber is a material often used for pipe gaskets. 4 Cork, combined with rubber, offers little flexibility. 5 Only flange gaskets are used in piping. 6 Kevlar is a plastic material. 7 Kevlar has a high tensile and compressive strength.

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 2 Find the English equivalents for these words and expressions. 1 guarnizione 2 perdita 3 sughero 4 resistenza alla trazione

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

5 montaggio 6 tubatura 7 combustibile 8 antiproiettile

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

Listening 3

PET Listen to a man talking about asbestos, then complete the sentences with the missing information. 12

1 Asbestos was already known to the ancient ____________________. 2 Global demand increased after the war as ____________________ struggled to rebuild. 3 In the US the amount used also grew in ____________________ years. 4 By the late 1970s a dramatic ____________________ began in the use of asbestos. 5 By 2003 the use of asbestos was banned ____________________. 6 By 2005 asbestos was banned throughout the ____________________.

Speaking 4 Work in pairs. Using as a guideline your answers to exercise 1 give a short presentation of gaskets. Materials | MO DULE 3

Composite materials

concrete: calcestruzzo coarse: ruvido embedded: conficcato glues: incolla tensile loading: carico di tensione steel bars: barre d’acciaio reinforced concrete: cemento armato

Composites are formed by combining materials to form an overall structure that is better than the sum of the individual components. They are made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties, which when combined produce a material with characteristics different to the individual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional materials. Typical engineered composites include: • composite building materials such as cements, concrete; • metal composites; • ceramic composites (cermet). In comparison with common materials used today, such as metal and wood, composites can provide a distinct advantage. The primary advantage in the adoption of composites is their lightweight properties. In transportation, less weight equates to more fuel savings and improved acceleration. In sporting equipment, lightweight composites allow for longer drives in golf, faster swings in tennis, and straighter shots in archery. While in wind energy, the less a blade weighs, the more power the turbine can produce. Besides weight savings, the most important benefits of composites include: • flexible, will not dent • long life • non-corrosive • non-conductive • low maintenance • design flexibility

Concrete

ACT IV IT IE S

Concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of coarse granular material (the aggregate or filler) embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder) that fills the space among the aggregate particles and glues them together. Concrete is a very robust material, much more robust than cement, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force. However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading (i.e., if stretched it will quickly break apart). Therefore to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often added to concrete to form reinforced concrete.

Reading comprehension 1

Read the text and match the two parts of the sentences.

1 Composites are formed 2 Concrete is 3 Composites’ primary advantage 4 Cement is

a n the main common composite. b n is in their lightweight properties. c n less robust than concrete. d n by combining materials.

2 Read the text again and answer the questions. 1 What are composites made of? 2 What are the properties of the new materials? 3 What does concrete consist of?

4 What is added to concrete to give it the ability to resist being stretched? 5 What is the primary advantage of concrete?

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 proprietà fisiche ____________________ 2 composti ____________________ 3 materiale granuloso ____________________

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY

4 matrice 5 peso 6 manutenzione

____________________ ____________________ ____________________

Ceramics The most known ceramics are pottery, porcelain, and cement. But ceramics’ range of materials is much wider. Ceramics include simple materials such as graphite and diamond, made up from different crystalline arrangements of carbon, but also employ complex crystals or specially purified or synthetic raw materials.

Properties Ceramics are non-metallic and inorganic substances produced using clay. This material comes from a large class of minerals known as silicates. Silicates were formed as rocks when the Earth’s crust cooled and hardened. The supply of silicates for ceramics is almost limitless, because the Earth’s crust is formed mostly of silicates. The types of clay used for ceramics differ widely in their physical makeup and contain varying proportions of alumina, silica, and water. Flint and feldspar are usually added to make the ceramic product stronger and cause certain chemical reactions during the manufacture. Oxides, used as colouring materials, and other ingredients may also be added. To be useful, ceramic clay must be capable of being shaped and molded. Materials such as gelatin are sometimes added to give the clay this quality. The classic properties of ceramics include durability, strength and brittleness, high electrical and thermal resistance, and an ability to withstand the damaging effects of acids, oxygen, and other chemicals.

WARM UP

How many uses of ceramics can you find around you?

pottery: terracotta clay: argilla alumina: allumina flint: selce feldspar: feldspato molded: modellata binder: legante die: stampo

Making ceramics Clay for ceramic objects is shaped when it is still soft and wet. The clay hardens when it dries, but it is not strong. Firing is the process by which ceramics have traditionally been made. Just as in ancient times, today’s ceramics is made by digging clay from the ground, mixing it with water to make it flexible, shaping it on a wheel or in a mold, and then placing the dried formed clay in special furnaces called kilns. When the firing process at high temperatures is completed the clay then becomes stone-like. Some of today’s processes are more sophisticated than the techniques of the past times.

Cermet Cermet is a hard composite material that can withstand high temperatures. The name comes from the words ceramics and metal. It is made by sintering a refractory ceramic with a metallic binder. Typical cermets are made by mixing an oxide or carbide with a powdered metal. The mixture is then pressed and baked. It doesn’t melt but undergoes certain changes because of the heat and pressure: cermets behave like metals but resist heat that would melt metals.

MORE ABOUT... Sintering is the heat process of making metal parts from powdered metals. The powder is pressed together in a die. Sintering gives parts special characteristics, such as a heat resistance, heaviness and hardness that cannot be obtained by other methods. There are two types of sintering: solid-state and liquid-phase sintering. Solid-state sintering is a process that converts compacted powders into strong, dense ceramic bodies upon heating. Liquid-state sintering is a process accompanied by the presence of co-existing liquid phases of liquid and solids.

Materials | MO DULE 3

DID YOU KNOW…?

A CT IV IT IE S

Refractory ceramic fibre (RCF) comprises a group of several types of man-made vitreous (silicate) fibres, used as insulation material in high-temperature applications. They are widely used in ceramics shops, steel and non-ferrous metals sites, foundries and secondary metal treatment plants, petrochemical industry, chemical processing plants, and automotive industry.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the texts and answer these questions. 1 What kinds of materials do ceramics include? 2 What materials are used to colour ceramics? 3 What are the major properties of ceramics?

4 Can you describe briefly the process of making ceramic objects? 5 What is sintering? 6 What is cermet?

Vocabulary 3 Complete the passage with the words from the box. porcelain − hardness − superconductors − pottery − properties − graphite machinery − nonmetallic − insulation − copper The term ‘ceramics’, which once was referred mainly to (1) ___________________ and to articles made by firing materials extracted from Earth, has now acquired a much broader definition. Ceramics are generally thought of as inorganic and (2) ___________________ solids with a range of useful properties, including very high (3) ___________________ and strength, extremely high melting points, and good electrical and thermal (4) ___________________. The wide range of materials implied in the word ceramics can be divided in two groups. In the first we can include simple materials such as (5) ___________________ and diamond, made up from different crystalline arrangements of the element carbon. Pottery, (6) ___________________, tile, bricks belong to this group. In the second group we can include complex crystals, barium, (7) ___________________, and oxygen which form the advanced ceramics used in so-called high-temperature (8) ___________________ (materials with almost no electrical resistance). They have excellent mechanical (9) ___________________ They are employed for wear-resistant and heat-resistant (10) ___________________, engine components and cutting tools. Most ceramics fall somewhere between these two groups.

Speaking

4 Work in pair. In turns ask and answer these questions. 1 What kind of substances are ceramics? 2 Where does the clay used to make ceramics come from? 3 What are the main properties of ceramics? 4 What’s the process by which ceramics have traditionally been made? 5 What is sintering? 6 What are the main properties of sintering?

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY

Nanotechnology A smaller and smaller world Everything in the universe is made of atoms: atoms build molecules or form materials. Even since the start, human beings made what they needed extracting, carving and creating things from materials which usually come in large formats: wood, stones, mineral ore. Nanotechnology, a new branch of materials science, starts from extremely small things (atoms, molecules) to obtain bigger ones. It implies the knowledge of the physics, chemistry, biology and technology basics of nanometre-scale objects. Nanotechnology engineers manipulate atoms and molecules measured in nanometers (1 nanometer = one-billionth of a meter): because of their size, in this scale materials behave quite differently. Starting from big things has meant producing things with the precision we were able to achieve, but producing at the same time lots of waste or pollution and consuming a lot of energy. Now, starting from small things means absolute precision, complete control of processes, no waste and a lower use of energy.

WARM UP

Work in pairs and answer these questions.

• What is nanotechnology? • What does nanoscale mean?

Nanomaterials Nanotechnology is a very common word these days, but many of us aren’t really aware of the amazing impact it has on our daily lives. Beside using faster, smaller, and more powerful computers that consume far less power, with longer-lasting batteries, nanomaterials are coming into use in healthcare, electronics, cosmetics and many other areas. Nanoparticles improve the mechanical properties of a material, such as stiffness or elasticity. When incorporated into polymers, they can be used as lightweight replacements for metals: although plastics are natural insulators, nanoparticles can produce conductors that are, compared to metals, cheaper and easier to manufacture, and can prevent the build-up of static electricity which can damage microcircuits.

mineral ore: minerale grezzo stiffness: rigidezza conductive polymers: polimeri conduttori

Nanotechnology in everyday life Nanomaterials are used in car manufacturing: vehicle parts built from nanocomposite materials are lighter, stronger, and more chemically resistant than metal. The same process applies to other items such as sports equipments. Iron-based nanomaterials/graphene composites are used to develop more efficient electrochemical sensors for the determination of various kinds of biochemical substances: water filters that are only 15-20 nanometers wide can remove nano-sized particles, thus including virtually all viruses and bacteria. Clothing industry has new fabrics with enhanced stain, water, and flame resistance, with poor increase in weight, thickness, or stiffness of the fabric. And there are some clothes in which microscopic nanowires generate electricity from body movement.

MORE ABOUT... Some conductive polymers are also biocompatible, making them suitable for use in medical devices: thanks to nanomaterials faster, more functional, and more accurate medical diagnostic equipment are now available. Implants coated in nanomaterial have a greater resistance to wear and infections, nanoparticles in pharmaceutical products improve their absorption within the body, and they can also be used to deliver drugs to specific cells, such as chemotherapy drugs to cancer cells. The very next step is the manipulation of human body molecules so we can ‘recreate’ bone tissue or soft tissue.

Materials | MO DULE 3

quantum mechanics: meccanica quantistica tunneling microscope: microscopio di tunneling

DID YOU KNOW…?

AC TI V IT IE S

The first to discuss the ideas behind nanotechnology was the American physicist Richard Phillips Feynman (1918 – 1988), Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965. Along with his work in theoretical physics, Feynman has been credited with pioneering the field of quantum computing and introducing the concept of nanotechnology in the 1960s, because he predicted the possibility of manipulating individual atoms. Then in the 1980s, IBM scientists invented the tunneling microscope whose resolution allowed scientists to see individual atoms for the first time. With the help of a tunneling microscope, scientists can not only see individual atoms, but also lift and move them around and rearrange them in interesting ways.

Quantum computers Entering the world of atomic and subatomic particles means observing things behaving in new, unexpected ways: in nanoscience, these particles can exist in more than one state at a time. To be able to observe and manipulate this new reality we need new instruments too. Quantum computers are incredibly powerful machines that are not intended to replace classical computers: they are a totally different tool we will use to solve complex problems. Instead of bits, used by conventional computers, a quantum computer uses quantum bits or qbits, which allow to store an enormous amount of information using less energy than a classical computer. Based on the principles of quantum mechanics, they exploit complex and fascinating laws of nature that are always there, but usually remain hidden from view. Quantum computers will be particularly suited to factoring large numbers, solving more complex problems, and executing machine-learning algorithms. Their use in discovering and mastering new materials is what scientists are working on today, and the first results are expected in the next years.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Nanotechnology deals with the manipulation of 2 Starting from small things means

3 Feynman introduced the concept of nanotechnology 4 In the 1980s, the scientists of IBM 5 Quantum mechanics explores 6 Some conductive polymers are also biocompatible,

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on THEORY

n because he predicted the possibility of a manipulating individual atoms. n invented the tunneling microscope which b allowed scientists to ‘see’ atoms for the first time. n laws of nature that are always there, but usually c remain hidden from view. n making them suitable for use in medical d devices. n absolute precision, complete control of e processes, no waste and the use of less energy. n atoms and molecules to produce materials, f devices and even machines.

3 Complete the text with the words from the box. science − smaller − chips − atoms − scale − molecules − nanoscale − materials

If by magic you had become by about 1500 million times (1) ___________________ and you had gone into your living room, what you would have seen around you would not have been lamps, tables, computers,

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

and people but atoms, (2) ___________________, and cells. Shrunk down to the (3) ___________________ you would not only see the (4)___________________ that everything is made from, but you would also be able to move them around! Now suppose you started attaching those atoms together in interesting new ways, you could build all kinds of fantastic (5) ___________________, everything from brand new medicines to ultra-fast computer (6) ___________________. Making new things on this incredibly small (7) ___________________ is called nanotechnology and it’s one of the most exciting and fast-moving areas of (8) ___________________ and technology today.

Listening 4

PET Listen to this researcher talking about nanotechnology, then choose the correct answer.

1 Nanotechnology is making new things... A on an incredibly small scale. B on an incredibly large scale. C on both a large and small scale. 2 Nanotechnology... A is a branch of materials science. B has properties which are different from other substances. C is commonly used in everyday life. 3 Nanotechnology... A controls matter on a scientific level. B controls matter on an atomic level. C controls matter on a chemical level.

4 The expert explains that... A nanotechnology can be applied to most aspects of modern life. B its universality is in the fact that it can be broken into molecules. C nanotechnology can be applied to matter. 5 Engineering nanoparticles can be applied to... A televisions and computers. B practical uses. C a variety of uses.

Writing 5 Refer to exercise 2 and write a short summary about nanotechnology.

VIDEO 6 Watch this video where a scientist explains how

nanoscience works, then answer the questions. 1 What is nanotechnology concerned about? 2 What are carbon tubes? 3 What are their features? 4 What are their latest uses?

Materials | MO DULE 3

FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

Insert the words from the box to complete the sentences.

rubber − steel − iron − plastic − gold − glass − ceramic − wood 1 The 2 The 3 The 4 The 5 The 6 The 7 The 8 The

horseshoe is made of___________________________ watch is made of_______________________________ tap is made of_________________________________ bottle is made of_______________________________ tile is made of_________________________________ gloves are made of_____________________________ barrel is made of_______________________________ jar is made of__________________________________

2 Insert the names of rubber things from the box in the appropriate column. tennis balls − tyres − wellingtons − boats − bathing suits − conveyor belts hose − rubber bands − balloons − non-skid materials − diving suits − gloves water bottle − raincoats − airplane − wing de-icers HOME

wellingtons,

LEISURE

INDUSTRY

tennis balls,

tyres, 7

3 Crossword. 1 The process of extracting, removing or taking out different materials. 2 It is one of the few metals that are liquid at room temperature. It is also used in thermometers. 3 It usually takes the form of a hard-grey metal, and it is used in building and to make tools. It is also used to make steel. 4 A valuable yellow metal used to make coins and jewellery. 5 A valuable whitish metal used to make coins and jewellery. 6 A soft reddish metal which allows heat and electricity flowing. 6 7 It studies the smallest things. 8 A composite made of ceramic and cement.

2 1 5

4 Complete the text with the words from the box. properties − heat − iron − carbon − alloys − ferrous − thermosettings − steel non-ferrous − non-metals − thermoplastics − cast Metals can be divided into (1) ________________, (2) ________________. Ferrous materials contain (3) ________________, whereas non-ferrous materials do not. The most important ferrous metals are (4) ________________ iron and (5) ________________. They are both (6) ________________, or mixture of iron and carbon. Steel contains a smaller proportion of (7) ________________ than iron. Certain elements can improve the (8) ________________ of steel and are therefore added to it. Plastics and ceramics are (9) ________________. Plastics are classified in two types: (10) ________________ and (11) ________________. Thermoplastics can be shaped and reshaped by (12) ________________ and pressure but thermosettings cannot be reshaped.

MO DULE 3 | FOCUS on LANGUAGE

Grammar VIDEO

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Forma Il presente progressivo si forma con il presente del verbo to be e il gerundio (forma in -ing) del verbo principale. Uso • Azioni in corso di svolgimento: I’m hammering some leaves of gold. • Azioni in svolgimento per un periodo di tempo limitato: We’re testing a new material this month. • Azioni programmate nel futuro: They are sending the results of the test in a couple of hours.

Verbi di stato Si chiamano verbi di stato o percezione i verbi che esprimono sentimenti, modi di essere, possesso, attività mentale: feel, hear, see, smell, sound, like, love, hate, prefer, want, believe, know, understand, own, have (got), seem e simili. Questi verbi non ammettono la forma continua, ma solo quella semplice. I feel tired now, I want to stop studying. I really like this book about metal working!

Put the verbs into the Present continuous.

1 He (put) ___________________ a weight at the end of a rope. 2 The machines (not work) ________________ now. 3 They (cut) _______________________ this material into tiny pieces. 4 I (make) ______________________ a hole by means of an electric drill.

5 We (train) _________________ hard this month. 6 _______ you (send) _________________________ an email to Mr Roberts? 7 Production costs (increase) ___________________ more and more. 8 We (try) __________________________ to improve materials quality.

2 Put the verbs in brackets into the right tense: Present simple or continuous. 1 What (you / to do) ________________? I (to stretch) ________________ this elastic material. 2 ________________ an elastic substance (to return) ________________ to its original shape after being stretched? 3 Can you call me when that metal (to melt) ________________? 4 Aluminium (to expand) ________________ as much as iron under the same temperature increase. 5 Where ________________ the symbol Fe (to come) ________________ from? 6 At the moment those workers (to use) ________________ concrete to build that road. 7 What ________________ we usually (add) ________________ to reduce the cost of gold and silver? 8 Look! He ________________ (add) some gelatin to the clay to make that vase. 9 Nanotechnology ________________ (deal with) the smallest parts of the matter. 10 This month we (to recycle) ________________ plastics into new products.

3 Correct the wrong sentences. 1 We work in a shoe factory at the moment. _______________________________________________________ 2 Conductors are materials that are conducting current easily. ________________________________________ 3 ‘What are you doing?’ ‘I’m hammering a piece of iron.’ _____________________________________________ 4 The boss is in his office. He’s talking to a potential customer on the phone. _____________________________ 5 We are studying chemistry next week. __________________________________________________________ 6 They are normally using alloys to make these products. ____________________________________________ 7 Our team is developing a new material this month. ________________________________________________ 8 Materials undergo changes due to stress. ________________________________________________________

Translation 4 Translate these sentences into English. 1 “Cosa stai facendo?” “Sto prendendo degli appunti.” 2 Produciamo solo prodotti di qualità. 3 Sto stampando un articolo sulle misure di sicurezza. 4 Stiamo cercando di incrementare le vendite dell’acciaio.

Materials | MO DULE 3

CLIL: Contemporary Art

WARM UP

Materials have played an important role through the centuries. Which are the most popular materials of our contemporary age? Are some of them been used in fine art?

grid: griglia award: premio, riconoscimento void: vuoto receded: svanivano span: apertura fleshly: sensuale Knighthood: titolo di cavaliere flock of birds: stormo di uccelli enhance: valorizzare

ArcelorMittal Orbit, London

MO DULE 3 | CLIL

Sir Anish Kapoor and his dramatic sculptures Anish Kapoor is one of the most influential sculptors of his generation. Kapoor was born in Mumbai, India, in 1954 and lives and works in London. He studied at the Hornsey College of Art (1973–77) and the Chelsea School of Art (1977–78). During the 1980s and ’90s Kapoor was increasingly recognized for his biomorphic sculptures and installations. In fine art, the term ‘biomorphic’ describes the use of rounded abstract forms based on those found in nature. Also referred to as Organic Abstraction, this type of abstract art was not a school or movement, but a striking feature of the work of many different artists, such as Kapoor himself. His works are made with materials as varied as stone, aluminium, and resin, that appeared to challenge gravity, depth, and perception. In 1990 he represented Great Britain at the 44th Sky Mirror Venice Biennale with Void Field (1989), a grid of rough sandstone blocks, each with a mysterious black hole penetrating its top surface. In 1991, he won the Turner Prize, a prestigious award for contemporary art. Kapoor continued to explore the idea of the void during the remainder of the decade, creating series of works that incorporated constructions that receded into walls, disappeared into floors, or dramatically changed depth with a simple change in perspective. In the early 21st century Kapoor’s interest in addressing site and architecture led him to create projects that were increasingly ambitious in scale and construction. For his 2002 installation Marsyas at the Tate Modern Gallery in London, Kapoor created a trumpetlike form by erecting three massive steel rings joined by a 155-metre span of fleshy red plastic membrane that stretched the length of the museum’s Turbine Hall. In 2013 he was awarded a Knighthood for services to visual art. Large scale public projects include Cloud Gate (2004) in Chicago’s Millennium Park and ArcelorMittal Orbit (2012) in the Queen Elizabeth’s Olympic Park, London. Sky Mirror (2006) offers a spectacular view of nature briefly captured, as the sky is caught in its circular surface. Kapoor wants his sculpture to be strange, to contrast in its geometric precision with the infinitely varied natural landscape around it. This is Kapoor at his best, where using relatively simple techniques and elegant forms he reflects reality but somehow transports us into a unique, otherworldly space. Sky Mirror, Red (2007) is a crimson disc placed just within the Round Pond. It appeared at first like a severe minimalist circle, but then it reflected a flock of birds which briefly gathered overhead. That’s the secret of these sculptures — they shift with the weather and the environment around them, offering a different experience at each viewing. And while they are grand in scale, they don’t compete with the landscape, they enhance it, and make us look at it with fresh eyes.

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

1 Amish Kapoor was born in London, but lives in India. 2 The word ‘biomorphic’ indicates the use of rounded abstract forms based on those found in nature. 3 The Turner Prize is an award given for architecture. 4 One of the topics he explored the most is the idea of the void. 5 His sculptures are usually very small. 6 Kapoor meant for his sculptures to enhance the landscape they are in.

T F n n n n n n n n n n n n

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Complete the passage about Cloud Gate with the words from the box. surface − welded − design − arch − concave − shape − steel − weighs − sculpture − seams

One of Kapoor’s best known works is Cloud Gate, a public (1) _____________________ that is the most attractive part of Chicago. Assembled between 2004 and 2006, the sculpture is made up of 168 stainless (2) _____________________ plates (3) _____________________ together: its highly polished exterior has no visible (4) _____________________. It measures 10 by 20 by 13 m, and (5) _____________________ 100 t; visitors are able to walk around and under Cloud Gate’s 3.7 m high (6) _____________________. On the underside is the Omphalos (Greek for navel), a (7) _____________________ chamber that warps and multiplies reflections. Kapoor’s (8) _____________________ was inspired by liquid mercury; the (9) _____________________ of the sculpture, nicknamed The Bean because of its (10) _____________________, reflects and distorts the city skyline.

4 Match these words from the text with their definitions. 1 striking 2 sandstone 3 dramatically 4 massive 5 otherworldly 6 flock 7 shift 8 fresh

n change a n very large, or heavy b n new, different c n a type of pale, yellow stone made from sand, that’s used for building d n in a sudden and surprising way e n coming from an imaginary world rather than the real world f n attractive g n a group of bird, or sheep, or even a large group of people h

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. With the help of the chart in exercise 2 give

Monadic Singularity, Gardens Of Versailles

a short account of Kapoor’s life and works.

Materials | MO DULE 3

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

MATERIALS

TYPES

PROPERTIES refractory ceramic fibre Ceramics

plasticity concrete

elasticity strength

silicon

Mechanical

Composites

hardness cermet fatigue brittleness

steel cast iron ferrous titanium

conductivity wrought iron Thermal

Metals

melting point expansion

aluminium copper non-ferrous brass lead silver

Electrical Magnetic

conductivity

resistivity

zinc thermosettings Polymers

platinum

thermoplastics density

rubber Chemical Nanomaterials

MO DULE 3 | MAP your KNOWLEDGE

resistance atomic volume

MODULE

4 Mechanical Drawing

FOCUS on THEORY

CLIL: Technical Drawing

Mechanical drawing Multiple views Multidisciplinary field

The work of a drafter

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary Grammar

Sketching and drafting All mechanical engineers are taught drafting and how to interpret mechanical drawings. These drawings are the representation of a final design prior to its manufacturing.

FOCUS on THEORY

Mechanical drawing WARM UP

Match the Italian with the English and then find out the drawing instruments in the pictures.

1 goniometro 2 riga 3 compasso 4 curvilineo 5 squadre 6 normografo n set squares a n s tencil lettering b guide nF rench curve c nc ompass/ d dividers np rotractor e n r uler f

thread: filetto drawing board: tavolo da disegno T-square: riga a T thumbtacks: puntine da disegno masking tape: nastro per mascherature

Drawing tools Mechanical drawing is drawing made with the aid of instruments. Such drawings show exactly how to construct or use machines, buildings, or other objects. The making of a bolt starts well before the machinist sets an automatic machine to cut the thread into a piece of metal. No machine tool, car, ship, engine or any of the tools of industry could be made without mechanical drawings. A great deal of planning and work must be completed before the construction of a project is started. Although a lot of drawing work is now done with computers, it is important for students to work with the traditional tools because traditional methods are always a strong foundation for later study, as they can provide the skills to do clean, clear, and precisely measured drawings; moreover, they can sharpen the abilities for visual detail and empower the confidence that software, although it is a faster and more perfect means of producing a drawing, does not. To a greater extent, the accuracy of the drawings depends on the quality of instruments used to prepare them. A pencil is the most common drawing tool. Many pencils are classified by the European system using a range according to their hardness (from very hard, H9, to very soft, H2) and Blackness (B). The standard writing pencil is classified HB. The set of instruments needed to make mechanical drawings consists of at least a drawing board, a T-square, set squares, a protractor, compasses/dividers, drafting machine, thumbtacks, masking tape, a rubber and drafting paper. Draftsmen also use curves, inking pens, blueprinting and other copying machines. The other most common piece of drawing equipment is a pen. One of the most famous specialized pen used by draftsmen for technical drawing is Rapidograph. Technical pens can be used with a range of stencils. A stencil is a thin sheet of material, with letters or a design cut from it, used to produce the letters or design on an underlying surface by applying pigment through the cut-out holes in the material. The key advantage of a stencil is that it can be reused to repeatedly and rapidly produce the same letters or design. The design produced with a stencil is also called a stencil.

MO DULE 4 | FOCUS on THEORY

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

2 Read the text about graph paper, then match the pictures to the correct type of paper. Along with drawing tools, mechanical drawing often requires special paper, called graph paper (or grid paper, or squared paper). It consists of sheets of paper ruled into small squares of equal size making up a regular grid, used to draw charts, graphs, or diagrams. The most common graph papers types are: 1 Cartesian graph paper, probably the most used type of graph paper, with square sized 5 mm 2 Dot paper, where instead of squares there are dots where the lines would have intersected 3 Isometric graph paper, which doesn’t have horizontal lines, but generally has vertical and angled lines. This type of paper is usually used to draw 3D looking objects 4 Log graph paper is useful when the data is in a logarithmic scale. 5 Polar coordinate paper has concentric circles divided into small arcs or ‘pie wedges’ to allow plotting in polar coordinates. Graph paper is available either as loose leaf paper or bound in notebooks.

3 Read the text and match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Drawing tools show 2 The making of an object 3 Working with traditional tools 4 Traditional tools sharpen 5 Accuracy of the drawings depends 6 A stencil is a thin sheet of material

a n the abilities for visual details. b n with letters or a design cut from it. c n how to construct objects and machines. d n starts long before the construction begins. e n provides the skills to do precise drawing. f n on the quality of instruments.

4 PET

Read the text again and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

1 Mechanical drawing is made with the help of drawing tools. 2 Mechanical drawing is applied only to machines. 3 Traditional methods of drawing are useless in our technological age. 4 Using software sharpens the abilities for visual details and empowers confidence. 5 Rapidograph is the brand of a specialised pen for technical drawing. 6 The disadvantage of a stencil is that it can’t be reused.

T n n n n n n

F n n n n n n

Mechanical Drawing | MO DULE 4

Tools: functions and shapes Several drawing tools are available to assist the draftsman in creating technical drawings. Here are some of the most important.

Set squares

T-square In drawing horizontal lines the T-square acts as a guide for the pencil. Draftsmen can also use the T-square as a tool to hold instruments of set squares or triangles with known angles and to create even and straight-edged shapes with proper angles. T-squares are made from hard wood or metal. A T-square consists of two parts namely the stock and the blade joined together at right angles to each other by means of screws and pins.

They are generally made from plastic celluloid material. They are triangular in shape with one corner a right angle triangle. They are used to draw lines at 30°, 60° and 45° to the vertical and horizontal.

Protractor

Compasses

ACT IV IT IE S

To draw curves and circles, the drafter can use a compass for simple arcs and circles or a ‘French curve’, a piece of plastic with a series of complex curves.

Protractors are used to mark or measure angles between 0 to 180°. They are semicircular in shape and are made of plastic or celluloid which lasts longer.

stock: riga lunga blade: riga corta screws and pins: viti e perni

Reading comprehension 1

Read the texts above and complete the table.

Drawing tool

Shape

Function

T-square

____________________________________

Set squares

____________________________________

Protractor

____________________________________

Compass

____________________________________

Drawing board

____________________________________

Drafting table

____________________________________

Drawing tablet

____________________________________

MO DULE 4 | FOCUS on THEORY

battens: traverse warping: incurvature drafting head: testa del tecnigrafo

Drawing board This is made from strips of soft wood generally 25mm thick. It is reinforced at the back by two battens to prevent warping. One of the shorter edges of the rectangular board has a perfectly straight ebony edge which is used as a working edge on which the T-square is moved while making drawings. Drafting tables (or drafters) These are elaborate desks used for many purposes. They serve a variety of functions because these tables make perfect surfaces for any work that requires more space than a typical desk and they also offer other valuable features. They have a built-in fully adjustable drafting head which can be set at any angle and at any position on the board surface. They are suited for precision work and therefore ideal for engineers and designers doing complex technical drawings. The drafting head can also be locked in any position: vertically, horizontally or at any point around its 360 degree rotational axis. Drawing tablet Halfway between hand drawing and computer graphics, is the drawing (or graphics) tablet, a relatively new drawing tool. It is a squared, hardware input device that enables its user to draw digitally: like a draftsman using pencil and paper, a drawing tablet user draws on the flat surface of the tablet with a stylus. The computer is connected to the tablet will convert the drawings into digital form, displaying them on the computer screen. The results are more natural and precise than using a standard computer mouse. Graphics tablets are widely used by architects and engineers, as well as illustrators, artists, fashion and graphic designers.

MORE ABOUT... Some graphics tablets incorporate an LCD into the tablet itself, allowing the user to draw directly on the display surface. They offer the additional advantage of directly seeing the location of the physical pen device relatively to the image on the screen. This often allows for increased accuracy and a more tactile, ‘real’ feeling to the use of the device.

2 Match the words with their definitions. 1 drawing board 2 compass 3 protractor 4 set squares 5 pen

a n instrument for drawing with ink b n flat 3-sided plastic plate with one right angle c n flat piece of wood on which paper is laid to draw d n V-shaped instrument for drawing circles e n instrument in the form of a semicircle used for measuring or drawing angles

Speaking

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

3 Give a short presentation of these drawing instruments with the help of the guidelines below.

• A compass, a protractor, a T-square are drawing instruments. • The first one is used…; the second one…; and the third one…

Mechanical Drawing | MO DULE 4

Technical drawing

WARM UP

Look at these pictures of visual art.

1 Which picture is an example of expressive drawing?

2 Which picture is an example of technical drawing?

ACT IV I TIE S

The process and skill of producing engineering drawings is often referred to as technical drawing, although technical drawings are also required for disciplines that would not ordinarily be thought of as parts of engineering. Technical drawing, also known as drafting, is the act and discipline of composing plans that visually communicate how something functions or has to be constructed. It is the precise graphical representation of a structure, machine, or its component parts that communicates the intent of a technical design of the product to the producer (or the prospective buyer). Drawings may present the various aspects of the form of an object, show the object projected in space, or explain how it is built. Drafting is the visual language of industry and engineering. A drafter is a person who makes a drawing (technical or otherwise). A professional draftsman/woman who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting technician. People who communicate through technical drawings (those who design and those who are in the business) may use technical standards that define practical symbols, perspectives, units of measurement, notation systems, visual styles, or layout conventions. These enable a draftsman/woman to communicate more precisely by using a commonly understood convention. Together, such conventions constitute a visual language, and help to ensure that the drawing is unambiguous and relatively easy to understand. In technical drawing every angle of the invention is described in terms of length, height, and scale indicators that any engineer immediately understands. perspectives: This need for unambiguous communication in the prospettive preparation of a functional document distinguishes layout conventions: technical drawing from the expressive drawing of convenzioni di impaginazione visual art. Artistic drawings are subjectively interpreted unambiguous: and their meanings variously determined. Technical inequivocabile drawings are understood to have one intended meaning.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and choose the correct option.

1 Drafting means... A mechanical tools. B technical drawing. C expressive drawing.

3 Visual language helps... A to interpret a drawing subjectively. B to have a variety of complex interpretations. C to make the drawing easy to understand.

2 A drafting technician communicates... A through the use of technical standards. B through the use of written papers. C through the use of mechanical tools.

4 To communicate a commonly understood convention precisely, draftsmen/women use... A technical standards. B no standards at all. C only symbols.

Vocabulary 3 Solve the anagrams and match the words with their definitions. 1 fartsmand_____________________ 2 gednis________________________ 3 sulvais________________________ 4 sblymo________________________ 5 sceptipever____________________

MO DULE 4 | FOCUS on THEORY

a n relating to seeing b n a picture or shape that has a particular meaning c n someone who draws all the parts of a machine d n a method of drawing something that shows distance and depth e n the process of making a drawing of something

ACT IV IT IE S

4 Insert the words from the box to complete the passage. object − visual − easy − drawing − drafting − standards − perspective − conventions Technical (1) _____________________ is commonly called drafting. Drafting is the (2) ______________

communication of a physical (3) ________________, how it functions, how it is built. (4) ________________ uses some technical (5) ________________ to communicate such as (6) ________________, symbols, layout (7) ________________. These and other standards make the drawing (8) ________________ to understand.

Reading comprehension 5

PET Read the text about the methods of technical drawing and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

There

are three methods of technical drawing. They are sketching, manual, and computer-aided design. Sketching is a quick drawing hand-made that is not intended as a finished work. Also manual drawing is hand-made, but with the aid of instruments such as T-square, set squares or compasses. The sheet of paper is placed on a drawing board or drafting table. Modern drawing tables come equipped with a drafting machine that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. In addition, the drafter uses several technical drawing tools to draw curves and circles. The third technical drawing method is CAD (Computer-Aided Design), which is a software used by architects, engineers, drafters, and others to create precision drawings or technical illustrations. It can be used to create two-dimensional (2D) drawings or three-dimensional (3D) models.

1 The term sketching is referred to a finished work. 2 An executed manual drawing is made with a software. 3 To execute manual drawing a piece of paper (or other material) is placed on a drawing board. 4 Lines drawn along modern drafting tables are often parallel. 5 The mechanics of the drafting tasks is accelerated by computer-aided design. 6 3D is the only computer-aided system for the production of technical drawing.

T n n n n n n

F n n n n n n

Speaking 6 Work in pairs: take turns with your partner at asking and answering questions about technical drawing. Example Student A: What is technical drawing? Student B: It’s the process of producing engineering drawings.

VIDEO 7 Look at this video about how to convert 2D to 3D objects and answer the questions. 1 What is the 2D design converted into? 2 What is the object converted? 3 Which parts of the 2D design are shown? 4 What is 3D modelling workspace? 5 What does the 3D cylinder stand for? 6 What is the depth of the interior of the mug? 7 When is the handle of the mug created?

Mechanical Drawing | MO DULE 4

Standardised conventions

edges: bordi, contorni hatching: tratteggiatura cross-hatching: tratteggiatura incrociata billet: billetta dotted lines: linee tratteggiate

There are a number of standards and conventions for technical drawing, because technical drawings are meant to show information and are interpreted as such. Elements such as layout, text, symbols, types of view projections, dimensioning, descriptive geometry and line thickness are all standardised in technical drawing. First of all, the graphic representation of physical objects requires a variety of line styles. Most technical drawings require two lines, a thick and a light line. The thick line, which should be twice as thick as the light line, is a continuous line used to depict visible edges. The light line is used for hatching, long- and short-dashed lines are used to identify the centre of a circle. Continuous light lines are used to draw dimensions and projections. A variety of line styles are used to graphically represent physical objects. Types of lines include the following:

Part Outlines Section Lines Hidden Lines Centre Lines

visible are continuous lines used to depict edges directly visible from a particular angle.

Light

hidden are short-dashed lines that may be used to represent edges that are not directly visible.

Medium

centre are alternately long- and short-dashed lines that may be used to represent the axes of circular features.

Light

cutting plane are thin, medium-dashed lines, or thick alternate long- and double short-dashed lines that may be used to define section by section views.

Light

Dimension and Extension Lines

3.000

Heavy

Cutting Plane

Break Lines

Heavy

{

Heavy Light

section are thin lines in a pattern (which is determined by the material being cut or sectioned) used to indicate surfaces in section views resulting from cutting. Section lines are commonly referred to as cross-hatching. phantom (not shown) are alternate long- and double short-dashed thin lines used to represent a feature or component that is not part of the specified part or assembly. E.g. billet ends that may be used for testing, or the machined product that is the focus of a tooling drawing.

Lines can also be classified by a letter classification in which each line is given a letter.

Type A lines show the outline of the feature of an object. They are the thickest lines on a drawing and done with a pencil softer than HB. Type B lines are dimension lines and are used for dimensioning, projecting, extending, or leaders. A harder pencil should be used, such as a 2H. Type C lines are used for breaks when the whole object is not shown. They are freehand drawn and only for short breaks. 2H pencil.

Type D lines are similar to Type C, except they are zigzagged and only for longer breaks. 2H pencil. Type E lines indicate hidden outlines of internal features of an object. They are dotted lines. 2H pencil. Type F lines are used for drawings in electro-technology. 2H pencil. Type G lines are used for centre lines. They are dotted lines, but a long line of 10-

20Â mm, then a gap, then a small line of 2Â mm. 2H pencil. Type H lines are the same as Type G, except that every second long line is thicker. They indicate the cutting plane of an object. 2H pencil. Type K lines indicate the alternate positions of an object and the line taken by that object. 2H pencil.

All notes and dimensions should be clear and easy to read. So lettering, that is textual information in a drawing, should be written in capital letters to aid legibility. 90

MO DULE 4 | FOCUS on THEORY

MORE ABOUT... Mechnical drawing also requires special skills in writing: a drawing without lettering would only communicate the appearance and shape of an object. Technical lettering is used to describe and give precise, detailed information about an object, referring to all the dimensioning, scaling, and technical information needed. This has very little to do with normal writing ability: in technical drawing styles are standardized and it must be uniform and highly legible. Freehand lettering is done without any tool, while mechanical lettering is done using tools such as lettering guides, templates, or using a small mechanical device called pantograph.

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

1 Edges in hidden lines are represented by long-dashed lines. 2 Centre lines are used to depict angles. 3 Cutting plane lines can be thin, medium-shaped or thick long- and double short-dashed. 4 Type A lines are the thinnest lines on a drawing. 5 Type C and Type D are similar. 6 Type E lines are dotted. 7 Type H lines are used for drawing in electro-technology. 8 Type G lines are used for centre lines.

T n n n n n n n n

F n n n n n n n n

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 2 Match the words with their definitions. 1 outline 2 axes 3 surface 4 freehand 5 depict 6 hidden

a n drawn by hand without using any special tools b n the outside or top layer of something c n a line around the edge of something showing its shape d n difficult to see e n lines drawn across the middle of a regular shape that divide it into regular parts f n to describe something

Speaking 3 Work in pairs: take turns with your partner at asking and answering questions about line styles and types. Example Student A: What are visible lines? Student B: Continuous lines which describe edges visible from an angle. Student A: What’s the difference between Type G and Type H lines? Student B: They are the same, but every second long line in Type H is thicker.

4 You are a drafter showing a young student the technical drawing you have just completed about some component parts of a machine. Explain the meaning of the standards and conventions you have used in your graphical representation.

Mechanical Drawing | MO DULE 4

Multiple views WARM UP

In a graphical projection the image of a 3D object is projected:

A onto a planar surface.

B onto a curved surface.

width: larghezza depth: profonditĂ skewed: obliqua to foreshorten: scorciare, rimpicciolire axonometric projection: proiezione assonometrica

Parallel projection In most cases, a single view is not sufficient to show all necessary features. To identify all the features of an object it is necessary to have different views or projections of it because an object is three dimensional and includes width, height and depth. Graphical projection is the protocol used to represent a 3D object on a plane surface without including the mathematical calculations. It actually makes the study of design of an object or structure easier. Graphical projection has an important role in machine drawing and design. In parallel projection, the lines of sight from the object to the projection plane are parallel to each other. Within parallel projection there is a subcategory known as pictorials. Pictorials show an image of an object as viewed from a skewed direction in order to reveal all three directions (axes) of space in one picture. Parallel projection pictorial instrument drawings are often used to approximate graphical perspective projections, but there is attendant distortion in the approximation. Because pictorial projections inherently have this distortion, in the instrument drawing of pictorials, great liberties may then be taken for economy of effort and best effect. Parallel projection pictorials rely on the technique of axonometric projection (to measure along axes). Axonometry is a drawing method where the axes of the three-dimensional world space are projected on to a surface. Axonometric projection shows an image of an object placed or turned to one side in order to reveal more than one side of the same image.

MORE ABOUT...

AC TI V IT IE S

A parallel projection is the projection of an object in three-dimensional space onto a fixed plane, known as the projection plane or image plane, where the lines of sight (or projection lines) are parallel to each other. The projection is called orthographic if the lines of sight are perpendicular (orthogonal) to the image plane, and oblique or skew if they are not.

VIDEO 2 Watch this video about pictorial drawings and answer

the questions. 1 What are pictorial drawings? 2 What do the words Cavalier and Cabinet refer to? 3 In which one does the image look a bit distorted? 4 In which one is the depth halved? 5 How many variations does perspective drawing have?

MO DULE 4 | FOCUS on THEORY 92

Types of axonometric projections There are three types of axonometric projections: isometric, dimetric and trimetric. The term isometric comes from the Greek for ‘equal measure’, reflecting that the scale along each axis of the projection is the same, unlike some other forms of graphical projection. The term isometric is often mistakenly used to refer to axonometric projections in general. Isometric projection represents three-dimensional objects in two dimensions in technical and engineering drawings. In an axonometric projection, the three coordinate axes appear equally shorter than they really are and the angles between any two of them are 120 degrees. As the distortion caused by foreshortening is uniform, the proportionality of all sides and lengths is preserved and the axes share a common scale. This enables measurements to be read or taken directly from the drawing. In dimetric projection, the direction of viewing is such that two of the three axes of space appear equally foreshortened, of which the attendant scale and angles of presentation are determined according to the angle of viewing; the scale of the third direction (vertical) is determined separately. Approximations are common in dimetric drawings. This type of projection is more flexible than the isometric one. In trimetric projection, the direction of viewing is such that all of the three axes of space appear unequally foreshortened. The scale along each of the three axes and the angles among them are determined separately as dictated by the angle of viewing. Approximations in trimetric drawings are common.

3 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 Why isn’t it usually sufficient to have a single view of an object? 2 What do the three dimensions include? 3 What is parallel projection? 4 What do you know about pictorials? 5 What kind of drawing method is axonometry? 6 How do the three axes appear in isometric projection?

ACTIV I TI ES

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 4 Read the text again and match the words with their definitions. 1 view 2 features 3 width 4 protocol 5 axis 6 foreshortening

a n a system of rules, an established method b n objects appearing smaller than they really are c n what you are able to see d n the distance from one side of an object to the other e n any of the distinct parts of an object f n a straight line about which a geometrical object rotates

Mechanical Drawing | MO DULE 4

Orthographic projections that show more than one side of an object.

A CTIV I TI ES

sundials: meridiane vanishing point: punto di fuga

Orthographic and perspective projections Technical drawings do not show objects as they appear in photographs, because photographs do not indicate true dimensions. A technical drawing shows as many views of an object as it may be necessary to define its exact shape and size. The most common method of doing this is called orthographic projection. Orthographic projection has been known since ancient times. In about 14 BC, Roman engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio used the projection to construct sundials and to compute sun positions. Vitruvius also seems to have invented the term orthographic (from Greek orthos, straight and graph, drawing) for the projection. The orthographic projection is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional object. In the orthographic projection the object is viewed along parallel lines that are perpendicular to the plane of the drawing. Orthographic drawings include top views (plans), flat front and side views (elevations), and cross-sectional views showing profile. Perspective projection is a linear projection in which three-dimensional objects are projected on to a picture plane. This has the effect that distant objects appear smaller than nearer objects. It also means that lines which are parallel in nature (that is, meet at the point of infinity) appear to intersect in the projected image. For example, if railways are pictured with perspective projection, they appear to converge towards a single point called vanishing point. Photographic lenses and the human eye work in the same way, and therefore perspective projection looks more realistic. Perspective drawing, which presents a realistic illusion of space, uses a horizon line and vanishing points to show how objects and spatial relationships might appear to the eye, including diminution of size and convergence of parallel lines. Drafting was done with precision instruments (T-square or parallel rule, triangle, mechanical pens and pencils) until computerisation revolutionised production methods in architectural and engineering offices.

Reading comprehension 1

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

1 Orthographic projection has been known since Roman times. 2 The term orthographic comes from Latin. 3 In orthographic projection the object is viewed along curved lines perpendicular to the plane. 4 Orthographic drawings include only plans and elevations. 5 The effect of perspective projection is that distant objects appear bigger than the nearer objects. 6 Vanishing point is the point where lines appear to converge.

MO DULE 4 | FOCUS on THEORY

T n n n n

F n n n n

n n

1 Marcus Vitruvius Pollio used projection 2 In orthographic projection the object 3 Perspective is a linear projection 4 Technical drawings do not show 5 Drafting was done with precision instruments 6 Lines which are parallel in nature 7 Perspective projection looks more realistic

n appear to intersect in the projected image. a n because the human eye works in the same way. b n to construct sundials. c n is viewed along parallel lines. d n where 3D objects are projected on a picture plane. e n until computerisation revolutionised methods. f n objects as they appear in photographs. g

ACT IV IT IE S

2 Read the text again and match the two parts of the sentences.

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 caratteristiche, aspetti _______________________ 2 profondità _________________________________ 3 altezza ____________________________________ 4 larghezza __________________________________ 5 scala, gradazione ____________________________

6 sezione trasversale __________________________ 7 calcolare ___________________________________ 8 intersecare _________________________________ 9 ideare, inventare ____________________________ 10 meridiana __________________________________

4 Complete the text about perspective with the words from the box. plane − two-point − projection − lines − axes − parallel − object − straight − points − methods

Perspective projection is usually categorised into one-point, (1) ________________ and three-point perspective, depending on the orientation of the projection (2) ________________ towards the axes of the depicted (3) ________________. In one-point projection the (4) ________________ plane is parallel to the two main (5) ________________. In two-point projection the projection plane is parallel to one of the principal axes. In three-point projection the projection plane is not (6) ________________ to any principal axis. Graphical projection (7) ________________ rely on the duality between (8) ________________ and points, whereby two (9) ________________ lines determine a point while two (10) ________________ determine a straight line.

Speaking 5 Give a short account of the main types of projection. You can start with parallel projections, mentioning pictorials, then orthographic and perspective projections. You can also refer to the previous exercises to organise your presentation.

Writing 6 PET

Surf the Internet and collect some information about sundials (their origin, their purpose and their diffusion). Then write a paragraph of about 100 words.

Perspective of a geometric solid using two vanishing points. In this case, the map of the solid (orthogonal projection) is drawn below the perspective, as if bending the ground plane.

Mechanical Drawing | MO DULE 4

Multidisciplinary field WARM UP

CAD is the acronym for...

2 Can you guess some of the advantages of replacing pencil and paper with CAD?

made from scratch: rifatto da zero scope: possibilitĂ released: stampati

Computer-aided design (CAD) Today the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the use of computer-aided design systems (CAD). CAD is a program which allows designers to create two- or three-dimensional shapes. In mechanical design it is also known as computer-aided design (CAD) or computeraided design and drafting (CADD), which describes the process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software. There are two types of computer-aided design systems used for the production of technical drawings: the first may be used to design curves and figures in two dimensional space (2D); the second is used to design curves, surfaces and solids in three dimensional space (3D). 2D CAD systems such as AutoCAD or MicroStation have replaced the paper drawing discipline. A 2D CAD system is merely an electronic drawing board. Its greatest strength compared with paper technical drawing is in the making of revisions. Whereas in a conventional hand drawn technical drawing, if a mistake is found, or a modification is required, a new drawing must be made from scratch, the 2D CAD system allows a copy of the original to be modified, saving considerable time. 2D CAD systems can be used to create plans for large projects such as buildings and aircraft, but provide no way to check if the various components fit together. 3D CAD systems, such as Autodesk Inventor or SolidWorks, first produce the geometry of the part and the technical drawing comes from user defined views of the part. Any orthographic, projected and section views are created by the software. There is no scope for error in the production of these views. 3D CAD allows individual parts to be assembled together to represent the final product. Buildings, aircraft, ships and cars are modelled, assembled and checked in 3D before technical drawings are released for manufacture. Both 2D and 3D CAD systems can be used to produce technical drawings for any discipline. Every drawing can be stored to be reused and it can be dimensioned, rotated, scaled up and down and mirrored.

ACT IV IT IE S

MORE ABOUT...

Reading comprehension 3 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What does CAD stand for? 2 What are the additional benefits brought to technical design by CAD? 3 What are the main features of 2D CAD? 4 What are the main features of 3D CAD? 5 What happens when there is a mistake in a hand-drawn drawing? 6 What happens when there is a mistake in a 2D CAD drawing? 7 What do 3D CAD systems produce first? MO DULE 4 | FOCUS on THEORY

Rendering is the process involved in the generation of a 2D or 3D image from a model through a software, adding shading, color and lamination to the model in order to create life-like images on a screen. Rendering helps increase efficiency and reduces cost in design, and it is mostly used in architectural designs, design visualization, simulators, and in the film-TV industry. The techniques and features used vary according to the project. Rendering may be done ahead of time (pre-rendering) or it can be done in real time. Real-time rendering is often used for 3D video games, which require a high level of interactivity with the player. It is CPU-intensive but can be used to create more realistic images. Prerendering is mostly used in film industry.

4 Match each Italian word to its English equivalent. 1 attrezzo, utensile 2 disegnatore tecnico 3 gomma 4 vite 5 impaginato 6 legno 7 veduta 8 ribaltato specularmente

a b c d e f g h

n layout n wood n tool n eraser n screw n draftsman n mirrored n view

MORE ABOUT... 3D printing is a process of making three dimensional solid objects from a digital file. A 3D printed object is created by laying down (adding) successive layers of material until the whole object is completed. Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced horizontal cross-section of the object. 3D printing is a real revolution: unlike the subtractive manufacturing method where pieces of metal or plastic are cut out of objects, in 3D printing layers of material are added. That’s why it’s also called additive manufacturing. 3D printing can take a lot of time to be completed, depending on the complexity and size of the object, but enables you to produce complex (functional) shapes using less material than traditional manufacturing methods.

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

5 Complete the text about solid modelling with the words from the box. views − product − designer − three-dimensional − software − vision

olid modelling, one of the most important and advanced applications of the CAD (1) ___________________________, S helps the designer to see the designed object as if it were the real manufactured (2) ___________________________. It can be seen from various directions and in various (3) ___________________________. Its structure can be two-dimensional, two-and-half-dimensional or (4) ___________________________. This helps the (5) ___________________________ to be sure that the object looks exactly as they want it to be. It also gives additional (6) ___________________________ to the designer as to what more changes can be done to the object.

Listening 6

PET Listen to the explanations a teacher gives his students about CAD and choose the correct answer. 14

1 The first CAD program, Sketchpad, was invented in the early _________ A 1930s B 1960s C 1950s

4 2D CAD systems like AutoCAD largely _______ the discipline of drawing on paper. A renewed B replaced C repeated

2 By the late 60s and early 70s computers became an important _________ for mechanical and technical drawing in general. A rule B means C tool

5 AutoCAD creates circles, arcs, straight lines and curves and makes it much easier to ________ mistakes. A revise B rewrite C restate

3 CAD use became even more prevalent with the ________ of the personal computer in the 1980s. A invention B innovation C introduction

6 3D CAD systems begin by defining the _______ of a part. A perspective B geometry C perimeter

Writing

7 Here is an interview to a draftsman/woman. Write questions to these answers. 1 They consist of visual language, technical details of the product and specifications. 2 Specifications specify dimensions, materials and procedure. 3 By using drawings, rough sketches, specifications, codes and calculations, technical details are provided. 4 No calculations were previously made by engineers. 5 To complete my work I use technical handbooks, tables, calculators and computers.

Mechanical Drawing | MO DULE 4

FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

Match words and pictures.

1 n Half circle protractor marked in degrees 2 n Compasses/dividers 3 n T-square 4 n French curve

C A

2 Match the words with their definitions. 1 dimension a n a line that is not curved or bent 2 shape b n two lines that are the same distance apart along their whole length 3 curved c n the form that something has, for example round, square etc. 4 straight d n the length, width, height, depth or diameter of something 5 lettering e n thin and pointed pieces of metal that you push and turn in order to fasten pieces 6 parallel of metal or wood together 7 converge f n having a shape that is not straight 8 screws g n textual information in a drawing n to come from different directions and meet at the same point h

3 Ask your partner questions. Your partner must answer without reading the book, using their own words. Then reverse the roles. Example: What are screws? Screws are pieces of metal used to fasten metal/wood together with a screwdriver.

4 Choose the correct alternative.

1 Visible lines are short-dashed / continuous lines used to depict edges. 2 Section lines are thick / thin lines. 3 Section lines are usually referred to as cutting plane / cross-hatching. 4 Type E lines indicate visible / hidden outlines of an object. 5 In parallel projection the lines of sight from the object to the projection plane are perpendicular to each other / the same distance apart along their whole length. 6 Isometric means same / different measure. 7 Perspective projection is a curved / linear projection. 8 CAD is a system that accelerates / enlarges the drafting task.

5 Complete the text with the words from the box. manufactured − analysis − files − software − CAD − vehicle − analysed − design − packages − tools It is usually necessary to use more and more sophisticated (1) _____________________ to predict the performance of a vehicle more accurately. The aerodynamic behaviour of the (2) _____________________ can be predicted with a reasonable degree of accuracy by using CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) (3) _________________________ packages. The actual car will be designed using powerful computer-aided (4) _________________________ (CAD) programs, and the car will be (5) ____________________________ using computer-aided manufacturing programs (CAM). Normally, large integrated (6) ____________________ containing all of these and using common data from the CAD (7) ________________________ are used. Moulds and press (8) _____________________ for bodywork panels, for example, will be machined from the (9) __________________________ data that has defined their shape. These will previously have been (10) _____________________ for air flow using CFD and for strength using finite element methods.

MO DULE 4 | FOCUS on LANGUAGE

Grammar VIDEO

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

Si usa il comparativo per paragonare due cose o persone fra di loro. Si usa il superlativo per confrontare più cose o persone all’interno di un gruppo. • Aggettivi e avverbi di una sola sillaba e quelli di due sillabe che terminano in -er,-y, -ow formano il comparativo aggiungendo il suffisso -er all’aggettivo o all’avverbio; formano il superlativo aggiungendo -est. Thick/thicker/the thickest Narrow/narrower/the narrowest • Gli aggettivi o gli avverbi di due o più sillabe formano il comparativo premettendo more; il superlativo premettendo the most. Technical/more technical/the most technical Useful/more useful/the most useful • Nel comparativo di maggioranza il secondo termine di paragone è introdotto da than. Nel superlativo il termine di relazione può essere introdotto da of o in, a seconda che sia un gruppo o un luogo. Software is much faster than traditional drawing. He is the cleverest of all my employees. This computer is the most expensive in the shop. NB: gli aggettivi good e bad hanno il comparativo e il superlativo irregolari. Good/better/the best Bad/worse/the worst

1 Write the comparative form of the following adjectives. 1 long 2 short 3 traditional 4 clean 5 clear

_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________

6 common 7 thin 8 important 9 precise 10 easy

_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________

2 Now write the superlative form of the same adjectives. 1 long 2 short 3 traditional 4 clean 5 clear

_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________

6 common 7 thin 8 important 9 precise 10 easy

_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________

3 Fill in the gaps with the comparative or superlative form. 1 Even if traditional drawing is often (slow) __________________________ than software, it is frequently (precise) __________________________. 2 Solid modelling is one of the (interesting) __________________________ systems. 3 ‘What’s the (hard) __________________________ pencil?’ ‘I don’t know. I can tell you that H2 is the (soft) __________________________.’ 4 Technical standards enable draftsmen to communicate (precisely) _________________________________. 5 In isometric projections the three coordinate axes appear equally (short) __________________________ than they really are. 6 In perspective projections, distant objects appear (small) _______________________________ than (near) ___________________________ objects.

Translation 4 Translate these sentences into English. 1 Oggi fare disegno tecnico col computer è più frequente che fare disegno con gli strumenti tradizionali. 2 AutoCAD rende più semplice correggere gli errori. 3 Ogni seconda linea tipo H è più spessa delle prime linee. 4 La matita è lo strumento da disegno più comune. 5 La proiezione dimetrica è più flessibile di quella isometrica. 6 Le lenti fotografiche e l’occhio umano lavorano nello stesso modo, perciò la proiezione prospettica appare più realistica.

Mechanical Drawing | MO DULE 4

CLIL: Technical Drawing

The work of a drafter WARM UP

Would you like to work as a mechanical drafter? If so, what would you like to draw?

a great deal: un bel po’ outline: tratteggiare schematics: schemi, diagrammi dettagliati surveyors: periti soundness: validità freehand sketches: schizzi a mano libera

A draftsman/draftwoman, also called a drafter, is a person who specializes in creating technical drawings. Most of them work for drafting firms, manufacturing plants, and construction companies, though some skilled workers operate their own businesses. Professionals make both hand drawings and computer-aided design (CAD) blueprints for various structures. Most drafters specialize in creating particular diagrams or blueprints, such as designs of homes, buildings, bridges, industrial equipment, or consumer electronics. First they take the ideas, sketches, and concepts from designers and then turn them into detailed, accurate final plans. It is essential for drafters to know a great deal about the industry in which they specialize, since drawings and blueprints usually need to contain even the smallest details. Professionals usually work exclusively in a particular industry or discipline. A mechanical draftsman, for example, might draw diagrams for machines and their parts; while an electronics drafter might outline the schematics for electrical wires and currents within houses or consumer products; a civil drafter might work with engineers and surveyors to prepare land maps and sketch blueprints for buildings and other structures. Modern computer technology has drastically changed the roles and responsibilities of this job. CAD programs allow experts to create highly accurate scale drawings that can easily be modified. A draftsman can use virtual drawing tools to create perfect geometric shapes and two-dimensional curves. Some advanced CAD applications allow individuals to make three-dimensional representations and view a drawing from multiple angles. CAD programs can also be used to simulate real-world conditions so that engineers and drafters can predict the structural soundness of a proposed design. Designers can even simulate a testing of the object on the computer screen using a solid modelling technique, thus avoiding the cost of building and testing a prototype.

Typical day for mechanical drafters This is a list of the tasks that mechanical drafters do every day; they • develop detailed design drawings and specifications for mechanical equipment, dies, tools, and controls, using CAD equipment; • lay out and draw schematic, orthographic, or angle views to depict functional relationships of components, assemblies, systems, and machines; • coordinate with and consult other workers to design, lay out, or detail components and systems and to resolve design or other problems; • review and analyze specifications, sketches, drawings, ideas, and related data to assess factors affecting component designs and the procedures and instructions to be followed; • position instructions and comments onto drawings. Their tasks on a weekly or monthly basis are to check dimensions of materials to be used and assign number to the materials; to modify and revise designs to correct operating deficiencies or to reduce production problems; draw freehand sketches of designs, trace finished drawings onto designated paper for the reproduction of blueprints, and reproduce working drawings on copy machines. 100

MO DULE 4 | CLIL

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

2 Answer these questions.

1 What are drafters specialized in? 2 What kinds of drawings do professionals do? 3 What is a mechanical drafter specialized in? 4 How can CAD programs help save money? 5 Can you list three of the tasks in a typical day of a mechanical drafter? 6 What are a mechanical drafter’s tasks on a weekly basis?

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 plants 2 diagrams 3 wires 4 scale 5 screen 6 tools 7 task 8 deficiencies

a n the size or level of something b n the part of a television or computer where visual data appear c n a piece of work that must be done d n factories or buildings where an industrial process happens e n pieces of metal in the form of a thread used for carrying electrical current f n weaknesses or faults in something g n something you hold in your hand and use to do a particular job h n a schematic graphic representation of the appearance, structure, or workings of something

Listening 4

PET Listen to a radio interview with Paul, who is talking about his job as a mechanic drafter, then answer the questions. 15

1 After ending his studies, Paul… A found a job in an administrative office. B didn’t find a job as a drafter. C went to work at Speed Motors drawing office.

4 Eventually Paul… A stayed at Ford’s. B left Ford to move on to other companies. C decided to work on his own.

2 He went to work for Ford because… A they called him after they read his CV. B he wanted a valuable qualification and more money. C he had been sacked.

5 At Speed Motor his employers… A came regularly to check his work. B never came to see his progress. C seldom came in to check and offer advice.

3 Paul’s childhood dream was… A to become a car stylist B to be a car body drafter. C to build cars.

6 Paul says… A his job is dynamic. B his job is ultimately boring. C his job is mainly at the drawing board but he likes it.

Writing 5 Complete these sentences about Paul’s work experience.

1 Paul’s first work experience was as ______________________ ___________________________________________________ 2 He left Speed Motors for Ford because __________________ ____________________________________________________ 3 He realized he didn’t have the skills to become a car stylist so ____________________________________________________ 4 Finally he was given a contract job ______________________ ____________________________________________________

Mechanical Drawing | MO DULE 4

101

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

TECHNICAL DRAWING TOOLS

LAYOUT CONVENTIONS

MULTIPLE VIEWS Parallel projection

Manual

Traditional pencils

lettering

pens

line styles

axonometric isometric

paper

thick

dimetric

squares

light

trimetric

French curves rapidograph

Sketching

protractor

Orthographic projection perspective

ruler drafting tables CAD

CAD software 2D CAD 3D CAD Digital rendering software

drawing tablet drawing stylus

102

MO DULE 4 | MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Computer program

MODULE

5 Machining Operations

FOCUS on THEORY

CLIL: History

Power-driven machines The lathe Machine tool basic operations Electric circuits

The Luddite Movement

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary Grammar

The first lathes Large lathe used in engine-building and all heavy engineering. It worked for many years, from 1845 until about 1975, at the Charlestown Foundry in Cornwall.

103

FOCUS on THEORY

Power-driven machines WARM UP

Here are some words referring to components of machine tools. Can you match the English with the Italian?

1 wedge 2 screw 3 wheel and axle 4 lever 5 pulley n vite a n puleggia, b carrucola n cuneo c n ruota e asse d n leva e

Machine tools A machine tool is a piece of equipment used to shape metal or other rigid materials. These important tools shape metal by cutting, hammering, squeezing, or other methods. The machinist, the worker who operates a machine tool, cuts, drills, planes, and grinds or shapes metals with power-driven machine tools. The most common situation is that, within a machine tool, a cutting tool is moved according to the instructions through a toolpath, and is controlled or constrained by the machine to at least some extent rather than being entirely offhand or freehand. Many machine tools have been built to perform not one, but a whole series of operations once the metal to be worked on has been put in place. The operator of such a machine does not touch the work from the beginning to the end of the various machining steps. Machinists call such pieces of equipment transfer machines, because the work moves automatically from one tool to another. Modern machine tools are computer numerically controlled (CNC). Machine tools play an important part in the production of almost all metal products known to man. They make the working parts of telephones, television sets, radios and washingmachines. Refrigerators could not operate without the ability of machine tools to make the precise parts needed to operate them. Machine tools are essential to the manufacture of automobiles and these are just a few examples, as there are more than 400 kinds of machine tools, each designed to do a certain type of work.

ACT IV IT IE S

squeezing: compressione drills: trapana power-driven: a motore

The unit of power watt is named after the Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt who, in 1776, created the first power-driven machine. Watt needed perfectly bored cylinders, which led to the creation of the first boring mill, which was powered by water. Beside being famous for his work on the steam engine, he also developed the concept of horsepower.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

1 A machine tool is used to build rigid materials. 2 Power-driven tools are used to operate machine tools. 3 A toolpath is the device that allows the movement between the workpiece and the cutting tool. 4 Thanks to machine tools precise working parts can operate perfectly.

Vocabulary

3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 shaping 2 machine tool 3 power-driven 4 freehand 5 constraining

104

MORE ABOUT...

a n limiting, restricting b n by hand, without mechanical aid c n giving a particular shape d n working by electricity e n used for cutting and shaping rigid materials, usually with electricity

MO DULE 5 | FOCUS on THEORY

T n n n n

F n n n n

Machine tools classification

workbench: banco di lavoro broaching: perforazione di buchi

The variety and number of combinations of machine tools in use are almost unlimited. Some are so small that they are mounted on a workbench. Other machine tools are as large as a three-storey house. Whether large or small, machine tools can be classified into six major groups, according to the six basic operations in shaping metals: drilling and boring; turning; milling; shaping and broaching; grinding; metal forming. Today machine tools are typically powered electrically, hydraulically, or - but they are lesser and lesser - via line shaft, and are used to make manufactured parts (components) in various ways that include cutting and other methods of change in the shape or size of an object.

MORE ABOUT... Before electric machinery became of common use in the 20th century, line shafting was how all the machines were powered in a workshop. A line shaft is a power-driven rotating shaft which distributed power from a large central power source to the workshop machinery. The central power source could be a water wheel, turbine, windmill, animal power or a steam engine. Power was distributed from the shaft to the machinery by a system of belts, pulleys and gears known as millwork.

PET Read the text and choose the correct option.

1 Machine tools in use are... A all mounted on workbenches. B all very large. C almost unlimited. D all very small. 2 Machine tools can be classified... A according to the way they work with metals. B according to their shape. C according to their cutting skills. D according to their prices.

3 Transfer machines are pieces of equipment where... A the operator touches the work only at the beginning of the operation. B the operator never touches the work which moves automatically. C the operator touches the work from beginning to end. D the operator touches the work only at the end of the operation.

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary

2 Complete the text with the words from the box. six − round − electricity − tool − drilling − powered − shaping − combinations − boring − materials

A machine (1) _______________________ is a machine for (2) _______________________ or machining metal or other rigid (3) _______________________, usually by cutting, (4) _______________________, grinding, shearing or other forms of deformation. The variety of (5) _______________________ of machine tools in use have been grouped in (6) _________________________ basic groups. One of these groups is (7) _______________________, a cutting process that uses drilling tools to cut (8) _______________________holes in solid material. Machine tools can be (9) _______________________ by a variety of sources. Today, most machine tools are powered by (10) _______________________; however, hydraulic and pneumatic power are sometimes used.

Speaking

3 Work in pairs.

In turns, ask and answer questions about the main features of machine tools.

Example: Student A: How can machine tools be classified? Student B: They can be classified according to their operations in shaping metals.

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The lathe WARM UP

1 The Italian equivalent for â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;latheâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is: nu tensile A da taglio. n t ornio. B nm olatrice. C

lathe: tornio turning: tornitura boring: alesatura casting, forging and extrusion: fusione, forgiatura ed estrusione bearings: cuscinetti spindle: mandrino belt and gear drive: trasmissione a cinghia locking nut: dado autobloccante

Parts of a lathe An example of a machine tool is the lathe, which is a turning machine. Turning, one of the most important operations in a machine shop, is a form of material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. Usually, the term turning is reserved for the generation of external surfaces by this cutting action, whereas when this same essential cutting action is applied to internal surfaces (that is, holes of one kind or another) it is called boring. The starting material is generally a workpiece generated by other processes such as casting, forging and extrusion. Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, which frequently requires continuous supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe which does not. Today, the most common type of such automation is computer numerical control, better known as CNC, which is also commonly used with many other types of machining besides turning. A lathe rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations. It generally has a stand which sits on the floor and elevates the lathe bed to a working height. Small lathes sit on a workbench, and do not have a stand. Almost all lathes have a bed, which is a horizontal beam. At one end of the bed there is a headstock which contains high-precision spinning bearings. Within the bearings there is a rotating horizontal axle, with an axis parallel to the bed, called the spindle. Spindles are powered, and impart motion to the workpiece. The spindle is driven, either by foot power or by a belt and gear drive, to a power source. In most modern lathes this power source is an integral electric motor. The counterpoint to the headstock is the tailstock, also referred to as the loose head because it can be positioned at any convenient point on the bed by undoing a locking nut, sliding it along the required area and then locking it again.

MORE ABOUT... A cogwheel is a mechanical part used in machine assemblies. It is also known as a gear and is an essential part of many common devices, including automotive transmissions. The body of the gear rotates just as a wheel does, and its outer edge is lined with protusions called teeth or cogs; hence the name cogwheel. These cogs allow the gear to transmit energy and direction to the other gears in the machine assembly. The teeth on a cogwheel are designed to interact with adjacent machine parts that bear similar teeth. When power is applied to make the gear turn, the cogs cause these other gears to turn as well in a similar or opposite direction, depending on the design of the teeth. A cogwheel is a very basic part of almost every machine, and it allows much more elaborate machines to operate.

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Headstock

Tool rest

Spindle

Tailstock Lock knob

Bed

Tool post

2 Read the text, look at the picture of the lathe above and complete the text with the missing words. The horizontal beam is called the (1) _________________. At one end of the bed is the (2) _________________ which contains high-precision spinning bearings. Rotating within the bearings there is the (3) _________________. The counterpoint to the (4) _________________ is the (5) _________________ which contains a barrel which does not rotate, but can slide in and out. Between the (6) _________________ and the (7) _________________ there is a tool post, at the top of which there is a horizontal (8) _________________.

3 Read the text again and match the two parts of the sentences. 1 The turning process is mainly used 2 A headstock is placed 3 The tailstock, or loose head, is 4 The spindle rotates within 5 Turning is

a b c d e

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension

n a form of material removal process. n the counterpoint to the headstock. n at one end of the bed. n the bearings with a horizontal axe. n to shape round pieces of metal.

Vocabulary 4 Match the English words to their Italian translation. 1 surface 2 hole 3 spindle 4 lathe bed 5 headstock 6 tailstock 7 saddle 8 boring 9 casting 10 forging

a n banco del tornio b n foro c n slitta d n superficie e n contropunta f n mandrino g n testa motrice h n forgiare i n colata j n alesatura

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Modes of use A workpiece which is fixed between the headstock and the tailstock is more stable. Besides, at a right angle to the axis of rotation, more strength may be applied to it without fear of breaking it. In this case the workpiece is referred to as ‘between centres’. If the workpiece is fixed only to the spindle at the headstock end, the machinist cannot apply great force to it when at the right angle to the axis of rotation, or the workpiece may rip free; therefore, most work must be done very carefully. In this case the workpiece is said to be ‘face work’. A technique used for camshafts (not to be confused with a crankshaft) and various types of chair legs is said to be ‘eccentric/multi-axis turning’. Here a workpiece is first mounted with a certain axis of rotation, then mounted again but with a different axis of rotation. As a result several cross sections of the workpiece are rotationally symmetric while the workpiece as a whole is not.

ACTIVITIE S

camshaft: albero a camme crankshaft: albero a gomito/manovella

Reading comprehension 1

Read the text and complete the table below with information about the lathe modes of use.

A workpiece is referred to as between centres

when it is __________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

A workpiece is referred to as face work

when it is __________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

A workpiece is referred to as eccentric/multiaxis turning

__________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ when it is

Writing 2

PET Last week a classmate of yours missed the lesson about lathes because he/she was ill. Write an email to him/her (55-60 words) in which you explain:

• the subject matter of the lesson; • what turning consists of; • which part/s of a lathe you have found particularly interesting.

camshaft

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crankshaft

Major types of lathes Woodworking lathes The great variety of tools in use today comes from very simple woodworking lathes. A basic set includes a tool rest, an adjustable horizontal metal rail, which is placed between the material and the operator. On the tool rest the shaping tools, which are usually hand-held, are positioned. With wood, it is normal practice to press and slide sandpaper against the still-spinning object after shaping. This is a procedure which helps smooth the surface made with the metal shaping tools. Woodturning lathes specialised for turning large bowls often have no bed or tailstock but only a free-standing headstock and a tool rest.

sandpaper: carta vetrata

Metalworking lathes A metalworking lathe is a large class of lathes designed for machining relatively hard materials precisely. It is the most used lathe in mechanical industry. Metalworking lathes were originally designed to machine metals. However, with the advent of versatile materials such as plastic, they are used in a wide range of applications, and with a broad range of materials. They are often referred to by more specific subtype names, such as tool-room lathe or turret lathe. Metalworking lathes have a carriage comprising a saddle and apron, topped with a cross slide, which is a flat piece that sits crosswise on the bed, and can be cranked at right angles to the bed. A compound rest, which provides two additional axes of motion, rotary and linear, is positioned atop the cross slide. Atop the compound rest stands a tool post, which holds a cutting tool aimed at removing material from the workpiece. More modern or expensive manually controlled lathes have a quick change box to provide commonly used ratios by the operation of a lever. CNC lathes use computers and servomechanisms to regulate the rates of movement.

Read the texts and complete the sentences with the missing words.

1 In a woodworking lathe the shaping tools are placed on the ____________________ rest. 2 Sandpaper is used with ____________________ lathes. 3 The most used in the mechanical ____________________ is the metalworking lathe. 4 Tool-room lathe or ____________________ lathe are other names of the metalworking lathe. 5 The saddle and the apron form the ____________________. 6 The cutting tool in the ____________________ removes metal material from the workpiece.

ACTI V IT IE S

Reading comprehension

VIDEO 2 Look at the video about how a woodworking lathe works and answer the questions. 1 Whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the most important thing to know about woodworking tools? 2 Who is the expert speaking? 3 What does the pretty simple machine consist of? 4 What does the expert use in his demo to make speed move? 5 What should be used to start or stop the machine?

bassa risoluziome

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Glass-working lathes Similar in design to other lathes, glass-working lathes differ in how the workpiece is modified. A basic set includes a hollow glass vessel over a fixed or variable temperature flame where glass-working lathes slowly rotate. The flame serves to soften the glass and make it ductile. This helps form objects as in the technique called glassblowing where molten glass is inflated into a bubble with a blow tube. The tools to deform the glass and tubes to inflate the glass are usually handheld.

Metal spinning lathes mandrel: mandrino template: sagoma

Metal spinning lathes are almost as simple as woodturning lathes. Metal spinning is the forming A glass-working lathe. of sheet metal into cylinders, cones and other circular shapes. Generally, metal spinning lathes require a usersupplied rotationally symmetric mandrel, usually made of wood, which serves as a template onto which the workpiece is molded. Spinning can be performed by hand or by a CNC lathe. Metal spinning ranges from an artisanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s specialty to the most advantageous way to form round metal parts for commercial applications. Artisans use the process to produce architectural detail, specialty lighting, decorative household goods and urns.

MORE ABOUT... The ornamental Rose engine lathe has been seen in examples of work such as decorations on drinking vessels dating back to the early 1600s. It is thought that this style of work became known as rose engine turning due to the similarity of shapes in that early work to the petals of a rose. Generally speaking, its popularity peaked in the Victorian era prior to the introduction of the automobile. This technique was not used for making practical objects, but for decorative work, ornamental turning, generally in precious metals. Pocket watch cases are typical examples.

ACT IV ITI ES

A brass vase spun by hand. Mounted to the lathe spindle there is the mandrel for the body of the vase; a shell sits on the tool rest. The foreground shows the mandrel for the base. Behind the finished vase there are the spinning tools used to shape the metal.

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Reading comprehension 3 Read the texts about lathe types and complete the sentences. 1 All lathe varieties come from __________________________________________________________________. 2 In woodworking lathes the positioning of shaping tools is placed on ________________________________ between the material and the operator. 3 Woodworking lathes are usually moved _________________________________________________________. 4 In metalworking lathes a hardened cutting tool is used to remove ___________________________________. 5 A compound rest provides ___________________________________________________________________. 6 Glass-working lathes have a modified __________________________________________________________. 7 They slowly rotate a hollow glass vessel over a ___________________________________________________. MO DULE 5 | FOCUS on THEORY

Lathes major categories

Their use

How they work

Woodworking lathes

________________________________ ________________________________

Metalworking lathes

________________________________ ________________________________

Glass-working lathes

________________________________ ________________________________

Metal spinning lathes

________________________________ ________________________________

ACT IV IT IE S

4 Read the texts again and complete the table.

Vocabulary 5 Complete the text with the words from the box. rotation − three-dimensional − tool − metalworking − object bowls − axis − drilling − camshafts − workpiece A lathe is a machine (1) ________________________ which rotates the (2) ______________________ on its (3) _____________ to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding, (4) __________________, or turning with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an (5) ____________________________ which has symmetry about an axis of (6) __________________. Lathes are used in woodturning, (7) __________________, metal spinning and glass working. Ornamental lathes can produce (8) ________________________ solids of incredible complexity. Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe are (9) __________________, woodwind musical instruments and (10) __________________.

Listening 6

16 PET Listen to this short passage about the lathe and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T F n n 1 A lathe is a machine tool used principally for melting metals. n n 2 The three types of lathes are engine lathe, milling lathe, special purpose lathe. n n 3 All lathes are small and semi-portable. n n 4 The engine lathe is the most commonly used. n n 5 Turret lathes are used for mass production.

Speaking 7

PET You are the person in charge of a stand at a machine tool exhibition in Manchester. A potential customer is particularly interested in metalworking lathes. Give them all the necessary information.

Writing 8 Write an advertisement for the local newspaper about the metal spinning lathes your company produces in no more than 60 words.

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Machine tool basic operations WARM UP

Answer the questions and complete the sentences.

1 Is the man in the picture a blacksmith or a carpenter?

The man in the picture is ______________,

2 Is the man hammering or drilling a hole?

He is ______________.

Drilling The process of drilling, or cutting a round hole by means of a rotating drill, dates back to primitive man. In most machine shops, drills are mounted on large machines called drill presses. Drilling tools are used to make round holes in metal, rock, wood, plastic or other materials. The drill is usually held in a rotating spindle and is fed into the workpiece, which is generally clamped in a vice resting on a table.

Types of drills There are many types of drills, some are powered manually, others use electricity (electric drills) or compressed air (pneumatic drills) as the motive power, and a minority are driven by an internal combustion engine. Drills with a percussive action (hammer drills) are mostly used for hard materials such as masonry (brick, concrete and stone) or rock. Drilling rigs are used to bore holes in the earth to obtain water or oil.

Metal drills are among the most useful hole-making tools used in machine shops and factories. They are usually made of specially hardened carbon or high-speed steel. Twist drills are the most commonly used metal drills. They can be used in handoperated drills, in motor-driven hand drills or in drilling machines or drill presses. Wood drills

are usually called bits. They resemble metal drills and can also be mounted on drill presses.

ACT IV IT IE S

clamped: bloccato vice: morsa drilling rigs: impianti di trivellazione reamers: alesatori

Reamers

are drilling tools used to enlarge holes, and to give them a smooth finish.

Rock drills

are usually powered by compressed air that drives a chisel-shaped drill point.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T F 1 In the cutting process called drilling, a drill bit cuts round holes in solid material. n n 2 Drilling tools canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t make round holes in wood and plastic. n n 3 Drill presses are small machines on which drills are mounted. n n 4 All types of drills are powered manually. n n 5 The most useful tools used in factories are reamers. n n 6 Rock drills are powered by compressed air. n n

Vocabulary 3 Find the opposites to the following words in the text. 1 to reduce _______________ 2 seldom _______________ 3 mechanically _____________ 4 majority _______________

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5 6 7 8

external _______________ soft _______________ useless _______________ uneven _______________

Boring

WARM UP

Boring is the process of producing circular internal profiles in a hole made by drilling or another process. It enlarges holes by means of single-point cutting tools called boring bars or by means of boring heads containing several tools. The boring bar can rotate or the work part can be rotated. Machine tools which rotate the boring bar against a stationary workpiece are called boring machines (also boring mills). Boring is used to achieve greater accuracy of the diameter of a hole and can be viewed as the internal-diameter counterpart to turning, which cuts external diameters.

Types of boring machines Various machine tools, such as lathes or milling machines, can execute the boring process. However, there are machines designed to perform boring processes as a primary function. These boring machines (or boring mills) include vertical boring mills and horizontal boring mills. In horizontal boring mills the workpiece sits on a table while the boring bar rotates around a horizontal axis; it is essentially a specialised horizontal milling machine. A vertical boring mill, which is essentially a vertical lathe, is used for large, heavy work parts. The typical boring mill can position and feed several cutting tools simultaneously. The work part is mounted on a rotating worktable, the workpiece rotates around a vertical axis while the boring bar or head moves linearly.

Do you know the difference between ‘drilling’ and ‘boring’? If not, look up in your monolingual dictionary and write the definition.

1 drilling _____________ _____________,

2 boring _____________ _____________.

To dig tunnels, engineers can use massive tunnel boring machines, commonly known as TBMs. TBMs are operated by a pilot. They can bore through all kinds of sand, clay or hard rocks. The largest TBMs feature diameters of over 14 metres. A TBM is like a giant drill, except that it also builds as it drills. The front section of the TBM is called the shield. At the front of the shield is the cutting face. The shield has two jobs: it drills through the ground to make a large hole, and it then lines this hole with concrete segments to form complete rings. Therefore, it not only cuts the hole for the tunnel but lining it with concrete it completes the process of making the tunnel.

MORE ABOUT... High-speed steel, hardened carbon, ceramics and diamonds are among the most widely used cutting tools to shape, pierce, mill or grind a surface.

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ACTIVITIE S

tapered: affusolato, appuntito chuck: mandrino

Lathe boring Boring is one of the most basic lathe operations together with turning and drilling. Lathe boring is a cutting process that uses a single-point cutting tool also called a boring head to produce cylindrical surfaces by enlarging an existing opening in a workpiece. The cutting tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation with non-tapered holes, while it moves at an angle to the axis of rotation with tapered holes. To produce a taper the tool may be fed at an angle to the axis of rotation or both feed and axial motions may be concurrent. The use of boring applications allows geometries which offer a variety of diameters. However geometry is usually of two types: straight holes and tapered holes. Straight holes and counterbores are produced by moving the tool parallel to the axis of workpiece rotation. Lathe boring usually requires that the workpiece is held in the chuck and rotated. As the workpiece is rotated, a boring bar with an insert attached to the tip of the bar is fed into an existing hole. When the cutting tool engages the workpiece, a chip is formed. The fact that the chip may be continuous or segmented depends on the material used, the type of tool and the feed rate. The surface produced is referred to as a bore.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Boring is the process 2 Boring bars are 3 Boring mills are 4 Horizontal boring mills are 5 Boring is 6 Lathe boring means

n machine tools rotating the boring bar against a a stationary workpiece. n one of the most basic lathe operations. b n specialized milling machines. c n single-point cutting tools. d n a cutting operation that uses a boring head e to enlarge holes. n of enlarging a hole already drilled. f

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 boring 2 chip 3 milling machine 4 chuck n a device attached to the spindle of a machine tool a for gripping the revolving work, cutting tool or drill n a machine tool where a vertical spindle carries a b rotating multi-tooth cutter n the process of machining a cylindrical hole, c performed in a lathe or boring mill n the cutting from a machining operation d

Speaking 4 PET

You are the supervisor in a factory producing cookware. Explain to some students visiting the machine shop how boring machines work and the kind of operations they perform.

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Milling Milling consists of machining a piece of metal by bringing it in contact with a rotating cutting tool that has several cutting edges. The cutting tool on most milling machines looks like a wheel with sharp teeth sticking out of it. The basic tooling bits on a milling machine are called milling cutters. The cutter is attached to an arbor, which is sometimes called mandrel or mandril, a shaped bar that varies in size, length and ending, and is used to hold the cutter firmly. Milling cutters remove material by their movement within the machine or directly from the cutter’s shape. Milling is used to produce such simple shapes as slots and flat surfaces. Other shapes are more complicated. They may consist of a variety of flat and curved surfaces, depending on the shape of the tool cutting edges. Special milling machines used to make gears are called hobbing machines. Milling machines, used to machine solid materials, range in size from small, benchmounted devices to room-sized machines. Unlike a drill press, which holds the workpiece stationary as the drill moves axially to penetrate the material, milling machines also move the workpiece radially against the rotating milling cutter, which cuts on its sides as well as its tip. Workpiece and cutter movement are precisely controlled, usually by means of precision ground slides and lead screws or analogue technology. Milling machines may be manually operated, mechanically automated or digitally automated via CNC. They can perform a vast number of operations, from simple (slot and keyway cutting, planning, drilling) to complex (contouring, die-sinking). Milling machines are capable of dynamic movement, both of the tool and the workpiece, and many milling machines can perform multi-axis machining: they have varying functions and different operating principles because of variations in orientation, operation and application. Milling machines are classified by their orientation to the workpiece and their degree of motion.

milling: fresatura slots: scanalature gears: ingranaggi lead screws: viti di piombo

Read the text and answer the questions.

1 How does milling work? 2 Describe the shape of the average cutting tool. 3 What is the function of the mandrel? 4 What are milling machines based on?

5 What is the main difference between a drill press and a milling machine? 6 How are milling machines operated?

Vocabulary 2 Match the words with their synonyms. 1 sharp 2 to remove 3 within 4 to produce 5 main 6 tip 7 analogue 8 to control

AC TI V IT IE S

Reading comprehension

a n to check n to make b n similar c n acute d n to eliminate e n inside f n principal g n pointed head h

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Types of milling machines Milling machines are basically classified as vertical and horizontal. A vertical milling machine spindle axis is vertical whereas the horizontal milling machine spindle axis is horizontal. The vertical is the most common type found in a machine shop today. The most common types are the following.

Knee-type milling machines

are characterised by a vertically adjustable worktable resting on a saddle which is supported by a knee. The knee is a massive casting that rides vertically on the milling machine column and can be clamped rigidly to the column in a position where the milling head and milling machine spindle are properly adjusted vertically for operation.

Plain vertical and horizontal milling machines

have a standard work surface which can either be oriented vertically or horizontally. The tooling assembly is generally affixed on a turret and swivel, typically positioned parallel to the workspace. The turret and swivel allow the tool to move freely around the workpiece to enforce tight tolerance.

Universal horizontal milling machines differ from the plain horizontal type because they have a table swivel housing, which allows the table to move out 45 degrees from the standard horizontal position, allowing for easier angular or helical milling operations. Ram-type and universal ram-type milling machines

saddle: carrello swivel: perno rotante

are used to allow the tooling to position itself over a greater range of space with regard to the workpiece. The ram-type machine has a spindle on a movable housing, which can move within a set horizontal plane. The universal ram-type milling machine includes a swivel housing that increases the range of cutting movements.

Swivel cutter head ram-type milling machines

ACT IV ITIE S

are machines with a swivel cutter and they can rotate from a completely vertical to a completely horizontal position. The worktable also moves, providing the user with a very liberal degree of motion and orientation. Many swivel cutters include both automatic or hand-driven settings, increasing operation options.

Reading comprehension 1

PET Read the text about the different types of milling machines and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T 1 The most common type of milling machine found today is vertical. n 2 Milling machines can only perform dynamic movement of the workplace. n 3 Knee-type milling machines are characterised by a horizontally adjustable worktable. n 4 Plain milling machines have a turret and swivel which allow them to move freely. n 5 Universal horizontal milling machines are capable of easy angular or helical operations. n 6 The ram-type machine has a swivel housing allowing a great range of cutting movements. n

Listening 2

17 Listen to a teacher explaining milling operations to his students and complete the text.

Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular (1) _____________ by feeding the workpiece against a rotating (2) _________ containing a number of cutting edges. The milling (3) _____________ consists basically of a motor-driven (4) _____________ which mounts and (5) _____________ the milling cutter, and a reciprocating adjustable (6) _____________ which mounts and feeds the workpiece. Milling machines are basically classified as vertical or (7) _____________. These machines are also (8) _____________ as knee-type, ram-type, manufacturing or bed-type, and planer-type. Most milling machines have self-contained electric drive (9) _____________, coolant systems, variable spindle (10) _____________ and power-operated table feeds. Any questions so far?

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F n n n n n n

Grinding

WARM UP

Grinding involves shaping a piece of metal by bringing it into contact with a rotating wheel covered with an abrasive material similar to that found on sandpaper. Machinists use this process chiefly to finish a piece of work to close dimensions after it has been heat-treated to make it hard. However some grinding equipment can remove metal as fast as cutting tools. This equipment is used for abrasive machining. Machinists can grind cylindrical surfaces, as well as holes, flat surfaces and screw threads. Grinding also includes two other operations, lapping and honing. Lapping involves the use of abrasive paste or other compounds to remove metal. It is limited to jobs where only a small amount of metal must be removed and a high degree of precision and an extremely smooth surface are required. A lapping machine has a metal plate coated with the abrasive. Honing is used to finish holes accurately. In this process the abrasive material is inserted in rotating cylindrical heads that are inserted in the hole. The head grinds the inside of the hole by rotating while it moves up and down. Grinding is used to finish workpieces that must demonstrate high surface quality and high accuracy of shape and dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions in grinding is in the order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a finishing operation and removes comparatively little metal, about 0.25 to 0.50 mm in depth. However, there are some roughing applications in which grinding removes high volumes of metal quite rapidly. Grinding machines remove material from the workpiece by abrasion, which can generate substantial amounts of heat. To cool the workpiece so that it does not overheat and go beyond its tolerance, grinding grinding: molatura machines incorporate a coolant. The coolant also benefits screw threads: filettature lapping: lappatura the machinist as the heat generated may cause burns. honing: levigatura In high-precision grinding machines (most cylindrical and abrasion: abrasione surface grinders), the final grinding stages are set up in coolant: liquido di such a way that they generate so little heat that even with raffreddamento no coolant, the temperature rise is negligible.

1 Think of three uses of grinding.

1 ______________

2 ______________

3 ______________

PET Read the text again and decide if the following sentences are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T n 1 In the grinding process, the workpiece comes in contact with a smooth wheel. n 2 Before grinding, the workpiece must be cooled. n 3 Abrasive material is used to remove metal. n 4 The lapping process is employed to remove large amounts of metal. n 5 Workpieces finished by grinders show high-quality levels in shape and size. n 6 Coolants employed in the grinding process may be dangerous for the machinist.

F n n n n n n

ACTIV I TI ES

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Complete the text with the words from the box. diameter − bed − grind − workpiece − fixed − power-driven − head − speed The grinding machine consists of a (1) ______________ with a fixture to guide and hold the (2) ______________, and a (3) ______________ grinding wheel spinning at the required (4) ______________. The speed is determined by the wheel’s (5) ______________ and manufacturer’s rating. The user can control the grinding (6) ______________ to travel across a (7) ______________ workpiece, or the workpiece can be moved while the (8) ______________ head stays in a fixed position. Machining Operations | MO DULE 5

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Types of grinding machines These are some types of grinding machines or grinders. Their main task is to finish the product by removing chips from the metal part with an abrasive wheel.

ACT IV I TI ES

grinders: molatrici secured: fissate rods: aste, barre bushings: manicotti dies: stampi gear grinder: molatrice a ruota dentata

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Belt grinders

are usually used to process metals and other materials, with the aid of coated abrasives. Sanding is the machining of wood; grinding is the common name for machining metals. Belt grinding is a versatile process suitable for all types of applications.

Surface grinders

include wash grinders and can be manually operated or have CNC controls. A surface grinder has a head which is lowered, and the workpiece is moved backwards and forwards past the grinding wheel on a table that has a permanent magnet for use with magnetic stock.

Bench grinders

usually have two wheels of different grain sizes for roughing and finishing operations; they are secured to a workbench and are manually operated. They shape tool bits or various tools that need to be made or repaired.

Jig grinders

as the name implies, have a variety of uses when finishing jigs, dies and fixtures. Their primary function is in the realm of grinding holes and pins. They can also be used for complex surface grinding to finish work started on a mill.

Cylindrical grinders may have multiple grinding wheels. The workpiece is rotated and fed past the wheel(s) to form a cylinder. They are used to make precision rods, tubes, bushings and many other parts.

Gear grinders are usually employed as the final machining process when manufacturing a high-precision gear. The primary function of these machines is to remove the remaining few thousandths of a centimetre of material left by other manufacturing methods (such as hobbing).

Reading comprehension 1

Read the text and complete the table.

Grinders

Kind of process

Use

Belt grinders

___________________________________ ___________________________________

Bench grinders

___________________________________ ___________________________________

Cylindrical grinders

___________________________________ ___________________________________

Surface grinders

___________________________________ ___________________________________

Jig grinders

___________________________________ ___________________________________

Gear grinders

___________________________________ ___________________________________

MO DULE 5 | FOCUS on THEORY

Planers and shapers

WARM UP

Planers and shapers are cutting tools used to complete, modify or finish metal or wood surfaces. A metalworking planer is an industrial machine used to produce flat surfaces. The workpiece is placed on a working surface known as the table, and secured to the surface either with bolts and clamps or via a vice. The table with the workpiece attached is moved back and forth under a stationary tool bit which cuts off the metal. When the stroke of the metal under the tool bit is completed the table returns to the starting position and the tool bit moves sideways thus being ready for another cut of metal off the workpiece. A planerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s table back-and-forth action is similar to that of a metal working shaper. In the case of a shaper the workpiece is held steady on a table and the tool bit mounted on a moving ram, moving back and forth over the workpiece. The table is moved back and forth on the bed beneath the cutting head either mechanically or by a hydraulic cylinder. Planing metal with a machine tool is similar to planing wood with a carpenterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hand plane. The main differences are that a machine-tool planer is larger than a carpenterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plane and is not portable. However, the cutting tool moves while the metal remains stationary. In a slotter (vertical shaper) the cutting tool moves up and down instead of backwards and forwards. Slotters are used mainly to cut certain types of gears. Machinists also classify broaches as planers. Broaches are used when the metal to be removed is not too thick, and where a lot of parts must be machined at the same time. A broach looks like a long metal bar with a row of teeth on it. Each tooth cuts a little deeper than the one before. The broach is pulled or pushed over the surface to be finished, and the teeth cut the metal to the desired depth in one operation.

1 Can you remember what a toolpath is?

planer: piallatrice shaper: sagomatrice ram: pistone slotter: sagomatrice verticale broach: broccia

2 Read the text and complete the table about the main features of the listed machines. Planers

___________________________________________________________________________

Shapers

___________________________________________________________________________

Slotters

___________________________________________________________________________

Broaches

___________________________________________________________________________

A CT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Find the opposites to the following words in the text. 1 horizontal __________________________________ 2 backwards _________________________________ 3 up ________________________________________ 4 above _____________________________________

5 manually ___________________________________ 6 similarities _________________________________ 7 stationary __________________________________ 8 short ______________________________________

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Metal-forming machine tools

WARM UP

Can you explain in your own words what a press is?

Metal-forming machine tools are the giant successors to the tools used by blacksmiths. There are several types of metal-forming machines. The most important of these include presses, punch presses, shears, press brakes, drop hammers and forging machines.

Presses stamp a metal into a desired shape, then squeeze the piece, called a blank, into the final shape with a die. There are two types of these huge machines: mechanical presses and hydraulic presses. Both do the same job. Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hydraulic presses are faster and more reliable than ever. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and other electronically-based controls have improved speed and flexibility. With new computer interfaces and monitoring, hydraulic presses are now widely used in advanced computer-integrated manufacturing systems.

shears: cesoie stamp: punzonano white-hot: incandescente

Punch presses

are machine tools that punch holes in metal sheets.

Shears

cut sheets of metal as scissors cut sheets of paper. In a shearing machine, the metal is placed on a flat surface, and a sharp blade drops down to cut it into the desired shape.

Press brakes

Shears

are large machines that machinists use to bend sheets of metal. There are several types of brakes described by the means of applying force: mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and servo-electric. Until the 1950s, mechanical brakes dominated the world market. The advent of better hydraulics and computer controls have led to hydraulic machines being the most popular.

Drop hammers

are operated mechanically by steam or by air. They are used to forge white-hot metal on an anvil. The steam or air raises the hammer and controls the degree of pressure that is applied to the metal.

Forging machines squeeze white-hot metal into a die under great pressure. The metal flows to every part of the die and makes the desired shape.

AC TI V IT IE S

Press brakes

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and complete the table describing the machine tools listed below. Presses

_________________________________________________________________

Shears

_________________________________________________________________

Press brakes

_________________________________________________________________

Drop hammers

_________________________________________________________________

Forging machines

_________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary

3 Find the word for each definition. 1 Someone whose job is making and repairing wooden objects. ______________________________________ 2 A toothed machine element that performs a particular job. ________________________________________ 3 Someone who makes or repairs things made of iron. ______________________________________________ 4 A line of things next to each other. _____________________________________________________________ 5 Steel tools used for the machining of metals. ____________________________________________________ 6 Machines used for applying pressure to a workpiece, by means of a tool. _____________________________ 7 The flat cutting part of a tool. _________________________________________________________________ 8 A heavy iron block on which pieces of hot metal are shaped using a hammer. ___________________________

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18 Listen to this passage about new developments in machine tools and fill in the gaps.

New developments in machine tools include the (1) __________________ discharge method and the ultrasonic method. Both are useful in working with extremely hard (2) __________________ . They are mainly used to make (3) __________________ and tools. The electrical-discharge method, also called the disintegrator method, uses electricity to cut metal. In an electrical-discharge machine, charges of electricity are directed from a negatively charged tool to a (4) __________________ charged piece of work. Each charge of electricity removes a small amount of metal. An automatic (5) __________________ keeps the tool and the piece of work the same distance apart during the cutting. The ultrasonic method drills hard (6) __________________, such as quartz, glass and tungsten carbide. In this method, a rod of brass or soft (7) __________________ is placed on the material to be drilled, and a mixture of (8) __________________ and water is aimed at the place where the rod and piece of work touch. A magnetic field makes the rod vibrate at an ultrasonic frequency. The (9) __________________ drills the hole. Numerical Control brings (10) ____________________ to the machine tool industry. In this system, punched or magnetic tape controls the machine tool. The tape, prepared by (11) ______________________ and programmers, guides the production of a part. As the same part is used over and over, the new parts are (12) __________________. This improves efficiency and uniformity of quality. In the 1960s, computers were added to give even more (13) __________________ to the process. Such machines became known as computerised (14) __________________ control (CNC) machines. The machine industry is also testing many other new methods of forming metal.

Speaking 5 After revising accurately what you have learnt so far, prepare a short presentation (about 5 minutes) in your own words explaining what machine tools are and why they are so important in modern manufacturing. Talk about the major groups of machine tools and say what you know about drilling and drilling tools.

ACT IV IT IE S

Listening

MORE ABOUT... In manufacturing production a group of CNC machine tools can be linked together in what is called Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS). The machines are connected by a material handling system to optimise the flow of parts and are operated by a central control computer which controls material movements and machine flow. The flexibility of the system consists of the ability to use multiple machines to perform the same operation on a part as well as to change the order of operations executed. The main advantages are reduced manufacturing costs and greater productivity.

VIDEO 6 Watch this video about Flexible Manufacturing System and answer the questions. 1 How can you enter NC program information? 2 What happens when the pallet arrives at the machine? 3 What happens when the machine runs an NC program? 4 What does Fastems MMS NC program management do?

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WARM UP

Can you mention the names of some machining operations?

brittle: fragile finish: finitura drawbacks: svantaggi tungsten carbide: carburo di tungsteno gear cutters: attrezzatura da taglio wear: logoramento

Non-traditional machining processes Unconventional machining, also called non-traditional machining or modern machining processes, are more and more replacing conventional or traditional machining processes. In these machining processes there is no direct contact between the tool and the workpiece, and this brings a lot of improvement. As we already know, in conventional machining there is a direct contact between the tool and the workpiece, large cutting forces are involved and material is removed in the form of chips with huge amounts of heat produced in the workpiece. This induces residual stresses, which degrades the life and quality of the workpiece material. Consequently, if the workpiece is made of hard and brittle material, conventional machining produces poor quality workpiece with poor surface finish. To overcome all these drawbacks, they have been replaced by advanced machining processes especially to machine hard and brittle materials. In unconventional machines a form of energy is used to remove unwanted material from a given workpiece. Therefore in several industries the use of unconventional machining processes finds a variety of applications especially with hard and brittle materials like tungsten carbide (used for making cutting tools), stainless steels, high speed steel (used for making gear cutters, drills, milling cutters), ceramics etc. If these materials are machined with the help of conventional machining processes, either the tool undergoes extreme wear (while machining hard workpiece) or the workpiece material is damaged (while machining brittle workpiece).

Classification Non-traditional machining methods are classified into several categories mainly based on the type of energy used. The most common ones are:

Mechanical processes DID YOU KNOWâ&#x20AC;Ś?

Ultrasonic Machining (USM) is an energy-based process particularly suitable for making holes and cavities in hard or brittle materials.

A laser, or Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, is an artificial light source. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s very different from a light bulb. It produces a narrow beam of light in which all of the light waves have very similar wavelengths: this is why laser beams are very narrow, very bright, and can be focused into a very tiny spot. Lasers have many uses: among their many applications in precision tools, lasers are used in cutting (it can cut thick metal and diamonds too!) and welding materials.

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) is suitable to round sharp edges off metallic and non-metallic material. In this process high-speed high-pressure jets of abrasive particles are mixed with air or some other carrier gases, and no heat is generated.

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Water-Jet Machining is a cold-cutting method with no heat effects. It is suitable for all types on non-metallic materials. In this process water is forced through very small nozzles at a very high pressure to allow contour cutting of flexible materials.

Electro-thermal processes Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM), in which the high-frequency electrical discharges generate heat which contributes to remove material. It is suitable for shaping and cutting complex parts made of hard materials. It is accurate but it is slow and usually employed for machining dies, holes, cavities of almost any desired shape. Laser-beam Machining

(LBM) is used to cut and make holes on thin materials.

Chemical Machining Chemical Machining

MO DULE 5 | FOCUS on THEORY

(CM) is suitable for shallow removal on large or curved surfaces.

2 Match the two parts of the sentences. 1 In conventional machining processes 2 In unconventional machining processes 3 Hard and brittle materials find 4 Unconventional machines use a form of energy 5 Aerospace applications have made 6 Unconventional machining processes

a n a variety of applications using unconventional processes. b n to remove unwanted material from a workpiece. c n there is a direct contact between the tool and the workpiece. d n the conventional methods difficult and timeconsuming. e n are replacing conventional ones. f n there is no direct contact between the tool and the workpiece.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Complete the following passage about Ultrasonic Machining processes (USM) with the words from the box. vibrates − slurry − tool − energy − abrasive − workpiece frequencies − friction − holes − hard USM (Ultrasonic Machining) is a mechanical (1) __________________-based process which is particularly

suitable for making (2) __________________ and cavities in hard and brittle materials. USM is an (3) __________________ process which can create any material into (4) __________________ and brittle form with the help of its vibrating (5) __________________ and the indirect passage of abrasive particles towards the (6) __________________, producing less heat than other similar processes. The vibrating tool fluctuates the ultrasonic (7) __________________ in order to remove the material from the workpiece. The process involves an abrasive slurry that runs between the tool and the workpiece. Due to this, the tool and the workpiece never interact with each other. When the tool (8) __________________, the abrasive (9) __________________ (which contains abrasive grains and particles) is added till the workpiece interacts with it. The (10) __________________ caused by the abrasive grains in the slurry gradually creates a breakage on the workpiece. Ultrasonic machining processes are the future of machining.

Writing 4 PET

Now referring back to exercise 2 write a short paragraph (about 50 words) explaining:

• Main differences between conventional and unconventional machining processes • Why unconventional machining processes are replacing conventional ones

Speaking

5 Work in pair. Using the points given below, Student A presents the USM advantages to student B. Then student B does the same.

• • • • •

Advantages of USM Machines all sorts of materials Produces fine finished and structured results Produces less heat Produces various hole cut shapes due to vibratory motion of the tool.

You can start like that: Ultrasonic machining processes are the future of machining and are used all over the world for creating hard and brittle forms of materials for industrial uses. They can…

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Electric circuits WARM UP

We already know that atoms are the smallest parts of matter. What are the smallest parts of electricity?

Electricity is a flow of electrons around a circuit which is the path along which the current flows from start to finish. It is required to make an electric circuit flow. Parts of the circuit are the generator that starts the current, the wires, and any electrical device that the current operates, such as an electric light or a refrigerator. A circuit is usually made by linking electrical components with pieces of wire cable. When you turn the switch on, electricity flows around the circuit. If there is a break anywhere in the circuit, electricity cannot flow. If one of the wires is broken, for example, the lamp will not light. Similarly, if the switch is turned off, no electricity can flow. When the circuit includes several electrical devices such as a number of lamps, it is either a series circuit or a parallel circuit. In a series circuit, the lamps are connected together by a single wire. In a parallel circuit the current branches out from the main line to each unit, and then back to the main line.

How electricity moves in a circuit circuit: circuito generator: generatore wires: fili metallici conductors: conduttori steady flow: corrente regolare bound: legati insulators: isolanti conductance: conduttanza voltage: voltaggio

Materials such as copper, a metal that allows electricity to flow freely, are called conductors. A current of electricity is a steady flow of electrons. When electrons move from one place to another, around a circuit, they carry electrical energy from place to place. Metals like copper have ‘free’ electrons that are not bound tightly to their parent atoms. These electrons flow freely throughout the structure of copper and this is what enables an electric current to flow. Materials that don’t allow electricity to pass through them so readily, such as rubber and plastic, are called insulators. In rubber, the electrons are more tightly bound. There are no ‘free’ electrons and, as a result, electricity doesn’t really flow through rubber at all. Materials that let electricity flow freely are said to have a high conductance and a low resistance. Materials that do not allow electricity to flow are the opposite: they have a low conductance and a high resistance.

Measuring electricity We can measure electricity in a number of different ways, but a few measurements are particularly important. The resistance of a conductor is measured in ohms. The electromotive force is measured in volts and the current is measured in amperes. Together, voltage and current give us electrical power. The bigger the voltage and the bigger the current, the more electrical power we have. We measure electric power in units called watts. 124

MO DULE 5 | FOCUS on THEORY

Direct current and alternating current Electricity can move around a circuit in two different ways. In a direct current (DC) circuit, electrons always flow in the same direction and the voltage is constant. In an alternating current (AC) circuit, the electrons and the voltage reverse direction many times. Direct current has many important uses in electric motors and generators. In automobiles, DC generators supply the electrical energy needed to keep the storage battery fully charged, start the ignition system, and light the lights and play the radio. Alternating current is more widely used than direct current for several reasons; its biggest advantage is that it can readily be transformed to high voltages.

MORE ABOUT... An electric motor is a machine that turns electricity into mechanical energy: electric power makes the motor spin around so the motor can drive machinery. In an electric drill, an electric motor makes the drill bit spin at high speed and bite into the material you’re drilling. An electric motor is a cylinder packed with magnets around its edge. In the middle, there’s a core made of iron wire wrapped around many times. When electricity flows into the iron core, it creates magnetism which pushes against the magnetism in the outer cylinder and makes the core of the motor spin around.

2 Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones. 1 A circuit is usually made by linking electrical parts with pieces of wire cable. 2 Electricity flows around the circuit when you turn the switch off. 3 Insulators are materials that allow electricity to pass through them readily. 4 The electromotive force is measured in amperes. 5 In a direct current circuit, electrons flow in the same direction and the voltage is constant. 6 Alternating current can readily be transformed to high voltages.

T n n n n n n

F n n n n n n

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 to switch off 2 to turn on 3 switch 4 to flow 5 rubber 6 to branch out

a n a substance used to make tyres, boots, etc which is a good insulator b n to turn off a machine using a switch c n to make a machine start operating by pushing a button d n to divide into two or more smaller parts e n to move in a steady continuous stream f n a device that starts or stops the flow of electricity

Speaking

4 In pair ask and answer these questions about electric circuits. 1 What is a circuit? 2 How do materials react to electricity? (refer to conductors and insulators) 3 How does electricity move in a circuit? 4 What ways of measuring electricity do you know?

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FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

Look at the picture of the lathe. Write the names of each part in the correct space. 1 __________________

6 __________________ 5 __________________

2 __________________

3 __________________ 4 __________________

2 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 tornio ____________________________________ 2 macchina utensile __________________________ 3 asse orizzontale ____________________________ 4 basamento ________________________________ 5 mandrino _________________________________ 6 molatura __________________________________

7 sagomatura _______________________________ 8 fresatura __________________________________ 9 vite ______________________________________ 10 cinghia ___________________________________ 11 cuscinetto ________________________________ 12 ingranaggio, ruota dentata __________________

3 Choose the correct alternative. 1 A lathe is a machine tool that works by heating/spinning an object around on a vertical/horizontal axis. 2 Almost all lathe designs have a saddle/bed, which is the main platform of the lathe. 3 A machine tool is a piece of equipment used to shape plastic/metal. 4 The variety of machine tools in use is almost unlimited/limited. 5 Drilling is a cutting/grinding process that uses a drill bit to enlarge a hole. 6 Turning is used to create rotational/ornamental parts. 7 Boring is the process of a cutting action applied to external/internal surfaces. 8 A machine called press brake is used to cut/bend sheets of metal. 9 Broaches are used when the metal to be removed is thick/not too thick. 10 Ultrasonic machining is an energy-based/chemical-based process.

4 Match the words with their definitions. 1 headstock 2 arbor 3 tailstock 4 saddle 5 die 6 back and forth 7 ram 8 laser

a n the part of a lathe which slides on the bed b n the part of a lathe that carries the spindle c n a cylindrical shaft on which a cutting tool is mounted d n part of a lathe that holds the end of the workpiece e n first in one direction and then in the opposite one f n plunger, piston g n an artificial light source h n a tool used to form impressions on materials

5 Find the English equivalents in the text. 1 A tool with more than one point. ______________________________________________________________ 2 Machine tools used to put weight on something in order to make it flat. ______________________________ 3 The ultimate quality or appearance of the surface of a material._____________________________________ 4 To make a deep round hole in a hard surface. ____________________________________________________ 5 A surface with no rough parts, lumps or holes. ___________________________________________________

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Grammar VIDEO

LINKING WORDS

Linkers o linking words sono parole che aiutano a collegare contenuti e concetti. Ecco una lista delle più usate: - per dare esempi: for example; for instance; - per aggiungere informazioni: in addition; besides; as well as; also; moreover; what is more; - per collegare idee contrastanti: but; however, on the other hand; yet; still; on the contrary; while;

- per elencare le idee in ordine: first of all; first(ly); second(ly); third(ly); lastly; finally; to begin with; to start with; for one thing; for another thing; in the first/second/third place, then; - per dimostrare la logica sequenza di causa e conseguenza: so; then; therefore; as a result; consequently; - per concludere: in conclusion; to sum up; briefly; in short.

Choose the correct linking word.

1 Turning can be done on the external surface of the part therefore/as well as/in short internally. 2 Moreover/Lastly/While many machine tools have been built to perform not one, for example/but/so a whole series of operations. 3 For example/In addition/But, working metal with a planer is similar to working wood with a carpenter’s hand planer. 4 In a metalworking lathe, metal is removed from the workpiece using a hardened cutting tool; secondly/then/ as well as it is moved against the workpiece with handwheels or computer controlled motors. 5 Therefore/Yet/As well as being one of the most important operations in a machine shop, turning is often used to shape round pieces of metal. 6 But/Then/In short, machine tools are essential to the manufacture of automobiles.

2 Complete the sentences with the words from the box. first of all − as a result − in short − while − in addition to − for example 1 ______________, bowls, woodwind musical instruments and camshafts can be produced on a lathe. 2 ______________ the spindle and its bearings, the headstock often contains parts to convert the motor speed into various spindle speeds. 3 Some smaller lathes are bench-mounted and so they are semi-portable. Others are larger and floor-mounted, ______________ they require special transportation. 4 ______________ these are the modes of using a lathe. 5 ______________ , when working with electricity, make sure you’re wearing insulator rubber gloves. 6 An electric circuit in which all the devices are connected by series connections it’s called a series circuit, ______________ when all the devices are connected by parallel connections it’s called a parallel circuit.

Translation 3 Translate these sentences into Italian. 1 Machine tools shape metal by shearing, hammering or squeezing. 2 Refrigerators could not operate without the ability of machine tools to make the precise parts they need to operate. 3 Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, and it frequently requires continuous supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe.

4 Translate these sentences into English. 1 Le macchine per fresatura sono di solito classificate come verticali o orizzontali. 2 La molatura include anche la lappatura e la levigatura. 3 La tornitura è una delle più importanti operazioni in un’officina meccanica. Consiste nel ruotare un pezzo di metallo contro un utensile a taglio in una macchina chiamata tornio.

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CLIL: History

The Luddite Movement WARM UP

Do you think that the increase in digital technology and automation will lead to higher unemployment rates? Discuss in pairs.

flying shuttle: navetta volante weavers: tessitori spinning jenny: filatoio meccanico looms: telai bellows: mantici took over: presero il posto di lace: merletto trial: processo hanging: impiccagione transportation: esilio flared up: divampĂ˛ wages: salari

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The Industrial Revolution marked a deep change in how British society was organized in the 18th century. The economic system changed from a rural handicraft economy into an urban manufacturing one. The first changes that occurred were in the British textile industry in the early 19th century. The tremendous growth in iron production after 1750 in Britain partly made possible the production of machines. Machines were first used on a large scale in the cotton industry. In 1733, John Kay invented the flying shuttle, which enabled weavers to double the speed of weaving and to make wider cloth. In 1764, James Hargraves speeded the spinning of thread by inventing the spinning jenny. These inventions were hand-operated. An old form of power, the water-wheel, powered other textile inventions. In the late 1700s, a stationary steam engine, already used successfully in mines, was used in other industries. It powered spinning â&#x20AC;&#x201C; machines and looms in textile mills, bellows and hammers in blast furnace, and also machinery in the pottery industry. The Industrial and Agrarian Revolution gradually raised the wealth and living standards of Britain enormously. But, during this period of rapid change, many people experienced poverty and suffered greatly: once again in history machines took over people in some jobs, especially the hand-loom weavers in the textile industry. People called Luddites, from the name of their mythical leader Ned Ludd, smashed machines, claiming that these had robbed them of their jobs. They believed that the introduction of new textile machines in the early 1800s had caused unemployment and lowered the textile workersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; standard of life. In 1811, bands of masked workers attacked factories in Nottingham and destroyed lace and stocking frames. The movement soon spread to other countries. The government replied with severe repressive measures. A mass trial at York in 1813 sentenced many Luddites to hanging or transportation. Machine breaking flared up again in 1816, during the economic depression that followed the Napoleonic Wars. The movement disappeared only when improved trade increased wages and employment.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

2 Write sentences to complete the chart with the main facts. Follow the example. After 1750

Machines were produced thanks to the growth of iron.

In 1733 In 1764 In the late 1700s In 1811 In 1813

PET Read the sentences about the Luddite Movement, and decide if they are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones.

1 Machines were first used in great number in the iron industry. 2 The spinning jenny was hand-operated and speeded the spinning of thread. 3 Later, a stationary steam-engine originally used in mines was used in other industries. 4 The use of machinery created a lot of work. 5 The Luddites destroyed machines because they believed textile machines caused unemployment. 6 The movement grew in Nottingham but did not spread to other countries.

T F n n n n n n n n n n n n

Vocabulary 4 Match the words with their definitions. 1 speed 2 thread 3 stationary 4 mine 5 pottery 6 transportation

a n standing still instead of moving b n objects made out of baked clay c n the punishment of sending a criminal to a distant country d n the quality of being fast e n a deep hole in the ground that people dig so that they can extract coal, gold, etc. f n a long thin string of cotton, silk, etc. used to sew or weave cloth

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. Using exercise 2 as a guideline give a short summary of the passage. DID YOU KNOW…? The robots are coming for your job! In January 2018 LG Electronics announced a new generation of robots designed to replace workers. They are bin-shaped, shorter than a human, and move via hidden wheels at their base, while a bright-eyed digital display gives them a ‘human’ face; through a touch-screen display the robot provides people with information and receives instructions. The first of the new robots is designed to carry food and drinks to customers at hotels and airport lounges: a built-in sliding tray will collect the food. The second one will carry hotel guests’ luggage to and from room, and it should also be able to perform check-in and check-out services. The third one will help customers at supermarkets, telling product prices and guiding them through the aisles. LG said that the robots are still a long way from ready to go public, but tech companies are racing to build automated machines capable of carrying out service industry tasks, threatening the jobs of up to 800 million workers worldwide in the next decade.

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MAP your KNOWLEDGE

MACHINING OPERATIONS TRADITIONAL

NON TRADITIONAL

ultrasonic machining

woodworking lathe metalworking lathe Turning

abrasive jet machining

Mechanical metal spinning lathe

water-jet machining

glass-working lathe

Boring

lathe

electrical discharge machining

ElectricalThermal

laser-beam machining

belt grinders bench grinders Grinding

cylindrical grinders surface grinders

Chemical

jig grinders gear grinders

knee-type

TOOLS CUTTING TOOLS

METAL FORMING TOOLS

plain vertical/horizontal Milling

universal horizontal ram-type swivel cutter head ram-type

planers

presses

shapers

punch presses shears press brakes

metal drills drop hammers wood drills Drilling reamers rock drills

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MO DULE 5 | MAP your KNOWLEDGE

forging machines

MODULE

6 Metal Processes

FOCUS on THEORY

CLIL: Natural Sciences

Metalworking Forming methods Metal joining processes

Recycling

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary Grammar

The Oscars Oscar, the iconic Academy Award statuette, is cast in liquid bronze from 3D-printed ceramic molds and polished. It is then electroplated in 24-karat gold. It takes approximately 3 months to produce 50 statuettes with this procedure.

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FOCUS on THEORY

Metalworking WARM UP

Answer the questions.

1 What is an alloy? 2 What is steel made of? 3 What is steel mainly used for?

AC TI V IT IE S

pins: perni pig iron: ghisa grezza smelting: fusione blast furnace: altoforno iron ore: minerale di ferro limestone: calce slag: scoria molten iron: ferro fuso

Steelmaking Iron and steel are the most useful and the cheapest metals known to man. They are used to make thousands of products which are important in our daily lives. These products range from paper clips and pins to vehicles, ocean liners and skyscrapers. What are the processes that turn raw materials into finished products? In order to make steel, pig iron must first be extracted from iron by smelting in a blast furnace. The blast furnace is a ceramic refractory lined tall reactor, used for the production of liquid iron called pig iron. Charges of iron ore, coke and limestone are mixed in the correct proportions and are fed into the top of the blast furnace. Blasts of preheated air are blown into the charge from the base of the furnace and react with the charge as it descends. The coke burns to form carbon monoxide, which passes over the iron ore, reducing the iron oxides to metallic iron. The limestone absorbs impurities from the ore and forms a fluid slag which floats on the surface of the heavier molten iron. The blast furnace is kept in continuous operation and at intervals the iron and slag which have accumulated at the base of the furnace are run off separately. The iron extracted from the blast furnace is known as pig iron. It contains a number of impurities. It is very brittle and difficult to work. Pig iron is converted into steel by removing most but not all of the impurities. The resulting steel is harder than iron because it has been made with an additional percentage of carbon.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T F 1 Iron and steel are the most n n expensive metals known to man. 2 In an open-hearth furnace iron n n is turned into steel. n n 3 Iron is stronger than steel.

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 acciaio ___________________________________ 2 nave di linea _______________________________ 3 grattacielo ________________________________ 4 materie prime _____________________________ 5 refrattario _________________________________ 6 ossidi ____________________________________ 7 scoria ____________________________________ 8 fragile ____________________________________

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MO DULE 6 | FOCUS on THEORY

Iron and steel industry furnace.

The steelmaking process Pig iron, the processed iron poured from a blast furnace, contains as much as 4 or 5 per cent carbon and other impurities. Therefore the steelmaking process is largely one of removing the excess carbon and impurities from the iron and adding desired materials in controlled amounts. Among the kinds of steelmaking furnaces which change the iron into steel, the openhearth furnace, where excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out of pig iron to produce steel, is often used. This has a large, shallow hearth to contain the pool of metal and slag and with heat supplied from a flame burning over the surface of the slag, changes iron to steel. Since the 1960s open-hearth steelmaking has been gradually replaced by basic oxygen steelmaking, also known as Linz-Donawitz-Verfahren steelmaking (L.D.) or the oxygen converter process. This was one of the first processes to use pure oxygen to bring about the chemical changes needed to convert iron into steel. The L.D. converter in which the steel is produced is a large steel vessel lined with heat-resistant bricks. Inside the converter, oxygen is blown onto the surface of the charge through a water-cooled copper pipe, called a lance. The oxygen reacts vigorously with the impurities in the iron. Carbon is oxidized to carbon monoxide. Oxides of the other impurities combine with the limestone in the charge and float as slag on the surface of the metal. After about twenty minutes the blow is stopped and the metal is sampled. More oxygen may be blown on to the charge until the composition of the metal is satisfactory. The steel is then tapped and the slag, which is above the level of the tapping hole, remains inside the converter and can be run off separately. The steel is generally cast into huge blocks known as ingots, which are later cast or worked into slabs, strips, sheets or strands.

hearth: focolaio lined: rivestito heat-resistant bricks: mattoni refrattari copper pipe: ugello di rame blow: soffio (di ossigeno) sampled: campionato tapped: scaricato (aprendo un foro) tapping hole: foro di colata ingots: lingotti slabs, strips, sheets or strands: lastre, reggette, lamiere o trefoli

Read the text and rearrange the following sentences in the correct order.

a n Steel is cast into huge ingots. n The blast furnace uses iron ore, coke (made from coal) and limestone to make pig iron. b n The changed shapes are used in making vehicles, ships, trains and other products. c n The steelmaking furnaces change the iron into steel. d n The raw materials for steelmaking include large quantities of iron ore, coal and limestone. e n Steel ingots are worked into smaller shapes. f

Listening 2

ACTIV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

PET Listen to an engineer talking about the Bessemer process and fill in the gaps.

You may be interested in learning something about the first inexpensive industrial (1) ________________ for the mass-production of steel from molten pig (2) _________________ prior to the open-hearth (3) _________________. The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, who took a patent on the process in (4) ________________. According to Sir Henry Bessemer, at the time of the outbreak of the Crimean War (5) _________________ was used to make only small items like cutlery and tools, but it was too expensive for cannons. So he began working on a way to produce steel in the massive (6) ___________________ required for artillery, and by October 1855 he filed his first patent related to the Bessemer process. The key principle is the removal of (7) _____________________ from the iron by (8) ____________________ with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the (9) ____________________ of the iron mass and keeps it (10) _____________________.

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WARM UP

1 Look at the picture: can you describe it?

ACT IV IT IE S

otherwise: altrimenti transmission cases: scatole di ingranaggi die-casting: pressofusione sand casting: fusione a terra continuous or strand casting: colata continua

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Casting Casting is a method of shaping an object by pouring a liquid into a mould and letting it harden. The shaped object is called either a cast or a casting. The metal casting process offers certain advantages which often form the basis for choosing casting over other shaping processes such as machining, forging, welding and stamping. Some of the reasons for the success of the casting process are as follows: • the most intricate shapes, both external and internal, may be cast. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging or welding can be minimised or eliminated; • because of their physical properties, some metals can only be cast to shape since they cannot be hot-worked into bars, rods or plates; • construction is simplified as objects can be cast in a single piece which would otherwise require assembly of several pieces; • metal casting is a process highly adaptable to mass production. In fact, large numbers of a given casting may be produced very rapidly, as in the motor industry, where hundreds of thousands of cast engine blocks and transmission cases are produced each year; • extremely large, heavy objects can be cast when it would be difficult or economically impossible to produce them in any other way. Large pump housings, valves, and hydroelectric plant parts weighing up to 200 tons are an excellent example of this. Casting is used to make thousands of articles, including tools, machine parts and art objects. The most common types of casting are die-casting, sand casting and continuous or strand casting.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and complete the sentences. 1 In casting, a liquid metal... where it… 2 Casting is often preferred… because… 3 All shapes, even the most complex, …

Vocabulary

4 Casting doesn’t require the assembly… because objects can… 5 Metal casting allows… very quickly. 6 Die casting, sand casting and strand casting…

3 Find in the text antonyms to the following words. 1 solid ______________________________________ 2 to soften ___________________________________ 3 disadvantage _______________________________ 4 failure _____________________________________ MO DULE 6 | FOCUS on THEORY

5 simple _____________________________________ 6 slowly _____________________________________ 7 light _______________________________________ 8 to exclude _________________________________

Die-casting Die-casting is the process of forcing molten metal into the cavities of steel moulds under high pressure. The moulds are called dies. If several machining operations or assembly of several parts were required (to make a finished part), die-casting would probably be far more economical. This level of versatility has placed die-casting products among the highest volume made in the metalworking industry. Common metals used in die-casting include zinc and aluminium. These are usually not pure metals but alloys. There are four major steps in the die-casting process. First, the mould is sprayed with lubricant and closed. Molten metal is then injected into the die under high pressure. The high pressure assures a casting as precise and as smooth as the mould. Once the cavity is filled, the pressure is maintained until the casting has become solid. Finally, the die is opened and the casting is ejected.

Read the text and answer the questions.

1 What is molten metal injected into? _____________________________________________________________ 2 What are dies? _______________________________________________________________________________ 3 Is die-casting an economical process compared to other ones? ______________________________________ 4 Are pure metals usually employed in die-casting? _________________________________________________ 5 Why is high pressure necessary when the molten metal is forced into the die? _________________________ 6 How long is the pressure maintained? ___________________________________________________________

Vocabulary

ACTIVITIES

Reading comprehension

2 Match the words to their definitions. 1 die a n casting of metals or plastics into permanent moulds, made of suitable 2 non-ferrous alloy resistant non-deforming metal 3 feature b n a metal block used in stamping operations 4 lubricants c n any alloy based mainly on metals other than iron 5 die-casting d n compounds (solid, plastic or liquid) carried along between two sliding surfaces e n an important or typical part of something

Writing 3 Join these sentences using these linkers: finally, secondly, then, after that, firstly. 1 _______________________________ workers make a wood or metal pattern of the article to be cast. 2 _______________________________ these patterns are used to make the moulds. 3 _______________________________ a liquid is poured into the mould. 4 _______________________________ the liquid becomes solid. 5 _______________________________ the object is shaped.

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engine block: blocco motore cross-section: sezione trasversale ladle: secchione di colata stockpile: scorte pattern: campione, modello binder: legante

Sand casting and strand casting The sand casting method is a hot forming process applied to iron and steel parts. This hot forming process is used very frequently for the casting of industrial products and parts, such as engine blocks. In this process, heat is applied to soften the piece of metal. Metal is usually cast in a sand mould. When the metal has become solid, the mould is broken to remove the casting. Strand casting or continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. When molten metal has been produced in the furnace, it is poured from the ladle in a long, continuous bar or strand. The strand is withdrawn from the mould and passed into a chamber of rollers and water sprays; the rollers support the thin skin of the strand while the sprays remove heat from the strand, gradually solidifying the strand from outside. After solidification, predetermined lengths of the strand are cut off by mechanical shears and transferred to further forming processes, or to a stockpile. Continuous casting provides a better quality product as it allows finer control over the casting process, along with the obvious advantages inherent in a continuous forming process.

AC TI V IT IE S

Molten gold being poured into ingot moulds.

Reading comprehension 1

PET Read the text and choose the correct answer.

1 Metal casting includes... A only three types of casting. B three types of casting which are the most common. C two types of casting. D only one type of casting. 2 After solidification, predetermined lengths of the strand are... A cut off and thrown away. B cut off and used for other forming processes. C cut off and sold. D melted. 3 A hot forming process is... A frequently used for casting. B never used for casting. C never applied to iron and steel. D never applied to soften the piece of metal.

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MO DULE 6 | FOCUS on THEORY

Sand molded casting.

MORE ABOUT... Before materials are cast, workers make a wood or metal pattern of the article to be cast. These patterns are later used to make the moulds from which the actual castings are made. Patterns may be made in several ways, depending on the size of the article and on how many times the mould will be used. There are different types of moulds. The most common type of mould is made of green sand which is a mixture of sand, clay, water, and a binder to hold the sand grains together. The mould must be strong enough to oppose the pressure of the melted metal and to resist fusion with it, and sufficiently permeable to allow the escape of air and other gases from the cavity, in order to avoid holes in the casting.

4 Continuous casting... A is rarely applied. B is not useful. C provides a better quality product. D provides a poor quality product.

ACT IV IT IE S

DID YOU KNOW…? Working in places where molten metal is handled requires suitable protective clothing and equipment to prevent any injury coming from high radiant heat and molten metal splash. Beside any workshop basic safety gear (helmets, boots, gloves and safety glasses), jacket and trousers specifically made of heat and flame resistant cloth (aluminised viscose fabric) would be necessary while handling molten metals. They will provide excellent heat reflection and insulation.

2 Read the text again and answer the questions. 1 What are the main differences between die-casting and sand casting? 2 What type of process is continuous casting mainly applied to? 3 What is a strand?

Listening 3

hot-rolling mill: macchina per laminazione a caldo

PET Listen to an engineer talking about the new efficient casting conditions and fill in the gaps with the missing information. 20

Metallurgical quality is often enhanced by (1) _________________ control over some or all systems of the caster. Casting (2) _________________ are often further improved by:

• electrical tundish, the device located at the top of a continuous (3) _________________ that regulates the flow of molten (4) _________________ heating to adjust steel temperature;

• electromagnetic stirring coils around the (5) _________________ to decrease segregation;

• in-line rolling to compact the centre just before it (6) _________________;

• well-designed inspection systems to check the liquid steel and the hot strand during (7) _________________ (this is the most important of all). Such systems provide a high level of quality assurance, making it possible to charge the cut hot strand into a reheat (8) _________________ or, with only a little reheating of the edges, directly into a hot-rolling mill. This not only minimises (9) _________________ but eliminates cooling, cold inspection, scarfing or grinding and storage. Plants that integrate a continuous caster with a hot-rolling mill often need only 90 minutes to (10) _________________ liquid steel into a hot-rolled product.

Writing 4 Prepare a short presentation (3-5 minutes) in your own words explaining the casting process and the main types of casting.

VIDEO 5 Watch this video about investment casting and answer the questions. 1 Why is it necessary to produce a wax injection die? 2 How is the wax temperature controlled in the cast? 3 What results does it achieve? 4 Why is the mould put into an autoclave? 5 What secondary operations can be performed on request?

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Forming methods WARM UP

1 Do you think that the only method to reshape metals is by melting them in foundries? If not, which other method(s) do you know?

raw material: materia prima pressure: pressione tight: stretto accomplishes: compie, realizza forging, rolling, extrusion: forgiatura, laminatura, estrusione rollers: rulli, cilindri

MORE ABOUT...

A CT IV ITI ES

In addition to cold rolling and forging, cold working processes include shearing, drawing and bending. Bending involves the reshaping of metal around a linear axis, while shearing is a chip-free cutting process. Drawing resembles extrusion, except that the workpiece is pulled, not pushed, through the die â&#x20AC;&#x201C; it is also performed as a hot working process.

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Hot and cold processes Metal forming is used very frequently for the casting of industrial products and parts. In this process, heat is applied to soften the piece of metal. This metal or raw material is available in the form of sheets, bars, tubes or wires. Then some form of pressure is used to alter the shape of the metal. The hot forming process can produce a variety of complex parts and hold relatively tight tolerances. By taking advantage of the plasticity of certain metals, the forming process makes it possible to reshape them in the desired form. Furthermore, it accomplishes this without melting, thereby avoiding any potential difficulties in the handling of molten metal or in the integrity of moulded products. Generally, metal forming operations can be categorised as hot, cold or warm working processes. The temperatures involved in these processes are not fixed, but vary from metal to metal; in some cases, room temperature may mean hot-working conditions. Hot working involves deforming a metal under conditions above its recrystallisation temperature, usually at temperatures higher than 60% of its melting point. For most metals, cold working is typically performed at room temperature or slightly higher temperatures; as long as the temperature of the operation is below the metalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s recrystallisation temperature, it qualifies as cold working. Warm working is performed at intermediate temperatures between those of recrystallisation and cold working. Hot working processes include forging, rolling and extrusion. Rolling is also performed as a cold working process, and involves putting metal stock through a set of rollers. The rollers deform the original stock and output it in the preset shape. Sheets, strips, rails and other similar shapes can be produced by rolling. Forging uses presses, hammers and other compressing devices to shape metal stock, and can also be performed cold. Parts made by the cold forging process are often referred to as cold-headed parts. Extrusion is a process whereby stock is forced through a die and emerges as a tube with a nearly identical cross section. Metal forming is used to create all sorts of products, including tubes, pipes, metal sheets, fasteners, wire and much more. Many of the metal objects we encounter in everyday life, from thumbtacks to file drawers, are likely to have been produced by one or more metal forming operations.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T 1 Metal forming is a method of reshaping metals. n 2 The process of metal forming is accomplished by melting the metals. n 3 Metal forming is generally classified in three main operations. n 4 The temperatures involved in metal forming operations are fixed. n 5 Cold working is usually performed at room temperature. n 6 Some hot working processes can also be performed as cold working processes. n 7 The cold-headed parts are made by the hot forging process. n 8 Rolling is a process whereby stock is forced through a die and emerges as a tube. n

MO DULE 6 | FOCUS on THEORY

F n n n n n n n n

A _____________________________

B _____________________________

ACT IV IT IE S

3 Write under each picture the correct metal forming method: extrusion, forging, rolling.

C _____________________________

Vocabulary 4 Match the words with their definitions. 1 melting a n a machine or tool that does a special job 2 stock b n the replacement of deformed crystals by a new generation of crystals 3 plasticity c n total amount of something available to use 4 recrystallisation d n a property of certain materials by which the deformation due to a stress is largely 5 device retained after removal of the stress n turning a solid metal into something liquid e

5 Complete the dialogue with the words from the box. non-ferrous − shapes − foundry − working − moulds − die-casting − plasticity properties − steel − melted − methods − temperature Teacher Have you got any questions about metal (1) __________________ so far? Student I see that such metals as iron and (2) __________________ are shaped in a (3) _________________ operation, but it is not very clear what happens with other hot forming methods. Teacher OK, can you tell me before what a foundry is? Student A foundry… yes, it’s a place where metals are (4) _______________ and poured into hollow shapes. Teacher Do you know how these hollow (5) __________________ are called? Student Yes, they are called (6) __________________. The die-casting method is used to shape aluminium and other (7) __________________ alloys. Teacher Very good. Now (8) __________________, sand casting and continuous casting are all hot forming processes. However, there are other hot forming (9) __________________. They take advantage of the (10) __________________ of certain metals and the process is accomplished without melting. Student So, I guess, the selection of materials for use in metal forming processes in general depends on the type of the working process being used, the forming (11) ______________________, the material (12) __________________. Thank you, for the clarification.

Writing 6 Write a short paragraph (about 60-70 words) with the help of the guidelines below. • Different types of hot forming process: die-casting, sand casting and continuous casting in foundries. • More ductile materials reshaped without melting.

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WARM UP

Choose the correct option.

First the blacksmith/ ironmonger heats the metal until it is red-hot in a furnace/oven. Then the hot/cold metal is lifted from the furnace with a pair of tongs. Finally the hot glass/metal is placed on an anvil and the blacksmith beats it into shape with a hand anvil/ hammer.

tongs: molle anvil: incudine squeeze: comprimono

Forging Forging is a method of shaping metal by heating it, then hammering or pressing it into a desired form. Pressing and hammering are powered by compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam. In open die forging, the metal is compressed by a mechanical hammer and the shape is manipulated manually. In closed die forging, the desired configuration is obtained by squeezing the workpiece between two shaped and closed dies. Almost any metal or combination of metals can be forged. Some examples of forgeable materials are iron, steel, nickel, titanium, aluminium and bronze. When metal is forged, its internal make-up changes. It loses its grainy structure and becomes more fibrelike. This fibrelike structure gives the forged article more strength. Forgings are particularly useful for objects that take heavy wear, such as turbine blades for jet-aircraft, engines, propeller shafts for ships and locomotive parts. The most common forging methods are:

Hand forging One of the oldest known metalworking processes. A workman, called a blacksmith, heats the metal in a furnace or forge until it is red-hot. The blacksmith lifts the hot metal from the furnace with a pair of tongs. Then he holds it against an anvil and beats it into shape with a hand hammer. Hammer forging In forging with hammers, tools called dies shape the desired article. One die fits on top of the article and another die fits on the bottom. When the dies are pressed, or hammered together, they squeeze hot metal into the desired shape. Drop-hammer or impact-die forging In this process a plastic deformation of the metal is produced by using an impactive force. Other types of forgings are flat-die forgings and press forgings.

MORE ABOUT... Whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the difference between press forging and drop hammer forging? The biggest main difference between the two techniques is the deformation speed: drop hammers reach peak loads in 2-5 ms while press forging, which is usually executed with screw presses or mechanical presses, have maximum peak force between 30 to 100 ms. Press forging would require lower forces to deforming the piece in the mould, while hammer forging usually needs multiple blows to fill the moulds. More, drop hammers employ operators and are not automatized, so the choice of how many blows and their intensity is based on the workerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skills. Drop hammers are less safe: since the operator requires visual contact, barriers are uncommon and hot splinters can fly all over the place. Presses are more versatile than drop hammers: they are used for closed die forging, open die forging and shaping while drop hammers can be used only for closed die forging.

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MO DULE 6 | FOCUS on THEORY

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

1 Forging is an operation of shaping hot malleable metals by means of hammers or presses. 2 Just a small number of metals can be forged. 3 The internal make-up of a metal doesn’t change when it is forged. 4 The fibrelike structure adds strength to the forged article. 5 Forging by hand is the same as forging by hammer. 6 Drop-hammer forging is the same as impact-die forging.

T n n n n n n

F n n n n n n

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Correct the spelling mistakes in the following sentences. 1 A metal can be hamered or pressed into a desired form. 2 Open die forging is a process where metal compression is carried out by the use of a mecanical hammer. 3 Iron, steel, nickel and bronze are among the forgiable metals. 4 The forged metal acquires more strenth thanks to its fibrelike structure. 5 A metal is heated in a furnace by a blacksmit until it gets red-hot. 6 When the dies are pressed together, the hot metal is squezed into the desired shape.

4 Form nouns from the following verbs. Example: to press ➝ pressure 1 to compress ________________________________ 4 to lose _____________________________________ 2 to manipulate _______________________________ 5 to know ___________________________________ 3 to combine _________________________________ 6 to produce _________________________________

Speaking 5 Work in pairs: ask and answer questions about the advantages and limitations of the open die forging. The following table can help you.

Advantages Open die forging

• Inexpensive tooling and equipment. • Simple to operate. • Wide range of workpiece sizes can be used. • Suitable for low-production volume.

Limitations • Can be used for simple shapes only. • Fairly skilled operators are required. • Production rate is low. • Poorer dimensional and surface finish is achieved. • Finishing is required for achieving final shape.

Writing 6 Write a short description (about 60 words) of advantages and limitations of closed die forging with the help of the notes below.

Closed die forging

Advantages

Limitations

• Suitable for high-production rate. • Can be used for production of complex shapes. • Good dimensional accuracy and reproducibility.

• High equipment and tooling costs. • Appropriate die set for production of each component. • More than one step is required for each forging. • Finishing is required for achieving final shape.

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ram: pistone blank piece: pezzo grezzo billet: billetta

Extrusion Extrusion is the process of giving a specific shape to a piece of solid material by forcing it through a metal die. The most commonly extruded materials include metals, plastics and rubber. Metal can be extruded into many shapes simply by changing the shape of the opening (orifice) in the die. To make a round rod by the extrusion process, a die is made with a hole the same size as the complete rod. The die is fastened to the end of a strong metal cylinder. A ram, or plunger, fits loosely inside the cylinder. A blank piece of metal, called a billet, is inserted in the cylinder between the die and the ram. Hydraulic or mechanical pressure is applied to the ram. This forces the metal through the orifice in the die and makes the extruded rod. A cutting tool on the outside of the die cuts the extruded rod from the machine. Extruding can be done with hot billets or cold plates. In the hot process, the temperature of the billet depends on the extruding method. The die and the cylinder are heated with either gas or electricity. Cold extrusion, also called the Hooker process, uses cup-shaped metal blanks. The metal is forced through an orifice in a die as in the hot process. Impact extrusion is similar to cold extrusion. The higher the melting point of a metal or alloy, the more difficult it becomes to extrude.

ACTIVITIES

MORE ABOUT...

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Recrystallisation is the replacement of deformed crystals by a new generation of crystals, which begin to grow at certain points in the deformed metal and eventually absorb the deformed crystals. This process leads to the elimination of strain-hardening. Recrystallisation temperature is the temperature at which solidification from the molten state begins. That marks a change in crystal form, and the range of temperature in which strain-hardening disappears. Lead, tin and zinc can recrystallise at air temperature. Iron, copper, aluminium and nickel have to be heated.

Reading comprehension 1

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

1 In extrusion material is squeezed in a closed cavity through a die using a press. 2 Extrusion is the oldest metalworking technique. 3 Hooker process is the name given to a rolling process. 4 The higher is the melting point of a metal, the easier it becomes to extrude. MO DULE 6 | FOCUS on THEORY

T F n n n n n n n n

2 Read the text which describes how a round rod can be made in the extrusion process, then rearrange the following sentences in the correct order. n There is a plunger inside the cylinder which fits loosely. a n Secondly insert a billet in the cylinder. b n This is how to make a round rod by the extrusion process. c n Finally, when the extruded rod is made, a cutting tool cuts the rod from the machine. d n First make a die with a hole the same size of the rod. e n Apply hydraulic or mechanical pressure to the plunger which forces the metal through the opening in the die. f n Don’t forget to fasten the die to the end of a metal cylinder. g

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Speaking 3 Work in pairs: take turns with your partner at asking and answering questions about the advantages and limitations of the hot extrusion process. The following table can help you.

Advantages Hot extrusion

• Moderate cost of equipment and tooling. • Suitable for large reduction. • Complex sections and long products can be produced.

Limitations • Only constant cross-section can be produced. • Components with thin walls are difficult to produce. • Poor dimensional accuracy and finish.

Writing 4 Refer to exercise 2, then write a short paragraph (about 60-70 words) comparing hot and cold, or impact extrusion, with the help of the notes below.

Advantages Cold/impact extrusion

• High-production rate. • Good finish and dimensional accuracy. • Generally no finish is required. • Suitable for production of thin sections.

Limitations • Suitable for production of light components from softer materials. • Deformation limited to small reductions.

MORE ABOUT... In a machine shop there are many hazards: from cutting tools, drilling machines, grinding dust, welding and so on. Therefore, there are several safety signs. Some warning signs include the use of illuminated signs and acoustic signals, for example fire alarms and a programme of regular inspection and maintenance on all machines is carried out. Besides, metal working often requires high temperatures, so precautions should be taken for preventing workers from being burned. Workers should wear safety glasses when required and also gloves should be worn when handling sharp cutters or pieces of material because one of the most common causes of hand injuries is contact with cutting edges. Noise hazards are very common in a machine shop because high-intensity noise can cause permanent loss of hearing. The study to improve life in the workplace is called ergonomics, from the Greek ergo, work, and nomoi, natural laws.

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Powdered metal processes

WARM UP

1 What is the Italian word for powder? How is this term related to metallurgy?

Metal Powders

Additives (Lubricants or binders)

Mixing Compaction Sintering

Optional secondary finishing

Finished product

A CT IV IT IE S

A flowchart of the basic powder metallurgy process for structural press and sintered components.

The process of blending fine powdered materials and pressing them into a desired shape is called powdered metallurgy. The powder metallurgy process generally consists of four basic steps: • powder blending blends fine powdered materials with lubricants or binders to produce a homogeneous mix; • compacting forms the mixed powder into a compact and then places this compacted material in an oven; • sintering heats the compressed material in a controlled atmosphere to a temperature that is below the melting point of the major constituent; •s econdary operations is a second pressing operation that can be done to improve the compaction and the material properties. Although the cost of making powder is high, there is no loss of material. The components produced are clean, bright and ready for use. However powder metallurgy offers other advantages and the greatest advantage of all is the control of the composition of the product. In addition, a wide range of properties such as density, porosity and particle size can be obtained for particular applications. Moreover, there is usually no need for subsequent machining or finishing operations and this process facilitates the mixing of both metallic and non-metallic powders to give products special characteristics. However, powder metallurgy has also some limitations. The metal powders and the equipment used are very costly, the storing of powders is difficult because of the possibility of fire and explosion hazards, parts manufactured by this process have poor ductility and finally sintering of low melting point powders such as lead, zinc and tin, is very difficult. Powder metallurgy techniques are used for making blending: amalgamare a large number of components. oven: forno Powder metal parts make up critical components storing: fare scorte in vehicle engines, transmission, chassis assemblies, hazards: rischi aircraft parts, agricultural machinery and computers, to name just a few.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and choose the correct option.

1 Powder metallurgy is the process of... A blending powdered materials to make metal parts by hammering them onto an anvil. B heating metal parts and turning them into powdered material. C mixing powdered materials to make metal parts by pressing them in a die. D heating powdered materials after heating them in an oven. 2 Com pacting is achieved by... A pressing the metal powders placed in a die. B incorporating a lubricant to the metal powders. C heating the metal powders in a protective atmosphere. D cooling the metal powders at room temperature.

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MO DULE 6 | FOCUS on THEORY

3 Sintering is achieved by... A using metal powders for manufactured products. B melting metal powders. C heating the compressed material at room temperature. D heating the compressed material in a controlled atmosphere. 4 One of the advantages of powder metallurgy is... A the possibility to store powders. B the quality of the components in spite of high costs. C the great ductility of the process. D the reasonable cost of metal powders and equipment.

The main market for powder metallurgy parts is the automotive sector. Globally, around 80% of all powder metallurgy structural components are for automotive applications, and about 75% of these automotive applications are components for transmissions (both automatic and manual) and for engines. But the inner merits of powder metallurgy are expanding its area of interest beyond the conventional automotive market. Easy forecast are the emerging applications in aerospace, construction, and mechanical engineering. The speed of advancements in electronic and computer components, as well as the increasing attention in renewable energy (solar panels and wind turbines) are the newest, promising field for its potential growth.

copper powder

ACT IV IT IE S

MORE ABOUT...

aluminium powder

lead powder

Vocabulary 3 Read the text again and write the words next to the correct definitions. pressing − compact − sintering − lubricant − ductility

1 A compound (solid, plastic or liquid) entrained between two sliding surfaces. ________________________ 2 The result produced by confining a metal powder, with or without metallic material, and compressing it in a die. ________________________ 3 Using a machine for applying pressure to a workpiece. ________________________ 4 The ability of metals and alloys to retain strength and freedom from cracks when shape is altered. ________________________ 5 Mixing metal powders having different melting points and then heating the mixture at an elevated temperature. ________________________

Listening 4

21 PET Listen to this expert talking about sintering, the most widely used metal process in powder metallurgy, and fill in the gaps to complete the passage.

The process most widely used in powder metallurgy is sintering. Old English ‘sinder’ (now spelled cinder) came in fact from the German word sinter. This is the thermal (1) _________________ of a powder or compact at a temperature below the (2) _________________ point of the main constituent, for the purpose of increasing its (3) ______________ by bonding together the particles. The sintering process consists of the following steps: • the metal powder is compacted by placing it in a closed (4) _______________ under pressure • this compacted material is placed in a (5) _________________ and sintered in a controlled (6) _______________ at a high temperature • the metal powders get cool and form a (7) _______________. Powdered metal processes are particularly suited for components requiring close (8) _________________, excellent finishes and irregular shapes. Powder metal parts make up (9) ___________________ of vehicle engines, aircraft parts, agricultural (10) ___________________, computers, hardware, off-road equipment, ceramics and many others. Among the advantages of this process there are the virtually unlimited choice of (11) ___________________, composites and associated properties, long-term (12) ___________________ and a great variety of shape and design.

Writing 5 Write a short paragraph (about 150-180 words) about the advantages and limitations of powdered metal processes.

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Metal joining processes WARM UP

Look at the pictures below. What are the people doing?

welding: termosaldatura brazing, soldering: brasatura joint: giunzione, raccordo filler rod: bacchetta di apporto welder’s tool: saldatrice

Welding The most common means of joining metals are welding, brazing and soldering. These processes are widely used by metalworkers in the fabrication, maintenance and repair of parts and structures. Brazing, welding and soldering are quite similar. Each of these metal joining processes has its own benefits and drawbacks. Some processes are more suited to particular applications and some to others. While there are many methods for joining metals, welding is one of the most convenient and rapid methods available. Because of its strength, melting is used in shipbuilding, car manufacturing, aerospace applications and many other manufacturing activities. The term welding refers to the process of joining pieces of suitable metals or plastics, usually by raising the temperature at the joint so that MORE ABOUT... the pieces may be united by Filler rod or welding rod is a filler metal in the form fusing, by forging or by pressure. of a wire or rod; in electrical welding the electrode The welding temperature may supplies the filler metal to the joint. An electrode is an be attained by external heating, electric conductor through which an electric current enters or leaves a medium. by passing an electric current through the joint, or by friction.

Kinds of welding Pressure welding depends on the basic principle of heat, plus pressure, to make the weld. Today, instead of heating the metal edges with fire, they are now usually heated by the resistance which they offer to the passage of an electric current through them. This is electric resistance welding. Fusion welding requires far greater temperatures than pressure welding. Usually molten metal is added at the joint by a filler rod which the welder holds. At the same time, the metal edges which form the joint must be heated well above their melting point. There are three main methods of surface fusion: electric arc, oxyacetylene and thermite welding. Electric arc welding is considered the best of all surface fusion methods for general purposes, because it creates the highest temperatures. The arc is formed by an electric current which travels down through the welder’s tool, then jumps across the intervening space to the metal joint, or it may travel between the joint and the metal filler rod. • When the arc is formed between the joint and a graphite or carbon rod, it is called carbon arc welding. • When the arc is formed between the metal filler rod and the joint, it is called metallic arc welding. This is the most common method, especially for joining steels. • Shielded arc welding is a method which uses a chemical compound during the welding (flux) which turns to gas under heat. 146

MO DULE 6 | FOCUS on THEORY

(AHW) was invented in 1926 and is now rarely used. It uses an arc between two tungsten electrodes in a shielding gas atmosphere of hydrogen, to extract energy. The chemical reaction produces a quick flame whose temperature may exceed 3700°C. Iron can be melted without contamination with carbon, oxygen or nitrogen, while alloys can be melted without fluxes and without surface oxidation. In Laser beam welding (LBW) the light emitted by the laser can be focused and reflected in the same way as a light beam: it has the highest energy concentration of any known source of energy. The focused spot can be as small as 0.076 mm to large areas 10 times as big. A sharplyfocused spot is used for welding and for cutting, while the large spot is used for heat treating. It is extremely expensive, so there are only a few lasers in actual production use today.

Plasma welding is a welding process which allows an advanced level of control and accuracy, used for highquality welds. Its main features are precision, thanks to a more stable and concentrated arc; and a low amperage capability, which allows short weld times. It is very suitable for small parts and precision welding, such as surgical instruments, automatic repair of jet engine blades, the kitchen equipment for the food and dairy industry.

MORE ABOUT... A plasma is a gas which is heated to an extremely high temperature and ionized so that it becomes electrically conductive. It is the fourth state of matter. Gases can become plasmas in several ways, but all include energy: a spark in a gas will create a plasma.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Welding, brazing and soldering 2 Welding 3 Laser beam welding 4 Pieces are usually joined 5 Fusion welding requires 6 Electric arc welding

ACT IV IT IE S

Atomic hydrogen welding

n creates the highest temperatures. a n greater temperature than pressure welding. b n are the most common means of joining c metals. n is one of the most rapid and convenient d methods. n has the highest energy concentration of any e known source of energy. n by raising the temperatures at the joint. f

3 Read the text again and answer the questions. 1 What are the most common means of joining metals? 2 What is welding? 3 What does pressure welding depend on? 4 What is the main difference between pressure and fusion welding? 5 What power does electric arc welding use? 6 Why is plasma used for high-quality weldings?

Vocabulary 4 Complete this text about welding with the words from the box.

methods − heat − joining − manufacturing strength − buildings − soldering − fusing Welding is certainly the most common way of (1) ________________ metal parts permanently. In this process (2) ________________ is applied to metal pieces, melting and (3) ________________ them to form a permanent union. Compared with (4) ________________ and brazing and other common (5) ________________ of joining metals, welding has more (6) ________________, that is why it is used in shipbuilding, car (7) ________________, aerospace applications as well as to join beams to construct (8) ________________ and other structures. Metal Processes | MO DULE 6

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WARM UP

In the pictures you can see three useful tools to join metals. Can you match the Italian with the English in each picture?

aldatura S ad arco elettrico

aldatore S elettrico

Cannello

Brazing and soldering Brazing is a method of joining two pieces of metal together. An alloy, called a hard solder, is used as a filler. The filler is melted by a blowtorch and placed between the surfaces of the metals to be joined. The filler metal is brought slightly above its melting temperature while protected by a suitable atmosphere, usually a flux. It flows over the base metal and is then cooled to join the workpieces together. Brazing is similar to soldering although the metals and temperatures differ, as the temperatures used to melt the filler are higher for brazing. In addition, brazing creates an extremely strong joint, usually stronger than the base metal pieces themselves, without melting or deforming the components. Two different metals, or base metals such as silver and bronze, are perfect for brazing. This method can be used to make a bond that is invisible and resilient in a wide range of temperatures and can withstand jolting and twisting motions. A variety of alloys are used as filler metals for brazing depending on the intended use or application method. In general, braze alloys are made up of 3 or more metals to form an alloy with the desired properties. Flux is required to prevent oxides from forming while the metal is heated. The flux also serves the purpose of cleaning any contamination left on the brazing surfaces. Flux can be applied in any number of forms including flux paste, liquid, powder or pre-made brazing pastes that combine flux with filler metal powder.

Blowtorch

Soldering like welding and brazing is a process which uses molten metal to join two or more pieces of metal. The soldering filler metals have a relatively low melting point, and soldering is commonly used to join electrical, electronic and other small parts. Brazing or welding are preferred when hard solder: lega strength and permanence are main considerations. per brasatura forte However, in those cases in which strength is not filler metal: metallo a vital factor in the bonding, or if the joint can be di apporto flux: fondente, disassembled in the future, then adhesive bonding, scorificante soldering or even a simple mechanical fastening method are probably better options.

Reading comprehension 2

Soldering iron

Electric-arc welder

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PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T F n n 1 Brazing is a process in which metal items are joined. n n 2 A filler metal is something different from a solder. 3 Flux is the suitable atmosphere which protects the filler n n metal. n n 4 Soldering is completely different from brazing. n n 5 Soldering and brazing have similar melting temperatures. n n 6 Silver and bronze arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t suitable for brazing. n n 7 There is a variety of alloys used as filler metals. 8 Flux is required to prevent oxides from forming while the metal n n is cooled. n n 9 Flux can only be applied in liquid form. n n 10 Soldering is preferred when strength is required.

MO DULE 6 | FOCUS on THEORY

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 scorrere 2 raffreddare 3 raccordo, giuntura 4 operaio saldatore 5 temperatura di fusione 6 lega

__________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________

4 Complete the text about soldering with the words from the box. to flow − soldering − heated − metals − sandpaper − silver − bonding − aluminium − brass melting point − copper − temperature − iron − oxides − soldering iron − cools

The process of soldering is tricky and intimidating in practice, but easy to understand in theory. Basic supplies include a (1) ______________, which is a prong of metal that heats to a specific temperature through electricity, like a regular (2) ______________. The solder is often an alloy of (3) ______________ and lead, and needs a lower melting point than the metal that is being joined. The first step in (4) ______________ is cleaning the surfaces, initially with (5) ______________, and then by melting flux onto the parts. Flux removes all the (6) ______________ on the surface of the metal that would interfere with the molecular (7) ______________, allowing the solder (8) _______________ into the joint smoothly. Then, the pieces are both (9) ______________ above the melting point of the solder (but below their own (10) ______________) with the iron. When touched to the joint, this precise heating causes the solder to flow to the place of highest (11) ______________ and makes a chemical bond. When the material (12) ______________, it produces a sturdy, even connection. Various metals can be soldered together, such as gold and sterling (13) ______________ in jewellery, (14) ______________ in watches and clocks, (15) ______________ in water pipes, or iron in leaded stained-glass windows. All these (16) ______________ have different melting points, and therefore use different solders.

Writing 5 Look at the table below and write short sentences comparing the main factors which determine roles in the performance of bonds. Example: Welding and brazing are chosen if strength and control are important factors.

Soldering

Welding

Brazing

strength

+++

flexibility

+++

economy

energy used

control

+++

Speaking 6 Choose one of the joining processes you have examined and prepare a short presentation with the help of the guidelines below. • Introduction. • Presentation of the joining metal process chosen.

• Description of how it works. • Conclusion.

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WARM UP There are three major classes of processes of sheet metal working. Can you match each process to the corresponding definition?

Forming of a sheet metal work about an axis.

Forming of a cup or box with a flat base and straight walls, from a sheet metal blank.

Shearing forces to remove material from a workpiece.

a cutting b bending

c deep drawing

A CT IV IT IE S

Sheet metal processing Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Thickness can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm are considered plate. A distinction needs to be made between sheet metal and plate metal. Sheet metal is 1/4 cm or less in thickness, while plate is over 1/4 cm in thickness. Sheet and plate have different applications. Plate is generally used for larger structural parts such as boilers, turbines, bridges and ships. Sheet metal is used in the manufacture of cars, trains, aircraft, farm equipment, office equipment, furniture, house appliances, computers, machine components and beverage cans to name a few. Some of the sheet metal manufacturing processes may be applicable to plate metal as well, even though the work piece is referenced only as sheet metal. Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or as a coiled strip. The thickness of the sheet metal is called its gauge. Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 8 gauge. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal. Gauge is measured in ferrous (iron based) metals while non-ferrous metals such as aluminium or copper are designated differently; i.e. copper is measured in thickness by ounce. There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such as aluminium, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses, important sheet metals include silver, gold, and platinum (platinum sheet metal is also utilised as a catalyst). Sheet metal of iron and other materials with high magnetic permeability have applications in transformers and electric machines. Sheet metal forming involves a wide range of processes that manufacture parts for a vast amount of purposes, sheet metal: lamiera both seen and unseen. Sheet metal manufacture is mostly thickness: spessore foil: lamina performed on a press and parts are formed between plate: lastra two dies. The top die is called a punch. Sometimes coiled strip: striscia sheet metal parts are referred to as stampings. Parts arrotolata are usually economical and easy to mass produce. Sheet gauge: calibro, spessore metal is usually formed cold, however warm or hot working of parts, particularly plate, is possible.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Sheet metal is metal 2 Extremely thin thicknesses 3 Plate is 4 Sheet metal manufacture is 5 Sometimes sheet metal parts n mostly performed on a press. a n are referred to as stampings. b n formed into thin and flat pieces. c n over ¼ cm in thickness. d n are considered foil. e

3 Read the text again and answer the questions. 1 Why is thickness important in sheet metal forming? 2 What is meant by gauge? 3 What is the difference between sheet metal and plate metal? 4 How is sheet metal manufacture mostly performed?

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4 Match the words with their definitions. 1 foil 2 gauge 3 permeability 4 press 5 metalworking

a n an instrument for the measurement of thickness b n a machine used for applying pressure to a workpiece, via a tool, usually for cutting, bending, drawing and squeezing c n very thin metal sheet d n activity of making metal objects e n property of a material which describes the magnetisation developed in that material

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

Speaking 5 Work in pairs: take turns with your partner at asking and answering questions about sheet metal processing. Example Student A: What is sheet metal? Student B (without looking at the book): It’s metal which is shaped into thin, flat pieces.

Listening 6

PET Listen to an expert talking about sheet metal mechanics and testing methods and fill in the gaps with the missing information. 22

It is important to understand the mechanical behaviour of (1) __________________ when manufacturing sheet metal products. Generally a desirable (2) __________________ for metals is a large plastic deformation before necking. Necking in a material tensile test indicates disinclination to strain-harden under cold work. When (3) __________________ of the metal occurs, diffuse necking is preferred over localised necking. A high total elongation of the material before (4) __________________ is also desirable for sheet metal forming. Some metals such as low-carbon steels and aluminium-magnesium (5) __________________ may experience yield point elongation. This uneven yielding of the (6) __________________ may produce stretcher strains. These lines are actually small depressions in the material and may not be acceptable in situations where surface finish matters. Grain size, structure and orientation are also important in a (7) __________________ metal work piece. Grains will affect the properties of the metal as well as surface finish. In addition to the standard tests for materials, such as tension tests, there are tests that are used specifically to determine the (8) __________________ of sheet metal. One common test is the cupping test. Here a specimen is secured over a round (9) __________________ cavity and a steel ball is pushed into the (10) __________________ until fracture of the material occurs. The greater the distance that the sheet metal can plastically deform before fracture, the greater the sheet’s formability.

VIDEO 7 Look at the video about recycling aluminium and answer the questions. 1 The opening sentence about aluminium says… 2 Why does it say so? 3 In which country does the recycling take place? 4 What happens immediately after the arrival of the cans? 5 What happens after the cans are pressed and melted down?

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FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

Look at the picture and match the English words with the Italian equivalents.

1 pressofusione _____________________________ 2 camera a pressione ________________________ 3 metallo fuso ______________________________ 4 pistone __________________________________ 5 canale di colata ___________________________ 6 cavità ___________________________________ 7 copertura di stampo _______________________ 8 eiettore di stampo _________________________ 9 perni di espulsione ________________________

Cover die

DIE-CASTING

Molten metal

Ejector die Ejector pins

Plunger

Pressure chamber Sprue

Cavity

2 Choose the correct option. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Patterns are used to make moulds/steel. Die-casting is applied to ferrous/non-ferrous metals. Common metals used in die-casting include iron and steel/zinc and aluminium. The sand casting method is applied to ferrous/non-ferrous metals. Hot-rolling products are generally refined/rough. Open die forging is simple/difficult to operate. Impact extrusion is suitable for the production of thick/thin sections. Welding refers to the process of joining metals by cooling/heating them.

3 Insert the words from the box to complete the sentences.

Compound nouns In the structure of a compound noun (noun + noun) the first noun modifies or describes the second, in a way similar to that of an adjective. - Die-casting: a kind of casting. - Pressure chamber: a kind of chamber. - Ejector pins: kinds of pins.

sand casting − pressure welding − shipbuilding − paper clips − car manufacturing − fusion welding − scrap iron − cast size − skyscrapers

1 Products made from iron and steel range from (1) ______________________ to (2) ______________________. 2 (3) ______________________ is loaded into the furnace. 3 The (4) ______________________ method is a hot forming process applied to iron and steel parts. 4 (5) ______________________ can range from strips to slabs. 5 Because of its strength, welding is used in (6) ______________________ and (7) ______________________ applications. 6 (8) ______________________ requires far greater temperatures than (9) ______________________ does.

4 Match the words with their definitions. 1 paper clip a n material that allows water, gas, etc. to pass through it 2 pin b n the crude iron produced in the blast furnace and cast into pigs which are 3 open-hearth furnace used for making steel, cast iron or wrought iron 4 permeable c n a small piece of curved wire used for holding sheets of paper together 5 blast furnace d n a short thin piece of metal with a sharp point at one end 6 pig iron e n a furnace used in steel making f n a large industrial structure in which iron is separated from the rock that surrounds it

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Grammar VIDEO

MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs: can, could, may, might. I verbi modali can, could, may e might svolgono la funzione di ausiliari ed esprimono un’idea di abilità, possibilità e probabilità. • can esprime possibilità e abilità o meno di fare qualcosa Almost any metal can be forged. • could esprime abilità o possibilità nel passato o possibilità dubbia nel presente e nel futuro (condizionale presente). Could you ask me another question? • may e might si usano per esprimere possibilità o probabilità in modo più formale; might indica un grado di incertezza maggiore. Working with metals may be dangerous. Better safety measures might help to reduce incidents. I verbi modali presentano inoltre le seguenti caratteristiche: 1 Sono seguiti dall’infinito senza to e alla terza persona non aggiungono -s: Welding can be used in shipbuilding. 2 Nella forma interrogativa e negativa non richiedono il verbo do/does: Can you classify the metal joining processes? Will they be allowed to handle those hot objects? 3 Per il futuro, si usa to be able to per can e could; to be allowed to per may e might. In a few months you will be able to work in this factory.

What do these modals express: ability or possibility? Write it next to the sentences.

1 Metal forming can be frequently used for the casting of industrial parts. ______________ 2 They could forge articles if they knew how. ______________ 3 More oxygen may be blown on to the charge until the composition of the metal is satisfactory. ______________ 4 The high temperatures of fusion welding might be harmful. ______________

2 Choose the correct option. 1 This metal could not/cannot be hotworked into bars. It doesn’t work. 2 A shaped object might/can be called either a cast or a casting. 3 I wonder if (= mi domando se) some of these intricate shapes could/might be cast. 4 Once the molten metal was produced, they can/could pour it from the ladle in a strand. 5 Do you think that liquid can/might not become solid? 6 I doubt that such systems may/couldn’t provide high quality. 7 Don’t go too close, it could/couldn’t be dangerous. 8 A plasma welding machine can / may be our next investment.

Translation 3 Translate these sentences into Italian. 1 The molten metal produced in a furnace can be poured in a strand. 2 This type of production could mainly be used for rolling, extrusion, or forging processes. 3 Brazing can be defined a method of joining two pieces of metal together. 4 I wonder if brazing might be similar to soldering.

4 Translate these sentences into English. 1 Zinco e alluminio possono essere comunemente usati in pressofusione. 2 La maggior parte delle pressofusioni può essere fatta da materiali non ferrosi. 3 Mi domando se qualcuno potrebbe dirmi che cos’è la pressofusione. 4 La saldatura laser potrebbe essere il metodo più utilizzato in futuro.

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CLIL: Natural Sciences

Recycling WARM UP

How many types of dustbins are there in the streets of your town? What do they collect?

feed: nutrire garbage: rifiuti waste disposal: smaltimento rifiuti rot: decomposizione face: affrontare packaging: imballaggio, confezione dustbins: bidoni della spazzatura compost: concime landfilling: interramento rifiuti supply: apporto taken into account: presi in considerazione lightweight: di peso leggero balance: equilibrio

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MO DULE 6 | CLIL

In the past, in rural society, there was little waste left in the houses because everything was recycled. Waste from food was used to feed animals, fat from the animals was used to make soap that together with the ashes from the fire, was used to wash the clothes. Bottles were never thrown away, but used to be filled again with other liquids. Here are just a few examples of a time when life was hard but there was little garbage. Today the problem of waste disposal is getting more and more difficult, with new issues arising. We produce too much, and too fast too. How to dispose of all the garbage? People do not want incinerators too close to their houses as the carbon dioxide emanated by rot is dangerous for the health. What can be done to face the ever-growing problem of waste disposal? A first step would be stopping throwing things away, but trying to reuse them instead; packaging should be minimal, so to reduce the use of paper and plastics. Then, we must recycle what canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be reused or reduce. Special dustbins for different types of things to be recycled, made of materials such as paper, plastic, glass, should be placed everywhere. Leaves, grass, vegetable waste and other organic waste should be used to enrich the soil as a compost. Beside reducing the monetary and environmental costs of landfilling and incineration, recycling also substitutes used materials for raw materials, which are crucial to Europeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy. Raw materials are everywhere. They form a strong industrial base, producing a broad range of goods and applications used in everyday life and modern technologies: key economic sectors such as automotive, aerospace and renewable energy are highly dependent on their supply. And when their supply is at risk, these raw materials are called critical. Two main parameters are taken into account to measure whether a raw material is critical or not: its economic importance and the risk of supply, mainly because a large part of the worldwide production is concentrated in few countries. This concentration is in many cases compounded by low substitutability and low recycling rates. Critical raw materials are important because technological progress and quality of life rely on access to a growing number of such materials. For example, a smartphone might contain up to 50 different kinds of metals, all of which contribute to its small size, lightweight and proper functionality. Besides, raw materials are closely linked to clean technologies: they are irreplaceable in solar panels, wind turbines, electric vehicles, and energy. The futureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s challenge lies in finding the balance between progress and a cleaner environment.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 2 Match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Dustbins for different types of things 2 Recycling substitutes 3 Access to certain raw materials 4 Raw materials are closely linked 5 Economic importance and the risk of supply are parameters 6 A balance between progress and a cleaner environment n is a growing concern a n to clean technologies. b n to measure if a raw material is critical. c n should be placed everywhere. d n is the challenge to our future. e n used materials for raw materials. f

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 incinerator 2 soil 3 concern 4 rates 5 rely on 6 source

a n the top layer of the earth in which plants grow b n the number of times something happens c n depend on d n a feeling of worry about something important e n a machine designed to burn things f n a thing, place, activity, etc. that you get something from

Speaking 4 Work in pairs. Ask and answer questions about recycling. Example: Student A: Why was there little waste in rural society of the past? Student B: Why is the problem of waste disposal getting more and more difficult?

Writing

Waste incinerator in Brescia, northern Italy.

PET Write some useful suggestions (about 100 words) to help find a possible solution to the problem of waste disposal. Start explaining the current situation in your town and then talk about what its inhabitants could do about it.

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MAP your KNOWLEDGE

METAL PROCESSES SHAPING

oxygen converter Steelmaking

CASTING

SHEET

FORMING

Bessemer

Sand/strand (iron steel) Die (zinc, aluminum, alloys)

Sheet Plate

Rolling

hand

Forging

drop hammer

Extrusion

cold extrusion Hooker process

Blending

POWDER PROCESSING

Compacting Sintering

pressure fusion

JOINING

Brazing/soldering electric arc Welding atomic hydrogen welding laser beam welding plasma welding

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MO DULE 6 | MAP your KNOWLEDGE

MODULE

7 The Motor Vehicle

FOCUS on THEORY

CLIL: Mechanics

What makes a car move Basic car systems Alternative engines Motorcycling

Tesla electric truck

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary Grammar

Mini Electric Concept Launched at the 67th IAA in Frankfurt in 2017, the Mini Electric Concept is the ultimate interpretation of the Mini, the iconic, small economy car of 1959.

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FOCUS on THEORY

What makes a car move WARM UP

Which of these elements does the drive train transfer to the drive wheels?

A fuels B power from the car’s engine C oil

gear differential: differenziale marce axle: assiale rpm (revolutions per minute): giri al minuto

Drive train The drive train is the system that makes a car move. It includes the engine, which burns fuel to produce the mechanical energy that moves the car, as well as the transmission, which changes the gear differential to use the power produced by the engine efficiently, trasmitting it to the axle. It can also include the fuel system, which consists of the tank, various filters, fuel injectors or carburettors, the exhaust system which removes the engine’s waste products, the coolant system which prevents the engine from overheating, and the braking system which stops the car. Transmissions are either automatic or manual. Manual transmission involves a device, controlled by the driver, that transmits power to the wheels and it features mechanical gear sets that are engaged by the gear lever operated by the driver. Automatic transmission, on the other hand, requires no direct driver input once put into drive and leaves the operator free to focus on driving. Automatic transmission is now electronically controlled and integrated into the vehicle’s power train control system, which means the computer in the car decides when and what gear to shift into. The primary job of any transmission is to match engine speed to vehicle speed. Internal combustion engines produce useable power over a specific range of engine speed or rpm (revolutions per minute).The transmission is utilised to keep the engine in that sweet spot or rpm through the vehicle’s range of speeds.

Engine

Rear driveshaft

Transfer case

ACT IV IT IE S

Prop shaft

158

Front differential Front driveshaft Rear differential Transmission

MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY

ACT IV IT IE S

MORE ABOUT... The chassis of the car contains the skeletal frame of the car. The most notable components of the chassis are the steering system which allows you to turn the wheels and change direction, the suspension system, which keeps the wheels on the ground, prevents a bumpy ride and stabilises the steering, the frame that supports all the parts of the car and keeps them together, and the wheels.

steering system: meccanismo di sterzo suspension system: sistema di sospensioni

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is the main function of the drive train system? 2 What does a drive train system include? 3 What is the function of the engine? 4 What is the main function of the transmission once power is transmitted from the engine to the axle? 5 What are the main differences between manual and automatic transmission? 6 What are the most important components of the chassis?

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents in the text. 1 sistema di carburazione ______________________ 4 sistema di scappamento ______________________ 2 serbatoio __________________________________ 5 marcia _____________________________________ 3 iniettore di carburante _______________________ 6 leva del cambio _____________________________

Listening 4

PET Listen to a mechanic talking about the differential and fill in the gaps to complete the passage.

A differential is installed to allow a (1) _____________________ difference between the inboard and the outboard drive (2) _____________________. The components of a differential are a pinion (3) _____________________ driven by the transmission and the (4) _____________________, a ring gear driven by the pinion gear, and a set of spider gears driven by the ring gear. The action of the (5) _____________________ gears allows one wheel to spin faster or slower than the other as long as the average of the two speeds is the same as the speed of the (6) _____________________ gear. The differential has three tasks: â&#x20AC;˘ to aim the engine (7) _____________________ at the wheels; â&#x20AC;˘ to act as the final gear reduction in the vehicle, slowing the rotational speed of the (8) _____________________ final time before it hits the wheels; â&#x20AC;˘ to transmit the power to the wheels while allowing them to (9) _____________________ at different speeds. This is the one that earned the (10) _____________________ its name. The Motor Vehicle | MO DULE 7

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WARM UP

1 What is the main function of the combustion cycle?

driving force: forza motrice ignition: accensione spark plugs: candele di accensione displacement: cilindrata

DID YOU KNOW…?

The four-stroke engine Almost all cars currently use what is called a four-stroke combustion cycle (also known as the Otto cycle, named after Nikolaus Otto, who invented it in 1876) to convert petrol into motion. The driving force behind the movement of a car is a device called an internal combustion engine. Within this engine, there is a constant cycle of ignition and combustion. Fuel is ignited by spark plugs, and it burns the air available to create an explosion. This cycle produces mechanical energy, which provides the power for the car. The main parts of the engine all work together to facilitate this process. The four strokes are:

Fuel/air intake

As the piston makes its way towards the high point of its motion, a mixture of fuel and air is injected into the cylinder through a carburettor or a fuel injection system. A proper mix of fuel with air enables the piston to function optimally.

Compression

Engine displacement is the combined swept volume of the pistons inside the cylinders of an engine. Displacement is an important factor, as it has a direct impact on an engine’s power output, fuel efficiency, and, in some countries, how a vehicle is taxed. It is calculated from the bore (diameter of the cylinders), stroke (distance the piston travels), and number of cylinders. Engine displacement is a determining factor in the horsepower and torque that an engine produces, as well as how much fuel that engine consumes. Generally speaking, the higher an engine’s displacement the more power it can create, while the lower the displacement the less fuel it can consume. A high-displacement engine draws in more of the air/fuel mixture per revolution; therefore more fuel is consumed.

160

As the piston nears the top of its up-and-down motion, it compresses the mixture of fuel and air that has been injected into the cylinder. Compression increases the explosiveness of a combustible material.

Combustion/power At the moment that the piston hits the top of the cylinder, the fuel is ignited by a spark from a spark plug. The resulting combustion pushes the piston back down to the bottom of the cylinder.

Exhaust

Just as the heat and smoke from a fireplace fire has to be expelled through a chimney, the same is true of the combustion in an engine cylinder. When a car’s piston is propelled downward, the residue of the combustion is expelled through an exhaust valve in the cylinder wall and goes out through the exhaust pipe.

Now the engine is ready for the next cycle, so it intakes another charge of air and gas. In an engine the linear movement of the pistons is converted into rotational motion by the crankshaft. The rotational motion makes the car’s wheels move. The area where compression and combustion take place is called the combustion chamber. The difference between the maximum and minimum volume of the combustion chamber is called displacement.

MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY 160

2 Read the text and rearrange the following sentences in the correct order 1-4. a n As the piston returns to the top of its stroke, the intake valve closes and the mixture of air and fuel is compressed. b n When a car piston is propelled downward, the residue of the combustion is expelled through an exhaust valve in the cylinder wall and goes out through the exhaust pipe. c n A spark from a spark plug ignites the compressed gas. The resulting combustion pushes the piston back down to the bottom of the cylinder. d n The piston starts at the top, the intake valve opens, and the piston moves down to let the engine take in air and fuel.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 valve 2 combustion 3 ignition 4 piston

a n the process of burning b n the electrical part of a vehicle’s engine that makes it start working c n the part of an engine that moves up and down d n part of a tube or pipe that opens and shuts to control the flow of liquid, gas, air, etc. passing through it

4 Work in pairs: look at the picture and match each technical term with its Italian translation. 1 pistone 2 candela di accensione 3 valvola di aspirazione 4 valvola di scarico 5 condotto di aspirazione 6 condotto di scarico 7 albero a manovella/a gomiti 8 volano 9 frizione 10 scatola del cambio 11 biella

a n intake valve b n connecting rod c n clutch d n flywheel e n piston f n exhaust cam g n gearbox h n exhaust valve j n intake cam k n crankshaft i n spark plug

spark plug exhaust cam

intake cam

exhaust valve clutch

intake valve piston connecting rod

gearbox

flywheel crankshaft

Listening 5

24 Listen to a description of the ignition process and fill in the gaps with the missing words.

When the car key turns the engine on, the (1) ____________________ from the battery travels to the starter and distributor. The (2) ____________________ in the engine uses electric battery (3) ____________________ to begin rotating the engine’s (4) ____________________. The electric battery power travelling to the distributor is distributed to all the spark (5) ____________________ in the engine block. Once the starter begins to rotate the crankshaft, the (6) ____________________ in the engine block begin to stroke up and down. When the piston goes down, a (7) ____________________ injector mists a gas-and-oxygen mixture into the piston chamber. As the piston begins to travel back up, it compresses the gas and oxygen mix. At the top of the (8) ____________________, the spark plug fires, and the small (9) ____________________ fires the piston back down and starts the crankshaft (10) ____________________ in a rotating motion.

Speaking 6 Prepare a short presentation (2-5 minutes) of the following topics and then report to your classmates.

• The combustion cycle

• The four strokes

• The ignition

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port: foro reed valve: valvola a canna lawn mowers: tosaerba chainsaws: motoseghe trimmers: tosasiepi dirt bikes: moto fuoristrada mopeds: ciclomotori jet skis: acquascooters patented: brevettò crankcase-scavenged: basamento

MORE ABOUT...

ACT IV I TIE S

The first commercial twostroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, who patented his design in 1881. His engine had a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a charging pump, is generally credited to English inventor Joseph Day (1889).

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The two-stroke engine A two stroke engine uses a mixture of fuel and oil as fuel. On the upstroke, the piston compresses the air/fuel mix in the combustion chamber. At the same time it pulls a fresh air/fuel mix into the crankcase for the next cycle. When the ignition sparks, it burns the mix forcing the piston downwards, opening the exhaust port while simultaneously forcing the air/fuel mix that was in the crankcase into the combustion chamber, as well as the spent exhaust out through the exhaust port. At this point it repeats the process. That is why fuel and oil are mixed together. The oil in the mix lubricates the motor. One of the main parts of a two-stroke engine is a crankcase that surrounds and protects all other parts of the engine. Inside, it has a crankshaft, connecting rod and single piston. It has also got an intake port, a reed valve, an exhaust port, and a cylinder — all in addition to the combustion chamber where the power is produced that moves whatever the engine is powering. The crankshaft in a two-stroke engine rotates, moving the piston by means of the connecting rod. These three parts are the only moving parts in a two-stroke engine. All power produced is a direct result of the action of these three moving parts. The connecting rod is connected to the crankshaft at one end, and to the piston at the other. It translates the movement of the crankshaft so that the piston is moved up and down. A two-stroke engine is commonly found in lower-power applications. Some of the devices that might have a two-stroke engine include garden equipment (lawn mowers, chainsaws, trimmers), dirt bikes, mopeds, jet skis, small outboard motors. The lower cost to rebuild and maintain made the two-stroke engine incredibly popular. Most small designs use petrol lubrication, with the oil being burned in the combustion chamber, causing ‘blue smoke’ and other types of exhaust pollution. This is a major reason why two-stroke engines were replaced by four-stroke engines in many applications.

Reading comprehension 1

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F).

1 A two-stroke engine is commonly found in higher-power applications. 2 The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Joseph Day. 3 One of the main reasons for the two-stroke engines loss of popularity was the fact that it caused blue smoke and other kinds of pollution. 4 On the upstroke, the piston compresses the air/fuel mix in the combustion chamber. 5 When the ignition sparks, it burns the mix forcing the piston up. 6 Inside the crankcase there is a crankshaft, connecting rod and single piston and other components.

MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY

T F n n n

n n n

a n When the piston reaches the top, n New fuel and air travel via the intake port into the cylinder, ready to be burnt. b n the spark plug then lights the air/fuel mixture, burning it and sending the piston back down. c n The piston is moved up and down inside the cylinder by the crankshaft, which is connected to it via the d connecting rod. n The exhaust is expelled through the exhaust port, e n A vacuum is formed as it takes its upward stroke, drawing air and fuel down through the reed valve. f n and an unpleasant side effect is that it usually takes some of the unburned fuel mixture with it. g n On the downward stroke, h n the reed valve gets closed because of the increased pressure of the fuel and air mixture within, which is i being compressed.

ACT IV IT IE S

2 Read the text and rearrange the following sentences in the correct order 1-9.

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 fuel a n the process of maintaining a fluid film between solid parts 2 pump b n a machine or tool that does a special job 3 device c n a substance such as oil or gas that can be burned to produce heat or energy 4 lubrication d n a long piece of metal in a vehicle that is connected to the engine and helps to turn 5 rod the wheels 6 crankshaft e n a machine for forcing liquid or gas into or out of something 7 pollution f n a long thin pole or stick g n the process of making water, air, or land dangerous especially with poisonous chemicals

4 Look at the picture of a two-stroke engine. What are the main differences in terms of components from the four-stroke one?

combustion chamber

spark plug

piston

exhaust outlet

crankcase

reed valve

fuel intake fuel

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WARM UP

What is the main difference between a diesel and a petrol engine?

A Diesel engines are only two-stroke.

B Diesel engines do not use electric sparks.

C Diesel engines are only four-stroke.

sprayed: vaporizzato injector nozzles: augelli iniettori glow plugs: candele a incandescenza clog up: ostruire

DID YOU KNOW…?

AC TI V IT IE S

A diesel engine can also run on vegetable oil made from old cooking oil. Running a diesel engine on biodiesel fuel – that’s how it’s called – makes the exhaust fumes smell like food. Surprisingly enough, the very first one to use this fuel was Rudolf Diesel which used peanut oil to demonstrate his new idea!

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The diesel engine In 1893 German inventor and mechanical engineer Rudolf Diesel invented the engine which still carries his name. The basic difference between a diesel engine or compression-ignition engine and a petrol engine is that a petrol engine needs an ignition system that uses an electric spark to be started. Diesel engines do not. In a diesel engine, the fuel is sprayed into the combustion chambers through fuel injector nozzles just when the air in each chamber has been placed under such great pressure that it is hot enough to ignite the fuel spontaneously. This is what happens when a diesel-powered vehicle is started. When the key in the ignition is turned a process begins in which fuel is injected into the cylinders under such high pressure that it heats the air in the cylinders all by itself. The time it takes to warm things up has been dramatically reduced — probably no more than 1.5 seconds in moderate weather. Diesel fuel is less volatile than petrol and it is easier to start if the combustion chamber is preheated, so manufacturers originally installed little glow plugs that worked off the battery to pre-warm the air in the cylinders when the engine was started. Better fuel management techniques and higher injection pressures now create enough heat to touch off the fuel without glow plugs, but the plugs are still in there for emissions control as the extra heat they provide helps burn the fuel more efficiently. Some vehicles still have these chambers whereas others do not, but the results are still the same. When there is pressure on the accelerator and the ignition key is turned to start the fuel passes through a couple of fuel filters that clean it before it can get to the fuel injector nozzles. Proper filter maintenance is especially important in diesels because fuel contamination can clog up the tiny holes in the injector nozzles. A delivery tube keeps it under constant high pressure while it delivers the fuel to each cylinder at the proper time. Diesel engines are used in heavy Gas Diesel engine engine equipment, locomotives, ships and vehicles.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and choose the correct option.

1 A diesel engine... A is very similar in build to a petrol engine. B is completely different in build to a petrol engine. C has more differences than similarities to a petrol engine. 2 The main difference between a diesel and a petrol engine is that... A the diesel engine has spark plugs to ignite the fuel. B the diesel engine has no spark plugs to ignite the fuel. C the diesel engine has a mixed system to ignite the fuel. MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY

3 In a diesel engine fuel is sprayed into the combustion chamber... A at the end of the compression stroke. B before the compression stroke. C during the compression stroke. 4 Diesel fuel is... A less volatile than petrol. B as volatile as petrol. C more volatile than petrol. 5 Filter maintenance in diesels is... A as important as in petrol. B irrelevant. C more important than in petrol.

1 Turning the key begins a process 2 The pressure of the fuel injection 3 The fuel passes through a couple of 4 Fuel contamination

a n filters that clean it before it can get to the fuel injector nozzle. b n can clog up the holes in the injector nozzles. c n in which fuel is injected into the cylinders. d n is so high that it heats the air in the cylinders all by itself.

Vocabulary 4 Find the English equivalents of these expressions in the text. 1 camera di combustione ______________________ 4 controllo delle emissioni ______________________ 2 fabbricanti _________________________________ 5 manutenzione dei filtri _______________________ 3 pressione di iniezione ________________________ 6 contaminazione del carburante ________________

ACT IV IT IE S

3 Read the text again and match the two parts of the sentences.

Biofuels Biofuels are currently the most important form of renewable energy in road transportation. They can be solid, gaseous or liquid, even though the term is often used to refer only to liquid biofuels for transport. Using biofuels from renewable sources is attractive as they could help reduce greenhouse emissions and our dependency on not renewable and highly polluting fossil fuels (above all gasoline, diesel fuel and coal). Biofuels are produced from organic material: biomass, for example, is organic material which has stored sunlight in the form of chemical energy; while biogas (a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide) is a gas naturally produced in landfills, swamps or marshes, but it can also be produced by mammals when they digest their food. There are three main types of biofuels.

landfills: discariche swamps: acquitrini marshes: paludi corn: granoturco sugarcane: canna da zucchero

Ethanol is a type of alcohol that results from the fermentation of plants such as corn, grass, sugarcane where, as it happens in wine making, pure ethanol is obtained by distillation. When ethanol is mixed with petrol it improves the combustion performance and lowers the emission of carbon monoxide. It is used in engines that burn gasoline, like most cars. Biodiesel is made from biodegradable materials such as animal fats and vegetable oil. It can be blended with traditional diesel fuel or burned pure in compression ignition engines. It is used in engines that burn diesel fuel, like large trucks and tractors and is much less toxic than traditional diesel. Biojet fuel

is used in planes.

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones.

1 Biofuels could reduce pollution and replace fossil fuels. 2 Biofuels are liquid and used for transport. 3 Biofuels are produced directly or indirectly from organic material. 4 Ethanol is a type of alcohol made from animal fats and vegetables. 5 Mixed with petrol, ethanol increases the emission of carbon monoxide. 6 Biodiesel is used for large trucks and tractors but is much toxic than traditional diesel.

T n n n n n n

F n n n n n n

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Speaking 6 Work in pairs. Give a short summary of the chapter about diesel and biofuels, including the points below.

• Explain the main differences between a petrol and a diesel engine • Types of biofuels and their importance • Describe in short the differences between ethanol and biodiesel

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Basic car systems WARM UP

Why is fuel a very important component in the engine system?

AC TI V IT IE S

runs lean: funziona con poca benzina runs rich: funziona con troppa benzina smoky: che fa fumo throttle plate: piastra di regolazione idling: gira al minimo

The fuel system In a car, the fuel system pumps fuel from a fuel tank to the engine where fuel is combined with air and introduced into the cylinder chambers. Combustion of the fuel in the cylinders produces the energy that powers the engine. Fuel is delivered in three ways: carburisation, fuel injection and direct fuel injection. Modern fuel systems are controlled by complex electronics, but their basic operation is simple.

Carburisation In carburisation, a device called a carburettor mixes fuel into air as the air flows into the engine. It helps the fuel transition from its liquid state into smaller atomised particles. It is this vaporised air/fuel mixture which the engine burns to make power. Therefore the main function of a carburettor is to mix the right amount of petrol with air so that the engine runs properly. If there is not enough fuel mixed with the air, the engine runs lean and either will not run or will be damaged. If there is too much fuel mixed with the air, the engine runs rich and either will not run, will be very smoky, or will waste fuel. The carburettor is a tube with an adjustable plate, known as the throttle plate, running across it. When the throttle plate runs parallel to the length of the tube, the maximum amount of air flows through the carburettor — this is known as full throttle. When the engine is idling, the throttle plate is just about closed, allowing minimal air to flow through. At a point in the tube there is a narrowing, called the venturi, and in this narrowing there is a hole called a jet that lets the engine vacuum draw in fuel. As cars evolved and became more complicated, the carburettor became an inefficient fuel delivery system. Additionally, concerns about fuel emissions in the atmosphere meant higher standards needed to be met by car manufacturers, and the fuel injector, which could more accurately deliver fuel to the engine, was the answer. The last carburettors were created in the late 1980s. Until then, carburettors were the device of choice to regulate and mix fuel with the incoming air, and they did a fine job in most cases. They were relatively easy to tune by varying the size of the main jets, and when tuned well carburettors provided good performance and fuel economy.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T F n n 1 Once in the tank, fuel is moved to the engine by the action of a tube. n n 2 Combustion of petrol creates pressure that is turned into motion. n n 3 The main function of a carburettor is to provide the engine with a correct mix of air and petrol. n n 4 New cars use carburettors because they are inexpensive. n n 5 The engine runs lean when there is too much fuel mixed with the air. 6 When the throttle plate runs parallel to the length of the tube the minimum amount of air n n flows through the carburettor. n n 7 The carburettors went out of fashion at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

3 Read the text again and answer the questions. 1 Can you describe a carburettor? 2 What is the function of a carburettor?

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MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY

3 What happens when an engine ‘runs lean’? 4 When does an engine ‘runs rich’?

4 Find the English equivalents of these expressions in the text. 1 bruciare ___________________________________ 2 in modo corretto ____________________________ 3 antiquato, fuori moda ________________________ 4 restringimento ______________________________

5 pompe ____________________________________ 6 serbatoio __________________________________ 7 cilindro ____________________________________ 8 funzionare (di motore) _______________________

Speaking 5 Prepare a short presentation (3-5 minutes) about the carburettor following these guidelines:

â&#x20AC;˘ Describe its main function.

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

â&#x20AC;˘ Explain why the carburettor is no longer efficient.

Fuel injection and EFI throttle valve: valvola a farfalla misfiring: inceppamento leak: perdere

Reading comprehension 1

Read the text and answer the questions.

1 Why have fuel injections replaced carburettors? 4 Where is a fuel tank usually located? 2 How do fuel injections work? 5 What is EFI? 3 What happens when a fuel injection becomes dirty? 6 What is ECU?

The Motor Vehicle | MO DULE 7

AC TIV IT IE S

Cars manufactured since about 1980 use fuel injection to deliver fuel to the engine. Compared with a carburettor, fuel injection provides improved performance and fuel economy, and reduces emissions, and that is why fuel injection has become nearly universal in new cars. In simple terms, fuel injectors do a better job of controlling precisely how much fuel is metered into the engine, and a much better job of atomising the fuel, making it easier to vaporise and burn. Early fuel injection systems were mechanical in nature, often timed and driven in the same way as the ignition, off the camshaft. In the late 1970s and 1980s, car makers have moved on to electronic fuel injection (EFI) systems, which offer a number of practical advantages. EFI is simpler, requires fewer components, and as such is more reliable and durable. More importantly electronic fuel injection systems are controlled by computers. That means the computer can be programmed, or mapped, to provide exactly the correct amount of fuel to each cylinder in virtually every possible driving situation. The increase in efficiency, performance, drivability, and fuel mileage, coupled with the reduction in emissions, has crowned EFI as king of fuel delivery, leaving carburettors as relics of an early automotive era. Electronic fuel injection works by spraying fuel into the combustion chambers at regular intervals. When you put your foot on the accelerator, a throttle valve opens, allowing more air to enter the engine. The harder you push the accelerator, the more air gets in. The engine control unit (ECU), the computer that oversees the electronic parts of the engine, recognises how far the throttle valve has opened and allows more fuel to enter based on the amount of air that has made its way into the engine. Sensors will also work to monitor the mass of air in the engine, and also the levels of oxygen in the exhaust. By taking all this information into account, the ECU can create optimum air-to-fuel ratio. This is why EFI has become so important in modern car design. One of the most common fuel injection problems is a dirty injector. If this becomes clogged, it can lead to an engine misfiring, causing hesitation or stumbling during acceleration and general poor vehicle performance. Additionally, fuel injectors may leak fuel, resulting in higher fuel consumption. Using quality fuel ensures that fuel injectors do not become clogged.

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MORE ABOUT... Fuel is moved from the tank to the engine by the action of a fuel pump. In the latest car models the fuel pump is usually powered electrically and begins to operate when the ignition switch is activated. Older vehicles may employ a mechanical pump that is powered by the action of the engine. One or more fuel filters remove dust or any tiny items from the fuel tank after reaching the pump.

AC T IV IT IE S

Electronic fuel injection (EFI).

Engine control unit (ECU).

Vocabulary 2 Match the words with their definitions. 1 throttle 2 adjustable 3 relics 4 equipment 5 accelerator 6 sensors 7 tank

a n tools, machines, etc. you need to do a particular job b n objects belonging to the past piece of equipment that controls the amount of fuel going into a c n a vehicleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s engine d n pieces of equipment used for discovering the presence of light, heat, movement, etc e n something that can be changed or moved slightly to make it suitable for different purposes f n the part of a car or other vehicle that you press with your foot to make it go faster g n a large container for storing liquid or gas

Listening 3

PET Listen to this expert talking about how the EFI works and choose the correct option.

1 EFI is... A very simple. B difficult. C not as simple as it seems. 2 The fuel pump for these systems is mounted... A near the fuel tank. B outside the fuel tank. C away from the fuel tank. 3 After drawing fuel through a screen in the tank, the pump pushes the fuel through a â&#x20AC;Ś in the engine compartment. A small filter B large filter C pressurised filter 4 In a throttle-body injection system, the fuel is delivered to one or more fuel injectors mounted in a venturi-shaped throttle body... A different from a carburettor. B exactly the same as a carburettor. C resembling a carburettor.

5 The fuel mixes with the incoming air and is delivered via the intake manifold... A to each filter. B to each cylinder. C to each injector. 6 In a port injection system, the fuel is delivered to the fuel rail mounted along the... A intake manifold. B throttle. C venturi. 7 The injectors are timed to spray an exact amount of well-atomised fuel directly into the airflow entering the cylinder through... A the intake valve. B the throttle valve. C the exhaust valve. 8 The primary advantage of port injection is an injector for every cylinder, which provides an extremely accurate fuel... A amount. B metering. C emission.

Writing 4 Write a short paragraph (about 50 words) about the main differences between carburisation and the fuelinjected system.

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The electrical system

WARM UP

The number of electrical components offered on todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vehicles is amazing: from the starter motor to the lighting system; from the heating and air conditioning to the rear window defroster; from the power windows, seats and door locks to the CD/stereo; and of course the entire electronic engine management/fuel injection system and electronically controlled transmission â&#x20AC;&#x201D; without lots of those hard-working electronics, the motor vehicle would not move an inch. One of the most important components of an electrical system is the battery.

The battery The electrical system starts and stops with the battery. The engine utilises electricity necessary to start the vehicle from the battery. In nearly all road vehicles the battery is a key component. In the classic EV the battery is the only energy store, and the component with the highest cost, weight and volume. In hybrid vehicles the battery, which must continually accept and give out electrical energy, is also a key component of the highest importance. A battery consists of two or more electric cells connected together. The cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy. The cells consist of positive and negative electrodes in an electrolyte. It is the chemical reaction between the electrodes and the electrolyte which generates DC (direct current) electricity. In the case of secondary or rechargeable batteries the chemical reaction can be reversed by reversing the current and the battery is returned to a charged state. While the vehicle is operating the electrical system is energized and recharged by the alternator that is connected to the engine by a belt. There are dozens of electrical components related to the electrical system: alternator, battery, fuse, switch, relay, computer PCM, fusible link, wire, and electrical connectors. By using a voltmeter it can determine if the battery has enough voltage to operate the electrical system. There are five primary reasons why automotive batteries fail: physical deterioration; low electrolyte; corrosion; sulfation (when a battery is allowed to sit unused for any significant period of time); overcharging. Lead acid batteries remain the cheapest form of battery per unit of energy stored while lithium batteries, which have sufficient energy density, can be used for medium range vehicles and can be charged rapidly, which make them ideal for use in hybrid cars.

Work in pairs: make your own list writing as many car electrical components as you know. Then exchange your lists and compare them.

EV: Electric Vehicle belt: cinghia di trasmissione

PET Read the text and choose the correct option.

1 In a vehicle, the battery is... A one of the many components. B a very important component. C the component which never runs down. 2 A battery is a key component in... A all road vehicles. B in electric vehicles only. C in hybrid vehicles only. 3 In a battery electricity is generated by... A electric cells. B positive and negative electrodes. C the chemical reaction between electrodes and the electrolyte.

4 The electrical system is recharged and energized by... A the fuel. B the fuse. C the alternator. 5 Lithium batteries are... A older than lead acid batteries. B newer than lead acid batteries. C as new as lead acid batteries.

AC TI V IT IE S

Reading comprehension

6 The electrical system consists of... A a battery and cylinders. B a battery and an alternator. C a battery and a voltmeter.

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ACTIVIT IE S

switches: interruttori wiring: circuito elettrico timing: sincronizzatore starter motor: motorino di avviamento starter solenoid: solenoide di avvio handle: controllare

MORE ABOUT... The starting or ignition system in a car is perhaps the simplest electrical system, but also the most important. It consists of switches, wiring, and connections that operate a powerful starter motor that engages and spins the engine at 200-300 rpm to get it started. The ignition system has two primary functions. Firstly, it produces a high-voltage electrical charge which generates enough energy beyond that provided by the battery to create a spark and ignite the fuel in the engine. Secondly, it must control the timing of the spark so that the engine can operate at its optimal capacity. The starter system is the ignition system, plus an electric starter motor and a timing. When the ignition key is turned, power is transferred to the motor activating the starter solenoid, which is just a large electronic switch that can handle a great current.

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 candela ____________________________________ 2 ricaricato __________________________________ 3 alternatore _________________________________ 4 sbrinatore __________________________________

5 sovraccaricare ______________________________ 6 fusibile ____________________________________ 7 elettrodo __________________________________ 8 elettrolita __________________________________

4 Read the text about a mechanic explaining how to understand if the alternator is working properly. Complete it with the words from the box.

voltmeter − alternator − gauge − dashboard − positive − lorries ammeter − flowing − discharging − current So, how do you know if the (1) _________________ on your vehicle is working properly? The gauge on the (2) _________________ helps. Today’s vehicles have either a battery warning light or a battery (3) _________________. Earlier generations of cars and (4) _________________ had ammeters actually on the dash. An (5) _________________ was a gauge which showed how much amperage was (6) _________________ to or from the battery. If the current flow was (7) _________________, the battery was recharging. If it was negative, the battery was (8) _________________. This was, and still is, a faster indication of charging system performance. However, ammeters needed to carry (9) _________________, which made the wiring and connections a bit more complex and heavy duty. Voltmeters are now the gauge-of-choice for displaying battery information on the dash. If the car does not have an ammeter or a (10) _________________, it is likely equipped with a simple red ‘batt’ or ‘volt’ warning light.

VIDEO 5 Watch this video about replacing a car battery then discuss the following questions in pairs. 1 What is one of the main indicators that a battery should be replaced? 2 When do batteries especially fail? 3 When does the speaker sell a lot of batteries? 4 What is another possible indicator that a battery needs to be replaced?

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The braking system

WARM UP

Brakes are devices used to stop, slow down or keep vehicles stationary. The brakes may be disc brakes or drum brakes. The front brakes play a greater part in stopping the car than the rear ones, because braking throws the car weight forward on to the front wheels. Therefore many cars have disc types, which are generally more efficient, at the front and drum types at the rear. All-disc braking systems are used on some expensive or high-performance cars, and all-drum systems on some older or smaller cars. The principal parts of the drum brake system are the drum and two shoes. The drum is a metal cylinder that revolves with the wheel. The shoes are curved pieces of metal, lined with friction material made of asbestos (which is less and less used because of health issues) and other fibres, called brake linings. When the driver presses the brake pedal, the shoes push against the inside of the drum. The pressure causes friction that slows or stops the wheel. The disc brake has a metal that revolves with the wheel. When the brake pedal is pressed, devices called calipers grip the disc, slowing or stopping the wheel.

MORE ABOUT... All cars have a mechanical handbrake acting on two wheels â&#x20AC;&#x201C; usually the rear ones. The handbrakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main purpose is as a parking brake. Handbrakes consist of a cable connected to the brake mechanism on one end, and to a lever or foot pedal at the driverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s position. The mechanism is often a hand-operated lever on the floor on either side of the driver. It can also be a pull handle located below and near the steering wheel column, or a pedal located far apart from the other pedals. A ratchet on the handbrake lever keeps the brake on once it is applied. A push button disengages the ratchet and frees the lever. On drum brakes, the handbrake system presses the brake linings against the drums. Power brakes use the vacuum produced by the engine to force hydraulic fluid or compressed air to the wheel brake. Power brakes allow the driver to use less pressure on the foot brake pedal to stop the vehicle.

What happens when you push down on the brake pedal?

2 Do you know through what your car transmits the force from your foot to its brakes?

disc brakes: freni a disco drum brakes: freni a tamburo shoes: ganasce brake linings: ferodi calipers: calibri ratchet: dente di arresto power brakes: servofreno, freno assistito

3 Read the text and complete the following sentences. 1 The movement of vehicles can be______________________________________________________________ . 2 There are front brakes and____________________________________________________________________ . 3 When you brake, the car weight _______________________________________________________________ . 4 Two types of brakes are______________________________________________________________________ . 5 The drum brake essentially consists of__________________________________________________________ . 6 Calipers are devices that grip the disc in order to_________________________________________________ . 7 The wheels on which the handbrake acts are_____________________________________________________ . 8 The handbrake is generally used for____________________________________________________________ .

A CT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 4 Find opposites of the following words. 1 to start __________________________________ 4 cheap 2 rear __________________________________ 5 low-performance 3 backward __________________________________ 6 to pull

_________________________ _________________________ _________________________

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master cylinder: cilindro principale lock: si bloccano skid: slittamento punctures: forature gripping: aderenza fine slits: sottili fessure grooves: scanalature tread surface: superficie del battistrada lugs: sporgenze

MORE ABOUT... Just like the earliest pneumatic tyres, modern tyres are still made from rubber, fabrics and steel and are inflated with air, but they also feature extremely sophisticated technology and the latest materials that allow them to perform well in a variety of road conditions: dry, wet, mud, snow and ice, while providing a smooth quiet ride and resisting punctures from nails, screws and road debris. The tyreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s primary job is gripping the road surface to provide traction for the vehicle to go, stop and steer. That is why there are all-season, motorway, winter, snow and performance tyres designs. For example all-season tyres have a compromise design that features many fine slits or grooves in the tread surface to pump or channel water out from under the tyre, coupled with a quiet, long-life design that delivers tens of thousands of miles of service in any condition. Snow tyres feature deep tread lugs and wide tread grooves to move snow out from under the tread, and a relatively narrow design to cut through, rather than ride on top of, the snow.

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Hydraulic brake system The hydraulic brake system is still the foundation of brake technology in modern vehicles. They are used as foot brakes. They use liquid pressure to force brake shoes against drums inside all four of the carâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wheels and stop the wheels from turning. The liquid is contained in chambers called wheel cylinders. These wheel cylinders, full of liquid, are connected by pipes to a container of liquid called a master cylinder. When the driver pushes the brake pedal, it pushes a piston in the master cylinder. This piston forces fluid along the tubes and against the pistons in the wheel cylinders. These pistons press the brake shoes against the brake drum, and slow or stop the wheel. Most modern cars are fitted with twin hydraulic circuits, with two master cylinders in tandem, in case one should fail. Sometimes one circuit works the front brakes and one the rear brakes; or each circuit works both front brakes and one of the rear brakes; or one circuit works all four brakes and the other the front ones only. Under heavy braking, so much weight may come off the rear wheels that they lock, possibly causing a dangerous skid. For this reason, the rear brakes are deliberately made less powerful than the front. Most cars now also have a loadsensitive pressure-limiting valve, and complex electronic anti-lock systems (ABS) that sense in various ways how the car is decelerating and whether any wheels are locking. Such systems apply and release the brakes in rapid succession to stop them locking and reduce stopping distances in wet road conditions. ABS systems usually have sensors at each wheel that are constantly connected to a centrally located ABS.

Reading comprehension 1

Read the text and answer the questions.

1 What does a hydraulic braking system use to stop the car wheels? 2 What are the wheel cylinders? 3 How are the wheel cylinders connected to the master cylinder? 4 What are most modern cars equipped with? 5 Which are more powerful, the front brakes or the rear ones? 6 What does ABS stand for? 7 What are tyres made of? 8 How are all-season tyres designed?

MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY

2 Complete the text with the words from the box. wheels − tyres − dashboard − fuel − gauge − combustion − pump transmission − brakes − engine − spark − battery

The (1) _________________ is the heart of the car. The power of the car is determined by function size of the engine, time taken for (2) _________________ and the type of (3) _________________ used. Generally cars have an internal combustion engine that runs on (4) _________________. Fuel is drawn into the combustion chamber and ignited by a (5) _________________. The most important parts of all cars are (6) _________________ and wheels. Brakes as we all know are used for halting the car and (7) _________________ are the means of transportation. It is important to use robust (8) _________________ to avoid skidding and accidents. The car’s electrical system operates on a rechargeable (9) _________________ that draws its power from the engine. The battery not only starts the car but it also provides power to the fuel (10) _________________, starter, headlights, and radio. Among the main (11) _________________ instruments are the speedometer, the fuel (12) _________________, which indicates the level of fuel in the car, and the tachometer.

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

Speaking 3 Work in pairs. Prepare a dialogue following the guidelines. Student A: you play the part of the customer. You are going to have a drive in the mountains but you want to change your car tyres first as they are worn out. Ask a mechanic about the best tyre types. Student B: you play the part of the mechanic and provide information, talking about all-season tyres and snow tyres.

Writing 4 Answer these questions and write a short description (about 70 words) of how the braking system works. 1 What’s the main function of the braking system? 2 What does the driver push? 3 What is the force exerted on the pedal applied to? 4 How is the force led to the wheels? 5 How does the brake fluid pressure operate? 6 What new device is found in modern vehicles today?

MORE ABOUT... Parking sensors are pieces of equipment, placed in the front and/or rear car bumper, with ultrasonic proximity detectors used to measure the distances to nearby objects. When sensors detect objects they emit acoustic pulses caused by a control unit which measures the return interval of each reflected signal and calculates the objects distances. Loud beeps warns the driver how distant from the object the car is: faster tones indicate closer proximity and a continuous tone indicates a minimal pre-defined distance. Rear sensors are activated when the reverse gear is selected and deactivated when any other gear is selected. The parking sensor was originally called Reverse Aid: it was invented in the late 1970s by Tony Heyes for people with sight problems.

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WARM UP

What is the function of the cooling system?

A To cool the cylinders with water or air. B To cool the pistons. C To cool the cylinders without water or air.

ACTIVITIE S

water pump: pompa dell’acqua overheating: surriscaldamento wear out: si consumano coolant: liquido di raffreddamento

174

The cooling system Most of the energy provided by combustion is converted into heat, and it is the job of the cooling system to take care of that heat. This consists of the radiator and water pump. The primary job of the cooling system is to keep the engine from overheating by transferring the heat to air. The engine in a car runs best at a fairly high temperature. When the engine is cold, components wear out faster, and the engine is less efficient and emits more pollution. Therefore another important job of the cooling system is to allow the engine to heat up as quickly as possible, and then to keep the engine at a constant temperature. Internal combustion engines produce power by burning the fuel to create tremendous heat and pressure which are converted to mechanical power to move the vehicle. As engines produce more heat than can be converted into power, a cooling system is required to control operating temperatures and prevent overheating. Two types of cooling systems have been utilised over the decades: air and water. The vast majority of motor vehicles feature closed liquid cooling systems. The water pump circulates the coolant through the cylinder block and cylinder heads to absorb and carry away the excess combustion heat and to the radiator which exchanges the heat into the atmospheric air. To help the efficiency of the liquid cooling system, it is pressurised and thermostatically controlled. One final component in the cooling system is the coolant itself, which is a mixture of antifreeze and water.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is the main job of the cooling system? 2 What are the main components of this system? 3 What happens when the engine is cold?

4 What types of cooling systems are used? 5 How does the cooling take place? 6 What is the coolant made of?

3 Read the text again and rearrange the following sentences in the correct order 1-6. a n First water circulates through passages around the cylinders. n Air-cooling makes the engine lighter but hotter. b n In most cars the cooling system consists of the radiator and water pump. c n Consequently, it generally decreases the engine’s lifetime and overall performance. d n In a few cars, as well as in most motorcycles, the engine is air-cooled. e n Then it travels through the radiator to cool. f

MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY

The exhaust system

WARM UP

This system includes the exhaust pipe and the muffler, which mitigates the sound coming out of the exhaust. The basic idea behind the exhaust system is to direct the hot, loud exhaust gases produced by the combustion process in the engine through the exhaust manifold. Nowadays, there is one more important job for the exhaust: to clean the exhaust gases of unburned hydrocarbons. This is accomplished by adding one more component to the system, the catalytic converter. The material used for catalytic converters is platinum or palladium. Modern motor vehicles also incorporate one more component in the exhaust system: a small oxygen sensor mounted between the engine and the catalytic converter. This little electronic gizmo takes a fuel/air mixture reading of the exhaust fumes by determining the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere. Since about 1995, the oxygen sensors and the entire engine management system have become more sophisticated, and now include a second oxygen sensor behind the catalytic converter. This helps to reduce the percentage of unburned fuel in the exhaust.

MORE ABOUT...

What is the function of the exhaust system?

A It pumps the right amount of fuel to the engine. B It permits an almost silent emission of discharged gases. C It cools the cylinders with water or air.

muffler: marmitta exhaust manifold: collettore di scarico catalytic converter: marmitta catalitica, catalizzatore gizmo: congegno, dispositivo sump: coppa dellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;olio bearings: cuscinetti

The lubrication system or sump system makes sure that every moving part in the engine gets oil so that it can move easily. The two main parts which need oil are the pistons, so they can slide easily in their cylinders and any bearings such as in the crankshaft, and camshaft, so that they can rotate freely. Usually oil, after being sucked out of the oil pan, runs through the oil filter to remove any grit, and then is forced out under high pressure onto the bearings and the cylinder walls. The oil then flows slowly down into the sump, where it is collected again and the cycle repeats.

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones.

1 The exhaust system includes the exhaust pipe and the muffler. 2 The exhaust manifold carries waste emissions away from the piston chambers. 3 In modern cars exhaust gases have no unburned hydrocarbons. 4 The only material used for catalytic converters is platinum. 5 In modern vehicles there is also a small oxygen sensor mounted between the exhaust pipe and the catalytic converter. 6 The pistons and the muffler are the two main parts which need oil.

T F n n n n n n n n n n

n n

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Find synonyms for the following words. 1 to incorporate ______________________________ 2 to soften ___________________________________ 3 whole______________________________________ 4 to realise ___________________________________

5 quantity ___________________________________ 6 to employ __________________________________ 7 to lessen ___________________________________ 8 up-to-date _________________________________

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Alternative engines WARM UP

Alternative fuels are changing the world of transport. Which, in your opinion, is the true alternative to petrol?

A electricity B hydrogen C fuel cell D methane E LPG (Liquefied petroleum gas)

per charge: a carica commuting distance: tragitto giornaliero di un pendolare roundtrip: viaggio di andata e ritorno offspring: prole built-in: integrato socket: presa di corrente

Advantages

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Electric and hybrid cars The primary difference between a hybrid car and an electric car is that the hybrid car derives some of its power from a conventional gasoline engine, whereas a true electric car uses electrical sources only, and thereby it is a completely non-polluting, zero-emission vehicle (ZEV). In an electric car the battery transfers energy to an electric motor and the motor turns a drive train which then turns the wheels. Up to 80 percent of the energy in the battery is transferred directly to power the car, making it a highly efficient mode of transport. That means owners of an all-electric vehicle never have to fuel up at the petrol pump — they can recharge the battery at home or at charging stations along the route. Compared with conventional vehicles, the driving range of an all-electric vehicle – typically about 100 miles per charge – may seem limited. However, when you consider that the average American daily commuting distance is under a 40-mile roundtrip, it becomes clear that EVs are a reliable and comfortable way to regularly get from point A to point B, while reducing the dependence on oil and petrol and contributing to a sustainable environment. In addition, with an everincreasing number of public charging stations, it is also becoming easier to refuel, even when drivers are on their journey. It is important to remember that the driving distance for electric vehicles will become further as advanced types of batteries, fuel cells, hybrid systems and other technologies continue to be developed. One easy way to remember what a hybrid vehicle is, is to think of the meaning of the word hybrid – the offspring of two very different species – yet one that combines characteristics of both. Take an electric motor and combine it with an internal combustion engine and we have one baby that combines the best of both, from two very different parents. All hybrids have one thing in common: they are always in a constant state of drawing from or recharging the battery. A hybrid car is composed of: • an electric motor to provide the power to the wheels; • batteries to supply the motor with electricity; • a petrol engine powering, which is separate; • a generator. The petrol engine is very small and made of aluminium, magnesium and special plastics which are lightweight materials. When the car is decelerating or standing still, the batteries recharge. The hybrid car is essentially an electric car with a built-in recharger.

of electric vehicles

Disadvantages

of electric vehicles

• They are fume-free; smooth driving and make no noise.

•C ost of buying and operating the vehicle.

• They are less expensive.

•T he limited distance capacity of one single charging.

• Refueling can be easily done at home overnight, at work or at public electric charging units.

•T he fear of not finding a socket or station to charge the vehicles when travelling long distances.

MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY

PET Read the text and choose the correct option.

1 An electric vehicle is... A mainly powered by the battery. B partially powered by the battery. C powered by the battery and the combustion engine.

4 EVs are... A not smooth driving but noiseless. B smooth driving, noiseless and environmentally friendly. C smooth driving, noiseless but pollutant.

2 An all-electric vehicle... A can fuel up at a petrol pump. B never fuels up at a petrol pump. C can fuel up both at a petrol pump or at a charging station.

5 Hybrid cars can run thanks to... A air conditioning. B speed. C batteries.

3 EVs have... A a limited capacity per charge. B the same capacity per charge compared with conventional vehicles. C more capacity per charge than conventional vehicles.

Vocabulary

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

6 The hybrid car engine is made of... A heavy materials. B iron. C lightweight materials. 7 When a hybrid car is standing still, batteries... A oxidate. B recharge. C run down.

3 Complete the text about hybrid cars with the words from the box. gallon − everywhere − purchasing − petrol − need − advancement benefits − miles − expensive − save A hybrid car is a very clever (1) _________________ in the automobile industry and you should think about (2) _________________ one the next time you find yourself looking for a new vehicle. It has (3) _________________ for both you and the environment. Let’s assume you are looking at buying a hybrid car compared with your current (4) _________________ powered vehicle. Let’s also assume that you drive 12,000 (5) _________________ a year in your Chevrolet Malibu and that your vehicle gets 20 miles to the (6) _________________. It would take you 600 gallons of petrol a year to get you to where you need to go. You could be very frustrated because petrol is very (7) _________________ these days. Now if you look at buying a hybrid car, and it received 60 miles to the gallon, it would only take you 200 gallons of petrol a year to get you (8) _________________ you needed to go. If you are able to (9) _________________ yourself from having to buy 400 gallons of petrol a year, why would you not do this? That is the reason you (10) _________________ to look into buying a hybrid car.

Speaking 4 Work in pairs. Ask and answer questions about the benefits offered by hybrid cars. The Motor Vehicle | MO DULE 7

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WARM UP

Reorder the words to make a definition of what a fuel cell is.

is/electricity/a/ chemical/fuel/ device/cell/a/by/ that/a/generates/ reaction

_______________

Fuel cell vehicles A fuel cell is a device that converts the element hydrogen into electricity by chemically mixing it with oxygen, from which results water. It is like a battery that is constantly fed with fuel. Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gases and alcohols such as methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce electricity continuously for as long as these inputs are supplied. Many demonstration fuel-cell-powered cars of very respectable performance have been made. However, there are many problems and challenges for fuel cells to overcome before they become a commercial reality as a vehicle power source. The main problems centre around these issues: • cost: they are currently far more expensive than IC engines, and even hybrid IC/electric systems • cooling: the thermal management of fuel cells is actually rather more difficult than for IC engines • hydrogen supply: hydrogen is the preferred fuel for fuel cell cars, but it is very difficult to store and transport. Given the novelty of hydrogen cars, there are still relatively few hydrogen-refuelling stations worldwide. However, the number of stations is increasing with the advent of fuel cell vehicle demonstration programmes in the USA, Europe and the Far East.

AC TI V IT IE S

As a result, more and more hydrogen stations, some of which are publicly accessible, are being built in cities throughout Europe, including Amsterdam, Barcelona, Hamburg, London, Luxembourg, Madrid, Porto, Reykjavik, Stockholm and Stuttgart. There is a great hope that the problems can be overcome, and fuel cells can be the basis of less environmentally damaging transport.

178

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

1 Fuel cells are devices that convert chemical energy directly into electricity. 2 The most common fuel is methanol. 3 Fuel cells generate electricity with very high pollution. 4 Unlike batteries, fuel cells require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce electricity continuously for as long as these inputs are supplied. 5 Fuel cells are not as expensive as IC engines. 6 Refuelling is not very simple. 7 The cooling of fuel cells is actually rather more difficult than for IC engines. MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY

T F n n n n n n n n n n

n n n n

3 Read the text about hydrogen and complete it with the words from the box. LPG − cell − hydrogen − motor − electrolysis − combustion thermochemical − fuels − source − electricity Hydrogen or H2 gas is highly flammable and will burn at concentrations as low as 4% H2 in air. For automotive applications, hydrogen is generally used in two forms: internal (1) _____________________ or fuel (2) _____________________ conversion. In combustion, it is essentially burned as conventional

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

gaseous (3) _____________________ are, whereas a fuel cell uses the (4) _____________________ to generate (5) _____________________ that in turn is used to power electric (6) _____________________ on the vehicle. Hydrogen gas must be produced because it is not an energy (7) _____________________. Hydrogen can be obtained through various (8) _____________________ methods utilising methane (natural gas), coal, (9) _____________________, or biomass gasification from (10) _____________________ of water, or by a process called thermolysis.

Listening 4

26 Listen to this extract about fuel cells and answer the questions.

1 What kind of devices are fuel cells? 2 What is the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen converted into? 3 Why do fuel cells emit few emissions? 4 What is PEMFC? 5 What do hydrogen atoms give up during the electrical process? 6 What is a cathode? 7 What is an anode? 8 Are fuel cells as efficient as petrol engines?

Speaking 5 Prepare a short presentation (3-5 minutes) about types of alternative cars.

Writing 6 What have you learnt about electric, hybrid cars and fuel cell cars? Write a short essay (150-200 words) about them following these guidelines: • • • •

differences between electric, hybrid cars and fuel cell cars advantages of using electric cars disadvantages of using electric cars advantages and the disadvantages of using fuel cell cars

VIDEO 7 Watch this video about electric cars and answer the questions. 1 How many types of electric cars are shown in the video? 2 Which one is the most suitable for city use? Why? 3 How are BEVs powered? 4 What are PHEVs?

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Motorcycling WARM UP

‘Harley-Davidson’ is the world’s most famous custom motorcycle. What does the word ‘custom’ mean?

A It’s the name of their best-seller model. B It means the owner can personalize it according to their needs/tastes. C It indicates a motorbike suited for long travels.

Harley–Davidson 100th Anniversary Tank Emblem with Chrome Bar & Shield

ACT IV IT IE S

propels: aziona row: fila lubricating: lubrificazione crank: manovella

180

Structure of a motorcycle The structure of a motorcycle is surprisingly simple. It has a petrol engine, which makes the pistons move in a rotary motion in the same way as a car, and it has a transmission system, which then transmits this motion to the back wheel. As the back wheel turns, it propels the motorcycle forward. The pistons, the cylinder block and head are inside the engine. The pistons move up and down inside the cylinder block. This is driven by explosions of a fuel/air mixture that has been ignited by a spark. Valves open and close to allow the fuel/air mixture to enter what is called the combustion chamber. Motorcycle engines can have between one and six cylinders. For years, the V-twin design was the engine of choice for motorcycle engineers worldwide. It gets its name from the fact that the two cylinders form a V shape which can be seen on most Harleys and cruisers. Parallel-twin engines have their pistons placed side by side in an upright position. This can be seen on older Hondas as well as middle-weight bikes such as the Triumph Bonneville. Another popular design is the four-cylinder, which has a higher rpm as a comparable twin which some people find smoother. The four cylinders can be placed in a row, or they can be arranged in a V-shape configuration, with two cylinders on each side of the V. Then there are boxer engines. BMW is famous for using these, and they can be seen quite visibly on the side of the bike. There are many arguments for and against about which configurations work best, but in the end it is all a matter of style and preference. The drive systems are other important features of the structure. There are three ways to get power to the back wheel: by chain, belt, or shaft. Chains are the most popular, and can be seen on most dirt bikes and smaller street bikes. They need maintenance and lubricating, but can be easily replaced from time to time. Belt drives were an older model of the chain that have been brought back recently. They pretty much do exactly the same thing but with less maintenance required. On the other hand shaft drives hardly need any maintenance. They are heavier and are often found on bigger bikes such as the R1200R. Finally, there is the spark plug, a little thing that controls the entire bike. It ignites the fuel/air mixture in the combustion chamber by creating an electrical spark which sets off a small explosion. That explosion then pushes the piston down in order to turn a crank.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 How does a motorcycle work? 2 What is found inside a motorcycle engine? 3 How many cylinders do motorcycle engines have? 4 Where does a 2-cylinder V-twin take its name from? 5 How are the four cylinders placed? 6 What engines are BMW famous for? 7 What are the ways to power the back wheel? 8 What is the function of a spark plug? MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on THEORY

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 engine 2 worldwide 3 valve 4 chain 5 belt 6 shaft 7 maintenance 8 rpm

a n a part of a tube or pipe that opens and shuts to control the flow of liquid, gas or air passing through it b n series of metal rings joined together in a line c n revolutions per minute d n the work necessary to keep something in good condition e n part of a vehicle that produces power to make it move f n in every part of the world g n long, thin piece of metal that turns and passes on power or movement to another part of the machine h n a circular band of rubber that connects or moves parts of a machine

4 Read the text about the Triumph Bonneville and complete it with the words from the box. with − status − engine − icons − most − was − by − parked − fastest

The making of an icon – The Triumph Bonneville During the happy days of motorcycling in the 1950s and 60s, the Triumph Bonneville established itself as the iconic bike of the era − a status that it retains to this day. Motorcycling (1) _________________ incredibly popular and Triumph motorcycles achieved global cult (2) _________________ thanks to films such as The Great Escape, with Steve McQueen, Rebel Without a Cause, with James Dean and The Wild One, with Marlon Brando. Even Bob Dylan and Clint Eastwood amongst other cultural (3) _________________ of the era rode Triumph bikes. Especially in the UK in the 1960s, the Triumph Bonneville became closely associated (4) _________________ rock’n’roll culture − with versions of the Bonneville being adopted (5) _________________ British Rockers as the ultimate motorcycle. London’s Rockers community met at the famous Ace Café, and Bonnevilles, or modified versions of them, were always (6) _________________ outside. The (7) _______________ popular motorcycle of the Rockers period was the Triton − a custom-built motorcycle made from a Norton Featherbed frame, and a Triumph Bonneville (8) _________________ − combining what was considered the best handling frame of the era with the (9) _________________ racing engine.

Writing 5 Write a short passage with the help of the guidelines below. • How does a motorcycle engine work? • What are cruisers? • What are the most popular Japanese bikes?

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FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

With the help of the picture write the English equivalents for these words.

window

boot _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ brake light _________________________ 11 antenna _________________________ _________________________

1 luce di stop 2 pneumatici 3 fari 4 maniglia 5 portiera 6 tettuccio 7 finestrino 8 parabrezza 9 cofano 10 portabagagli 11 antenna 12 cerchioni

roof

antenna windscreen hood

handle

door headlight

tyres hubcaps

2 Match the words with their definitions. 1 dashboard 2 fuel gauge 3 gear lever/stick 4 clutch 5 steering wheel 6 body

a n the machinery in a vehicle you use to go comfortably at different speeds b n the pedal you press in order to change gear c n the part of a car in front of the driver, which has control on it d n a wheel you turn to control the direction of a car e n the main structure of a vehicle not including the engine, wheels etc. f n an instrument for measuring the amount of fuel

3 Choose the best alternative. 1 You do not need to change clutch/gears. This is an automatic. 2 This car is very manoeuvrable because it has got power steering/a steering wheel. 3 My car has got cruise control. That is why I have not got my foot on the accelerator/brake pedal. 4 Nobody can steal my car. It has got a sophisticated car alarm and if anyone tries to drive it away without putting the key in the chassis/ignition, it has got an immobiliser that cuts the brakes/engine off. 5 Nowadays, most cars use unleaded fuel and have a catalytic converter/cylinder. 6 My new car is very environmentally-friendly: the engine runs on ethanol mixed with biodiesel/petrol.

4 Insert the words from the box to complete the sentences. ignition − combustion chamber − motion − mixture − spark plugs connecting rod − fuel − rotational motion 1 In an internal combustion engine energy is transformed into _______________________. 2 Within the engine there is a constant cycle of _______________________ and combustion. 3 Fuel is ignited by ______________________________. 4 A proper mix of _________________ and air enables the piston to function optimally. 5 In an engine the linear movement of the pistons is converted into _____________________________ by the crankshaft. 6 The piston moves down and the air/fuel _________________ is pushed into the cylinder by pressure. 7 The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a _________________________________. 8 Both compression and combustion take place in the _________________________________.

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MO DULE 7 | FOCUS on LANGUAGE

Grammar VIDEO

RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS

I pronomi e gli avverbi relativi collegano una frase, principale, a un’altra frase subordinata relativa: il pronome relativo sostituisce un sostantivo o un pronome nominato nella frase principale. I pronomi relativi in inglese sono who/that, who(m) (per le persone), which/that (per le cose e gli animali); sono invariabili in genere e numero e corrispondono in italiano ai pronomi relativi “che”, “il/la quale”, “i/le quali”. Whom è usato principalmente nella lingua formale. The man who/that works in the HR department is from Sheffield. The students who(m)/that the teacher is calling will redo the test. The car which/that I’m repairing is your uncle’s. Gli avverbi relativi where e when si usano per esprimere un complemento di luogo e di tempo, in alternativa a which preceduto da preposizione. This is the factory where (in which) both my father and my grandfather worked. I can’t forget the moment when I read ‘A+’ on the maths test!

Underline the correct option.

1 There’s a boy which/who is looking at us. 2 The train that/where goes to the airport is very old. 3 The school when/where we go to is closed today.

4 Mike has a friend who/which works part-time. 5 Do you remember the day when/whom we started this course? 6 The motorbike which/who I bought is a Yamaha.

RELATIVE CLAUSES Le frasi relative sono quelle introdotte da pronomi relativi. Si usa who per le persone, which per le cose, whose per esprimere possesso, where per i luoghi, when per il tempo. Le frasi relative possono essere defining o non-defining. La defining relative clause contiene un’informazione essenziale. Il pronome relativo complemento oggetto può essere omesso. This is the engineer who has worked on that project. (sogg.) This is the engineer (who) we spoke to yesterday. (compl. ogg.) La non-defining relative clause, solitamente racchiusa fra due virgole, contiene un’informazione non indispensabile. In questi casi si usa sempre who per le persone e which per le cose (non si usa that), che non possono mai essere omessi. Our engineer, who also designed that famous car, works for an international firm.

2 Fill in with the suitable relative pronoun. 1 Where was the man __________________ invented the diesel engine from? 2 Jim Connor is the mechanic __________________ project was accepted last month. 3 Is there a good time __________________ we can look at this plan? 4 The factory __________________ we work has just been inaugurated.

3 Decide if the following relative clauses are defining (D) or non-defining (ND). 1 Alan Woods, who is an excellent mechanical engineer, does not work in the UK any longer. ______ 2 Who was the inventor who designed the four-stroke combustion cycle? ______ 3 This is the project which I was telling you about. ______ 4 Jeremy’s office, which was renovated a year ago, is very modern. ______

Translation 4 Translate these sentences into English. 1 L’alternatore che è collegato al motore da una cinghia di trasmissione genera l’elettricità che ricarica la batteria. 2 La marmitta è quel congegno col quale il rumore del motore è mitigato. 3 L’energia dalla quale è potenziato il motore è prodotta dalla combustione.

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CLIL: Mechanics

Tesla electric truck WARM UP

Work in pairs. Answer these questions.

What is Tesla?

What is the company specialized in?

load: carico windshield: parabrezza unobstructed: non ostruita jackknifing: sbandamenti lane: corsia shifting of gears: cambi di marcia in the long run: alla lunga charge up: caricare

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MO DULE 7 | CLIL

After the breakthrough in the market of electric cars, Tesla is about to get into the trucking business by making semi-trucks for environmentally-sensitive logistics companies. Elon Musk, the founder of Tesla Motors, says that production will start in 2019, predicting the first items will hit the road by 2020. By then, Tesla won’t be the only company making trucks with semi-autonomous driving features, but being the first to announce it, Tesla are clearly hoping that they can secure early orders and set the trend. Tesla semi-truck is safer and more efficient than any diesel-powered heavy truck on the market. It will go 0 to 60 mph in just five seconds, and it will do the same thing in 20 seconds while pulling a 80,000 pound load. And for range, it can go 500 miles at highway speed, and less than 80 percent trips are at 250 miles. The most visibly striking element of the semi-truck’s design is the fact the driver is positioned in the middle of the truck cabin: surrounded by a nearly panoramic set of three windows, including the windshield, the driver has a much more unobstructed view of the road than from usual truck cabins. There are also screens on both side of the driver that show blind spot sensors, which helps with the hardest part of driving a semi. ‘You’re positioned like you’re in a race car,’ said Musk. ‘You have complete visibility of the road and all your surroundings.’ The Tesla Semi does have Tesla’s Enhanced Autopilot system, at the moment the best driver-assist system that can be seen in any production vehicle on the road. It also offers advanced safety features, with a special battery design that reinforces the battery units themselves and also helps lower the center of gravity of the truck overall thanks to their positioning in the chassis. The glass windshield is built to resist impacts, and the truck is designed to avoid jackknifing, a common problem for this class of truck, by automatically detecting any stability that could lead to this issue. It has emergency automatic braking, lane detection, and lane departure warnings. But its real wonder it’s that the truck offers a transmission that doesn’t require any shifting of gears as fully electric vehicles normally do, with regenerative braking that provides basically infinite brake life. Electric trucks could be longer-lived and less expensive to maintain in the long run, and the cost to refuel them over their lifetimes should be far less than the cost to operate a truck that uses an internal combustion engine. It also charges up at solarpowered Mega-chargers, and can get 400 miles of range on a single 30 minute charge, which can be done while you’re loading and unloading by detaching the cabin. Tesla plans to have these Mega-chargers placed worldwide to ensure that people can move from one destination to another easily and charge up without issue at both destination and origin.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 2 Answer these questions. 1 Which new business is Tesla getting into? 2 What is Tesla semi-truck most visibly striking element? 3 What is Tesla’s Enhanced Autopilot system? 4 What advanced safety measures does Tesla Semi offer? 5 What other element is real wonder? 6 What are the long-term advantages of these electric trucks? 7 How do these electric trucks charge up?

Vocabulary 3 Complete the text with the words from the box. cars − navigation − battery − screens − cabin − engine − truck − wheel − maintenance − axles

Tesla semi-truck has a (1) _____________________ instead of diesel tank. It’s automatic, and it has no gasoline (2) _____________________ or transmission, so it should require less (3) _____________________ than a normal truck. There are two Model 3 engines driving each of the rear (4) _____________________, Model 3-style press-in handles on the doors, and two Model 3 screens in the (5) _____________________, so we can see a continuity between Tesla’s (6) _____________________ and this new (7) _____________________. There isn’t a version with sleeping accommodations, however, but it sounded like a future model change might include this feature. Two (8) _____________________ dominate either side of the steering (9) _____________________, the screen to the left controls vehicle functions and settings specific to the trunk portion, while the one on the right has more typical (10) _____________________ and radio controls.

Speaking 4 Work in pairs. With the help of exercise 2 give a short summary of what you have learned about Tesla semi-truck.

Writing 5

PET You have just watched an online presentation of Tesla semi-truck. Write an email to a friend where you:

• describe the Tesla semi-truck • talk about its advantages • express opinions about its future

Write 45-50 words.

The Motor Vehicle | MO DULE 7

185

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

MOTOR VEHICLES

ENGINES

CAR SYSTEMS two-stroke

Exhaust

petrol Combustion engines

four-stroke diesel carburisation

hybrid

Fuel fuel injection

Lubrication hybrid Alternative engines

electric

Ignition

fuel cells battery Electrical sensors

petrol Fuel

Hydraulic

diesel ethanol biofuels biodiesel

Cooling

air conditioning

handbrake Braking brakes

186

MO DULE 7 | MAP your KNOWLEDGE

MODULE

8 Systems and Automation

FOCUS on THEORY

CLIL: Information Technology

The computer system Multidisciplinary field Computer automation

Virtual reality

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary Grammar

Robots in industry Nowadays industrial robots donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t just perform simple tasks; they absorb data and respond to new information. They are revolutionising the healthcare industry, the military and public safety industries, the manufacturing industry and the mining industry.

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FOCUS on THEORY

The computer system WARM UP

Have you got a computer at home? What kind of computer is it? Have you got a tablet? When did your family buy the first computer? Talk to your partner.

Blaise Pascal

Charles Babbage

beads: palline, biglie vacuum tubes: valvole termoioniche

188

The computer evolution â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Gottfried Leibniz, 1671) The word computer was first used in 1613 to describe a person who performed calculations, but now the term almost universally refers to automated electronic machinery. Its history started more than 2000 years ago in Babylonia (Mesopotamia), when the abacus, a wooden rack holding two horizontal wires with beads strung on them, came into use. First computers were used primarily for numerical calculations. In the XVI century Leonardo da Vinci drew sketches for a machine that were sufficiently complete and correct for modern engineers to build a calculator on their basis. A century later, in 1623, the first calculator was built by German astronomer and mathematician Wilhelm Schickard, but we have to wait for French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Pascal to see the production of a machine in 1644. It was called Pascaline, or Arithmetic Machine, and it was invented for Pascalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s father to help him with his tax collection job. It could only perform additions and subtractions. In 1822, Charles Babbage began developing the Difference Engine, considered the first mechanical computer or automatic computing engine. Later, in 1837, he proposed the first general mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine. The machine was designed to consist of four components: the engine, the store, the reader, and the printer. These elements are the essential components of every computer today. In 1946, nearly a century later, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer) was built by the United States. It was the first electronic digital computer which was fully functional. It occupied about 1,800 square feet, the size of a large room, and weighed almost 50 tons. They could only perform single tasks, and they had no operating system. This first generation of computers used vacuum tubes: the ENIAC used about 18,000 of them. The second generation of machines started in the 1950s; they used transistors, which were more reliable than vacuum tubes. In 1950, the UNIVAC 1101 was the first computer capable of storing and running a program from memory. During this generation of computers over 100 computer programming languages were developed. In 1953 IBM publicly introduced the 701, its first electric

MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

and mass-produced computer. The invention of the integrated circuit brought us the third generation of computers. Computers became smaller, more powerful and more reliable, able to run many different programs at the same time. In1980 Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-Dos) was launched and in 1981 IBM introduced the personal computer (PC) for home and office use. Three years later Apple created the Macintosh computer with its icon-driven interface and the 90s gave us Windows operating system. In 2010 the first iPad, a tablet computer, was unveiled. As a result of the various improvements to the development of the computer we have seen the computer being used in all areas of life. It is a very useful tool that will continue to experience new development as time passes.

Reading comprehension

operating system: sistema operativo unveiled: mostrato al pubblico

When

What

Who

400 BC

____________________________________

XVI Century

____________________________________

1613

____________________________________

1623

____________________________________

1644

____________________________________

1837

____________________________________

1946

____________________________________

1953

____________________________________

1981

____________________________________

2010

____________________________________

ACT IVITIE S

2 Read the text and complete the table with the missing information.

Speaking 3 Work in pairs. Look at the table in exercise 2. Ask and answer questions about the computer evolution. Example Student A: When was ENIAC built? Student B: It was built in 1946.

Vocabulary 4 Read the text about Steve Jobs and complete it with the words from the box. Apple − iPad − technological − battle − evolution − products − Macintosh − Computers Steve Jobs was born in 1955 in San Francisco, California. At school he showed great (1) _________________ interests. Jobs experimented with different scientific attempts before starting Apple (2)_________________ with Steve Wozniak in 1976. Together they created the (3)_________________ I and Apple II computers. In 1984, the (4)_________________ computer was launched. Apple’s revolutionary (5)_________________, which include the iPod, iPhone and (6)_________________, are now seen as dictating the (7)_________________of modern technology. He died in 2011, after a long (8) _________________ with cancer. Systems and Automation | MO DULE 8

189

WARM UP

How many hours a day do you spend on your computer activities?

motherboard: scheda madre stored: archiviati storage: archiviazione

Computer basics A computer is a complex system built from multiple components. To accomplish a task using a computer, a combination of hardware, software and input is required. The hardware consists of the physical computer and its components.

CPU The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of a computer which controls all the other parts. It consists of the control unit (CU), the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the registers. The control unit collects instructions from memory and decodes them in order to produce signals which transfer data between memory and ALU or activate peripherals to perform input or output. The CPU is usually located on the same printed circuit board, known as the motherboard.

Memory The computer memory can

MORE ABOUT... Computer networks A LAN (Local Area Network) is a computer network that covers a relatively small area such as residential homes and small office buildings. A LAN may include several devices: a router, laptops, tablets, printers, etc. Each device must have a private IP address to communicate with the other ones across a local network and the entire Internet. A WAN (Wide Area Network) is a network that covers a wide geographic area. In most cases, WAN refers to the Internet network itself.

190

be any device that holds the data and instructions that the CPU needs. The Read Only Memory (ROM) is the permanent memory used to store important programs and software to perform a variety of functions, such as booting up or starting programs. ROM contents are not lost when the power is switched off. The Random Access Memory (RAM) is the working memory of a computer system. It stores input data, programs, and other information temporarily, and it can be read and written. All its data will be lost when the power is switched off. Memory and data can be stored on external storage devices such as CD-ROMs, DVDs, USB portable hard drives or using cloud computing, a system which provides storage over the Internet.

Input/output devices

An input device is a peripheral used to transfer data from the outside world into a computer system. Typical examples include keyboards, mouses, pointing sticks, joysticks, graphic tablets, touchpads, and scanners. An output device is electronic equipment connected to a computer and used to transfer data out of the computer in the form of text, images, sounds or other media to a display screen, printer, loudspeaker or storage device.

Bus A bus is a set of conductors carrying data and control signals within a computer system, to which pieces of equipment may be connected in parallel. It contains multiple wires, or signal lines. Each wire in the bus carries a single bit of information, which means the more wires a bus has the more information it can address. For example, a computer with a 32-bit address bus can address 4GB of memory, and a computer with a 36-bit address bus can address 64GB of memory. Today all computers employ two bus types, an internal bus or local bus and an external bus, also called the expansion bus. An internal bus enables a communication between internal components such as a computer video card and memory, while an external bus is capable of communicating with external components such as USB or SCSI devices.

MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

PET Read the text and decide if these sentences are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T F n n 1 CPU, memory, input/output devices, and the bus form the software. n n 2 The CPU is a very important part of a computer. n n 3 The CPU is located on the motherboard. n n 4 You use ROM to store data temporarily. n n 5 A printer is an input device. n n 6 Output devices are used to import data onto a computer. n n 7 A bus is a connecting network. n n 8 You need an external bus to transfer data to a USB device.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents of these words in the text. 1 calcolatore _________________________________ 2 biglia ______________________________________ 3 memoria ___________________________________ 4 tubo ______________________________________ 5 affidabile __________________________________ 6 icona ______________________________________ 7 interfaccia _________________________________ 8 sistema operativo ___________________________ 9 miglioramento ______________________________ 10 sviluppo ___________________________________

Listening 4

PET Listen to this conversation about input/output devices and complete the sentences.

1 Input devices are used to introduce ____________________________________________________________ 2 The keyboard, the mouse, the joystick and the scanner are _________________________________________ 3 The keyboard is used to enter _________________________________________________________________ 4 The scanner transforms an image into __________________________________________________________ 5 Output devices are used to send _______________________________________________________________ 6 The main output devices are __________________________________________________________________

PET Listen to this extract about the computer operating system and complete it with the missing words.

The hardware of a brand new computer can do nothing without (1) ____________________. An operating system needs to (2) ___________________ between the hardware and the applications software. Once the (3) ____________________ hardware has got the software, it can activate the three main (4) ____________________ of its operating system. First of all, an operating (5) ____________________ manages the computer resources, such as CPU, memory, (6) ____________________, printers. Secondly, it establishes a user interface. Finally, it executes and provides (7) ____________________ for applications software. One of the best known operating systems is (8) ____________________, which has been developed in several versions by (9) ____________________. Nowadays it is used worldwide and it comes as a standard component of the computer. Systems and Automation | MO DULE 8

191

WARM UP

What do you use the Internet for? Name at least three functions.

lumped: raggruppati shared: condivisi wireless: senza fili headset: cuffia con microfono

Internet basics The Internet started in the late 1960s as an American government project and then evolved into a spectacular worldly network. The Internet, also called the Net, is a worldwide interconnection of computer networks. All computers on the Internet can be lumped into two groups: servers and clients. In a network, clients and servers communicate with one another. A server is the common source that provides shared services (for example, network security measures) with other machines; it also manages resources (for example, one printer used by different people) in a network. The term server is often used to describe the hardware (computer), but it also refers to the software (application) running on the computer. Many servers are dedicated, which means they only perform specific tasks. For example: an email server is a computer that has software running on it allowing it to ‘serve’ email related services, whereas a web server has software running on it that allows it to ‘serve’ web related services. The Internet houses many layers of information. Each layer is dedicated to a different kind of documentation. These different layers are called protocols. The most popular protocols are the World Wide Web, FTP, Telnet, instant messaging, and email. The World Wide Web has become the most popular form of communication. It is a system of interlinked hypertext documents (HTML: hypertext markup language). With a web browser (for example Google Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer, Safari), users can surf the Internet moving from site to site. This invention is the work of one man: Tim Berners-Lee, who has fought to keep it open and free. Nobody owns or controls the Internet or the World Wide Web, although millions of individuals and organizations control their own piece of it. Wireless communication between small mobile devices is possible thanks to a system called Bluetooth. Bluetooth is a technology developed to replace cables and wires. It is a communication protocol that uses radio frequencies to establish common talking points between compatible devices. The most common applications include wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a headset; a mobile phone and a Bluetooth compatible car stereo system; with tablets and speakers such as iPad and Android devices; with PC input/output devices such as mouse, keyboard and printer; wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.

WiFi is a technology that uses radio waves to provide network connectivity. A WiFi network makes use of radio waves to transmit information to the devices connected across the network. In order to access the network, computers should include a wireless adapter that will translate data into a radio signal. This same signal will be transmitted, via an antenna, to a decoder known as the router. As the wireless network works as a two-way traffic, the data received from the internet will also pass through the router to be coded into a radio signal that will be received by the computer’s wireless adapter. Usually, an area where WiFi access is available is called hotspot. It can either be through a closed wireless network at home or in public places such as restaurants or airports or even public parks. The most widely accepted definition for the term WiFi is Wireless Fidelity, even if it has never been confirmed. 192

MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

MORE ABOUT... Security is becoming more and more a crucial feature for websites. The most common security protocol is the HTTPS, that is HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol) plus an s, which stands for secure. HTTP is the primary technology protocol on the Web that allows linking and browsing; HTTPS creates a secure encrypted connection between the web server and the web browser. Without HTTPS, any data passed is insecure. This protocol in now used by all websites where financial data are required (banks, e-commerce) or simply where sensitive data must be entered by the user.

2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is a network? 2 What is the Internet? 3 What is the WWW?

4 What does a server provide? 5 What is Bluetooth? 6 Can Wi-Fi be used in indoor areas only?

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 hypertext 2 email

a n a computer program used to navigate the World Wide Web b n a set of headphones with a microphone used especially in telephony and radio communication 3 protocol c n a set of rules governing the transmission of data between devices 4 server d n electronic message distributed from one computer user to one or more recipients via a network 5 browser e n a computer or computer program which manages access to a centralised resource or service in a network 6 wireless f n using radio or microwaves (as opposed to wires or cables) to transmit signals 7 headset g n the transmission capacity of a computer network or other telecommunication systems 8 bandwidth h n a way of writing computer documents that makes it possible to move from one Internet document to another by clicking on words or pictures

ACT IVITIE S

Reading comprehension

Listening 4

PET Listen to an expert talking about how to use the Internet safely. Complete the text with the missing words. 29

The first rule of Internet safety is: keep (1) ____________ secret. So treat your passwords with as much care as the information that they protect. Keep your passwords hidden, even from (2) ____________. Never provide your password over email or in response to an email request. Any email (3) ____________ that requests your password or wants you to go to a (4) ____________ to verify your password could be a kind of fraud called a phishing scam. This includes requests from trusted (5) ____________ that you might visit all the time. Fraudsters often create fake email messages with (6) ____________ and language from real sites. Do not type passwords on (7) ____________ you do not control.

Writing 5 Write a short article for your school magazine about wireless technology. Explain the most common Internet protocols and their uses.

Systems and Automation | MO DULE 8

193

Multidisciplinary field WARM UP

An example of mechatronic system is an industrial robot. Which of the following aspects does a robot include to perform its job?

A electronics

B electronics and mechanics

C electronics, mechanics and computing

MORE ABOUT... The term â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;mechatronicsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; was coined by Tetsuro Mori, the senior engineer of the Japanese company Yaskawa in 1969. An industrial robot is a prime example of a mechatronics system; it includes aspects of electronics, mechanics and computing to do its day-to-day jobs.

ACT IV IT IE S

merging: incorporando sensors: sensori fly-by-wire: sistema di comando di volo assistito da computer

194

Mechatronics A combination of mechanics and electronics has given origin to a multidisciplinary branch of engineering applied in a great variety of fields commonly known as mechatronics.The name mechatronics stems from mechanical and electronics and is a relatively new approach to product design and development, merging the principles of electrical, mechanical, computer and industrial engineering. It addresses the four interconnected disciplines used for all complex modern devices. Mechatronic systems are typically composed of traditional mechanical and electrical components but are referred to as smart devices or systems because of the incorporation of sensors, actuators and computer control systems. Over the years, the term mechatronics has come to mean the integrated methodology for designing products that exhibit fast, precise performances. Mechatronics engineering is the design of computer-controlled electromechanical systems. It can be viewed as modern mechanical engineering design in the sense that the design of the mechanical system must be performed together with that of the electrical/electronic and computer control aspects that comprise the complete system. Some examples of mechatronic systems include: a CD or DVD player; a computer hard disc drive; a fly-by-wire aircraft control system; an antilock braking system (ABS), and an MP3 player. Each of these products is essentially mechanical in nature, but could not function without the integral design of the electrical and computer control systems that are critical to its operation.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is mechatronics? 2 What are mechatronic systems composed of? 3 Why are they called smart devices? 4 What is mechatronic engineering? 5 Give some examples of mechatronic systems you can find in your everyday life.

MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

Robotics is the application of mechatronics and automation to create robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are pre-programmed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics to determine the robotâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s range of motion and mechanics to determine the stresses within the robot. Robots are used extensively in industrial engineering. They allow businesses to save money on labour, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform economically, and to ensure better quality. Many companies employ assembly lines of robots, especially in Automotive Industries and some factories are so robotised that they can run by themselves. For example, the process of painting a car body with industrial robotic arms is very frequent. As painting is a hard and toxic process, the use of painting robots is quite profitable and safe. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications, from recreation to domestic chores. The word â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;roboticsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; was first used in print by Isaac Asimov in his science fiction short story Liar.

ACT IV IT IE S

Robotics

Reading comprehension 3

PET Read both texts and choose the correct option.

1 Robotics is... A the application of mechanical drawing to create robots. B the application of electronics to create robots. C a technical system to create robots. D the application of mechatronics to create robots. 2 Robots are often used to perform... A pleasant tasks. B easy tasks. C high-risk tasks which are also unpleasant and repetitive. D high-risk, unpleasant and occasional tasks.

3 Kinematics is employed to... A shape the robot. B determine its range of motion. C pre-program the robot. D determine the stresses within the robot. 4 Robots are... A only used to save money on labour. B used to slow down the manufacturing process. C used to provide more jobs. D used to ensure better quality, precision and more safety for humans.

Vocabulary 4 Write a noun deriving from the verb given. 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to

combine _________________________________ develop _________________________________ explore __________________________________ repeat __________________________________

5 to 6 to 7 to 8 to

move ___________________________________ perform _________________________________ assemble ________________________________ employ __________________________________

Writing 5 Write a short paragraph (about 50-80 words) about the fields of human activities in which robots can be usefully employed.

Systems and Automation | MO DULE 8

195

WARM UP

What does CAD stand for? What is the main feature of CAD?

closed-loop: a circuito chiuso bridges the gap: getta un ponte, colma una lacuna seamless: continuo scaled up/down: ingrandito/rimpicciolito shadowing: ombreggiatura rendering: disegno prospettico

MORE ABOUT...

ACT IV IT IE S

The field of computeraided design (or CAD) originated during the late 1950s and early 1960s with the development of several computer programs including Sketchpad, a rudimentary graphics interaction program developed by Ivan Sutherland at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1963. Since then, computerbased tools have offered designers, engineers, architects, and other constructors newer, faster, and more precise possibilities for realising their ideas at a rapidly evolving pace.

196

Automated factory organization Modern manufacturing factories tend to automate their production. Each department of an automated factory uses processes which function under computer control and digital information which links them together. Automated systems perform repetitive tasks. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is the manufacturing approach of using computers to control the entire production process. This integration allows individual processes to exchange information with each other and initiate actions. Typically CIM relies on closed-loop control processes, based on real-time inputs from sensors. CIM bridges the gap between CAD and CAM. It provides a seamless solution with a common interface for design and manufacturing. The heart of computer integrating manufacturing is CAD/CAM. CAD/CAM is a high technology integrating tools between design and manufacturing. Several machine tools are linked together by a material-handling system, and a central computer controls every aspect of the system. This technology is also called Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS). Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems are essential to reducing cycle times in the organisation. CAD is a program which allows designers to create two- or three-dimensional shapes. Every drawing can be stored to be reused, dimensioned, rotated or scaled up and down. The model can be transformed by the technique of shadowing or rendering to make it look like a photo of a real object. Designers can even simulate a test of the object on the computer screen using a solid modelling technique, so avoiding the cost of building and testing a prototype. CAM is data processing assistance in preparing programs and production plans. A CAM program turns the information which comes from the CAD department into a machine language understandable by machine tools.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is CIMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main function? 4 What does CAM stand for? 2 Which main computerised technologies does CIM 5 What is CAMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main function? use? 6 What does FMS stand for? 3 Does CAD usually work alongside another 7 Explain why FMS is a form of highly integrated system? automation. MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

3 Find synonyms for the following words. 1 connect ___________________________________ 2 cut ________________________________________ 3 permit _____________________________________ 4 forms _____________________________________

5 resemble ___________________________________ 6 put away ___________________________________ 7 make ______________________________________ 8 revolve ____________________________________

Listening 4

PET Listen to this expert talking about CIM and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. 30

ACTIVITIE S

Vocabulary

T F 1 CIM is the system by which different stages of the design process are linked to a central computer system. 2 The CIM computer system coordinates the stages of the process. 3 The software contained in the central computer is the most important part of the system. 4 The software automatically updates any changes made and alerts all the related stages. 5 The updating and alerting of all the related stages takes a lot of time. 6 The use of machines has reduced human labour.

n n n n n n

Writing 5 Write a short passage (about 50 words) dealing with the advantages of CAD with the help of the guidelines below.

• Types of designs that can be created. • Economic aspects.

• Use of existing designs. • Possibilities of transforming the model.

6 The Department of Mechanical Engineering, New Horizon College of Engineering, Bangalore, wants to advertise a new course about Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM). Write a short ad to promote it.

VIDEO 7 Watch this video about factory automation and answer the questions. 1 How are those systems designed? 2 What do they use before building the palletizing system? What happens next? 3 What does this system use? 4 What is used to move cases into the system?

Systems and Automation | MO DULE 8

197

WARM UP

Give a few examples of automated systems in daily life.

outgrowth: risultato encoded: codificate punched: perforato hydraulic tracer system: sistema traccialinee idraulico template: sagoma, modello taper attachments: accessori per tornitura conica catch on with: diffondersi presso loaned: dette in prestito

Numerical control and CNC CNC is the acronym for Computer Numerical Control. It is an outgrowth of the older term NC, which stands for just Numerical Control. Numerical control is the automation of machine tools that are operated by precisely programmed commands encoded on a storage medium, as opposed to controlled manually via hand wheels or levers, or mechanically automated via CAM alone. Most NC today is computer numerical control, in which computers play an integral part of the control. In modern CNC systems, end-to-end component design is highly automated using computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) programs. CNC employs computers in the manufacturing process of metal parts, equipment and machines and CNC machines form the most extensively used class of computer-aided manufacturing equipment. Industrial applications include CNC lathes, milling machines, sheet metal presses, welding equipment and materials-handling equipment. In a CNC system a machine tool is controlled through text strings that represent specific movements and actions. Therefore, CNC refers to the idea of controlling machine tools programmatically via a computer. With the older NC term, a computer does not need to be involved. For example, the machine might be controlled using punched tape. NC, and later CNC, allowed for tremendous increases in productivity for machine tools because the machines could be run automatically without requiring constant attention from their operator. Before the advent of such automation, there was less automation opportunity in the form of hydraulic tracer systems. Such systems used hydraulics to make the cutting tools of a lathe or mill follow a template. The taper attachments available for many manual lathes are not unlike the hydraulic tracer capability, but the tracer is capable of more elaborate templates than simple tapers. However the advent of first NC and then later CNC radically increased the amount of automation that was possible.

MORE ABOUT... The first commercial NC machines were built in the 1950s, and ran from punched tape. While the concept immediately proved it could save costs, it was so different that it was very slow to catch on with manufacturers. In order to promote more rapid adoption, the US Army bought 120 NC machines and loaned them to various manufacturers so they could become more familiar with the idea. By the end of the 50s, NC was starting to catch on, though there were still a number of issues. For example, g-code, the nearly universal language of CNC in use, did not exist. Each manufacturer was pushing its own language for defining part programs, the programs the machine tools execute to create a part.

198

MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

2 Read the text and complete the sentences with the missing words. 1 CNC is the __________________ for Computer Numerical Control. 2 With the older NC __________________, a computer does not need to be involved. 3 The __________________ might be controlled using punched tape, for example. 4 In CNC __________________ play an integral part of the control. 5 In modern CNC systems, end-to-end component design is highly ________________. 6 CNC allowed for tremendous increases in __________________ for machine tools. 7 The machines could be run automatically without requiring constant attention from their __________________. 8 Before the advent of such automation, there was less automation opportunity in the form of __________________ tracer systems.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

3 Read the text again and answer the questions. 1 What does CNC stand for? 2 What is the main advantage of CNC? 3 Which system was used before the advent of CNC? 4 What was the forerunner of the CNC system? 5 When were the first machines built? 6 Give a few examples of CNC industrial applications.

Vocabulary 4 Match the words with their definitions. 1 drafting 2 manufacturer 3 coding 4 outgrowth 5 template 6 operator

a n a company that makes large quantities of goods b n something that develops from something else as a natural result of it c n shaping something that will need to be changed before it is in its finished form d n a thin sheet of plastic or metal in a special shape or pattern, used to help cut other materials in a similar shape e n someone who uses or controls a machine f n a system of marking something with letters, symbols, etc. so that facts about it can be understood by someone who knows the system

Writing 5 There are some disadvantages connected to the use of CNC machines. Write a short paragraph (about 70 words) about these disadvantages with the help of the guidelines below.

• CNC machines are more expensive than manually operated machines. • Fewer workers are needed – unemployment is a consequence. • Operators are less skilled than those operating manually. Poor knowledge of engineering skills.

Speaking 6 Prepare a short presentation about the advantages and the disadvantages of CNC. Give your personal opinion. These sentences can help you.

• Let me start with some of the main advantages of CNC... • However, there are also a few disadvantages... • Personally I think / In my opinion...

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Computer automation WARM UP

What sorts of jobs can robots perform in a factory? Discuss your opinion with your partner.

ACTIVITIE S

chores: lavori di routine injurious: dannoso

Robots As robots grow in number and complexity, they are more widely used in industry. Industrial robots can be manufactured in a wide range of sizes and can therefore handle much larger tasks than a human can. In addition, robots are useful in environments that are unpleasant or dangerous for people to work in. Robots were initially retained to perform precise welding chores and other repetitive tasks that humans had long found boring, monotonous and injurious. By using robots to weld, handle dangerous objects and place items, auto manufacturers were able to ensure a consistent product with a minimum of worker injury. Currently, 50 percent of all robots in use are used in automobile manufacture. Robots do not think for themselves, and must rely on humans to provide instructions. To make a robot work, a computer program is installed on its controller computer. This provides a set of precise, carefully timed instructions that tells the robot where to place things, how to rotate them, where to weld and how to perform all of its other tasks. Also robots can work in more extreme environments on their own, or they can work alongside humans, assisting them in their day-to-day jobs such as moving or rotating a car so humans can work on parts of it that would normally be difficult to reach. The most advanced robots are often equipped with machine vision subsystems: those systems are linked to powerful computers and act as their visual sensors. The latest advancements of artificial intelligence are becoming more and more a crucial factor in the development of industrial robotics.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is meant by robotics? 2 What are the main conditions under which robots act? 3 List some of the advantages of using robots. 4 What are some typical applications of industrial robots? 5 What do the most advanced robots feature?

Listening 3

31 A roboticist is talking about the advantages of robots in the automotive industry. Listen and fill in the gaps to complete the passage.

Robots have been very useful to the (1) ____________ industry. They have significantly reduced worker (2) ____________, including repetitive stress injuries and more significant accidents that can do major harm. Additionally, (3) ____________ turn out a more consistent product at a significantly cheaper cost than humans. In the 1970s, American auto manufacturers were criticised for the poor quality and bad (4) ____________ of their vehicles. Currently, robotic-assisted auto manufacturing allows a (5) ____________ to be made with much more precise (6) ____________, closer tolerances and more accurate engineering overall than can be achieved with human help. Finally, robots save on the cost of (7) ____________. There are no sick days, strikes, work slowdowns or other problems that can crop up with (8) ____________. Robots can, in fact, work around the clock with a minimum of human (9) ____________. 200

MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

Drones

WARM UP

Technologically speaking, a drone is any unmanned aircraft or ship that is guided remotely, either navigated manually with a remote control or operated with software that works with a GPS system. A drone is made from different light composite materials in order to increase manoeuvrability while flying and reduce weight. It can be equipped with a variety of additional equipment, including cameras, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), GPS guided missiles, navigation systems, sensors, and so on. There are different variations in the frame and construction of drones, but the essential components that every drone must have is a waterproof motor frame, flight and motor controllers, motors, transmitter and receiver, propellers, and batteries or any other source of energy. What makes these unmanned aircraft remarkable is their great flight capability and very stable flight: they can hover and even perform acrobatics in the air. Until recent years, drones have been commonly associated most with the military, search and rescue operations and firefighting, but a growing variety of human activities are beginning to employ drones because of their huge commercial potential: • weather monitoring: drones fly under the clouds, taking clearer images than satellites’ ones; • small parcels delivery: using drones will make the company’s services faster, and would also be a much more environmentally-friendly way of delivery than using trucks; • entertainment industry: media mostly use drones for advertising, filmmaking and photograph; • mapping: thanks to multi-spectral cameras and laser scanners, drones are able to create high-quality 3D maps; • security and surveillance: since drones allow recording and monitoring from the sky, they are suitable to monitor private events as well as public ones.

Can you think of three ways of using drones?

propellers: eliche remarkable: notevole, degno di nota capability: capacità

These are just some areas in which drones are used today; their technology is growing very fast, so their future uses are really unpredictable!

MORE ABOUT... The smallest drones on the planet are divided into two groups: nano and mini drones. Nano drones are the smallest ones: they usually have the same dimensions as insects; mini drones can be up to 50 cm in length: they have more powerful electric motors and better features than nano drones. In general, both categories are used by the military, in spying and smaller tasks, since they can be easily maneuvered and they can reach remote locations.

A CT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 2 Answer these question. 1 What are the essential components that every drone must have? 2 What is the most remarkable feature of a drone? 3 Why are drones used in delivery? 4 How should drones be equipped with to produce high-quality 3D maps?

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents for these words in the text. 1 senza equipaggio 2 a distanza 3 impermeabile 4 velivolo

__________________ __________________ __________________ __________________

5 manovrabilità 6 consegna 7 acrobazie 8 monitoraggio

__________________ __________________ __________________ __________________

Speaking 4 Work in pairs. In turns, ask and answer questions about new uses of drones in the near future. Systems and Automation | MO DULE 8

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WARM UP

Choose the correct answer.

A sensor is:

A communication technology for more comfort at home

B an input device converting a physical parameter into a signal

C a device that allows remote controlling of household appliances by an external computer

device: dispositivo displayed: esposti transducer: trasduttore smart sensors: sensori intelligenti pressure strain: sforzo di pressione

202

Sensors A sensor is a device that allows us to sense and measure the environment. It converts a physical parameter into a signal that can be measured electrically. Thanks to them, we can change the surrounding variations of light, heat, pressure, temperature, positions and many other physical data into electric signals that can be directly displayed or processed by the control unit of a system. We call them sensors but only the part that picks up the physical information to be measured is the sensor, while the part that translates this information into electrical signals that can be easily read by the control unit is the transducer.

MORE ABOUT... Sensors can be analogue or digital. Analogue sensors produce a signal that is proportional to the measured quantity, digital sensors have numeric or digital outputs which are easily transferred to computers.

Smart sensors Sensors are essential components of every industrial automated process. The development of silicon micro-machined sensors enables physical transducers to be integrated with control and signal processing electronics in a single, very compact, package. This type of smart sensors is revolutionizing the design of sensor systems. Sensors are becoming smarter, more accurate and cheaper. Every year hundreds of millions of sensors are manufactured in about every imaginable field, ready to be used in almost all objects around us.

Types of sensors There are many kinds of sensors, almost one type for each human activity: acoustic, ultrasonic, chemical. Sensors are mainly classified in mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal and magnetic. Mechanical sensors are used for measuring quantities such as position, velocity, force, shape, pressure strain and mass. Examples of mechanical sensors are manometers and barometers (they both measure pressure), accelerometer (they measure vibrations), anemometers (they measure the wind force), and so on. Electrical sensors are used for measuring current, voltage, conductivity; they are used to manufacture voltmeters, metal detectors, and even RADAR systems. Optical sensors, or in their simplest form, optical proximity sensors, operate by breaking a light beam which falls onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell; they are found in laser systems, medical imaging, and in things as common as automatic faucet, sliding doors and street lamps. Thermal sensors are used for measuring temperature, conductivity and specific heat; they are used in thermometers and thermostats, as well in resistors. Magnetic sensors are used for measuring magnetic field, flux and permeability; they are used in almost every industry for the most accurate measuring, but you can find them even in lifts, elevators and access control in banks, shops, ecc.

MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

Tactile and visual sensors Depending on their method of sensing, sensors are classified as tactile sensors and visual sensors.

Tactile sensing is the detection and measurement of the spatial distribution of forces perpendicular to a predetermined area, and the subsequent elaboration and interpretation of the spatial information. A tactile-sensing array can be considered to be a coordinated group of touch sensors. They are employed with robots handling fragile objects because they can sense and measure the force being used. Their main field of application, but obviously not the only one, is the medical field with all the relating ones, where high-precision with gentle handling is mandatory. Touch and tactile sensors are devices which measure the parameters of a contact between the sensor and an object, or between the sensor and the environment it’s interacting in. Touch sensing refers to the detection and measurement of a contact force at a defined point. Touch sensors are highly-precise mechanical sensors: they are used in robotics, computer hardware and security systems. A touch sensor can also be restricted to binary information, namely ‘touch’, and ‘no touch’.

array: rete handling: che maneggiano sense: percepire (con i sensi) mandatory: obbligatorio image processing: elaborazione delle immagini storage: memoria patterns: forme

In Visual Sensing a network of spatially distributed smart cameras devices is employed to process and fuse images of a scene from a variety of viewpoints into some form more useful than the individual images. The network generally consists of the cameras themselves, which have some local image processing, communication and storage capabilities where the image data amount from multiple cameras is further processed and fused. While most sensors measure values such as temperature or pressure, visual sensors measure patterns. In light of this, communication in visual sensor networks differs substantially from traditional sensor networks. Visual sensing proves its utmost utility in applications involving area surveillance, tracking, and environmental monitoring. Another field of application of visual sensor networks is telecommunications, where the network would automatically select the best view of a live event.

2 Match the two parts of the sentences. 1 A sensor is a device that allows 2 The transducer translates the physical information 3 Mechanical, electrical, magnetic and thermal are 4 Digital sensors have digital outputs 5 Tactile sensing measures the parameter of contact 6 Communication in visual sensors networks

n the main sensor classifications. a n that are easily transferred to computers. b n to sense and measure the environment. c n between the sensor and an object. d n differs greatly from traditional sensor networks. e n into electrical signals. f

3 Answer these questions.

A CT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

1 What is the function of sensors? 2 What are smart sensors? 3 What are the main sensor classifications? 4 How are analogue sensors different from digital ones? 5 How are sensors classified depending on their methods of sensing? 6 What do visual sensors measure?

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MORE ABOUT...

ACTIVITIE S

Every touch panel as a smartphone or tablet display works thanks to sensors. These devices allow users to interact with a computer by touching the screen directly: the pressure-sensitive sensors incorporated into the monitor detect touch actions and make it possible to issue instructions to a computer by having it sense the position of a finger or stylus. Essentially, it becomes a device fusing the two functions of display and input. The monitor features a simple internal structure: a glass screen and a film screen separated by a narrow gap, each with a transparent electrode film (electrode layer) attached. Pressing the surface of the screen presses the electrodes in the film and the glass to come into contact, resulting in the flow of electrical current. The point of contact is identified by detecting this change in voltage. Touch panels are intuitive: since they can be used for input through direct contact with icons and buttons, they’re easy to understand and easily used, even by people unaccustomed to using computers. Touch panels also contribute to miniaturization and simplification of devices by combining display and input into a single piece of equipment.

Listening 4

32 Listen to this passage about smart sensors and complete it with the words from the box.

smart − applications − manufacturers − sensor availability − individual − programmed − integration The benefits of smart sensors are gained by putting computing resources on the (1) _________________ itself. The processing of data is performed within each (2) _________________ sensor, rather than at a central system controller as in most traditional systems. Unlike a traditional sensor which outputs data that are not organized, examined or developed, a (3) _________________ sensor outputs only useful information. Furthermore, smart sensors may be dynamically (4) _________________ as user requirements change. This will decrease the need for expensive, application-specific sensors, because cheap, programmable, general-purpose sensors will be adequate for most (5) _________________. A smart silicon-based sensor will allow straightforward (6) _________________ of sensors into systems, and consequently enable computer-aided engineering work. Instead of designing a multitude of different sensors for individual applications, (7) _________________ need only to produce a small variety of smart silicon-based sensors that can be dynamically programmed to suit many different user needs. Finally, the low cost and wide (8) _________________ of smart sensors will significantly reduce the cost and time required to design, repair, or modify sensor systems.

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. In turns, ask and answer these questions. 1 What is the difference between traditional sensors and smart sensors? 2 How is a traditional sensor usually designed? 3 What are the limits of traditionally designed sensors? 4 How are the benefits of smart sensors achieved? 5 What are the advantages of smart sensors?

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MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

Domotics

WARM UP

The word domotics is a combination of the Latin word domus, which means ‘house’, with informatics. It means home automation. Domotics is a science which integrates information, technology, electro-technics and electronics with the aim to make a home become ‘smart’. We could say that the building starts to develop ‘its own intelligence’, which is not characterised by the amount of high technology it contains, but by how the integration of the technologies is projected and these technologies are able to satisfy the individuals’ needs, which are always evolving. With domotics technology it is possible to increase the comfort quality of the domestic space. Domotics involves the control and automation of lighting, heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC), and security, as well as home appliances such as washers, refrigerators, ovens, etc. Home devices, when remotely monitored and controlled via the Internet, are an important constituent of the Internet of Things.

MORE ABOUT... The American Association of Housebuilders first used the term smart house in 1984. By the end of the 1990s, any system combining informatics and telematics, which made household activities easier, was called domotics.

Home automation Automation is one of the main characteristics of domotics. It is a technology which has evolved from mechanization, that is machines carrying out tasks previously performed by humans, including machinery able to make decisions and which have a self-controlling system. Automation is possible thanks to advances in digital electronics and computer science which allow feedback control, machine programming and decision making. The programming may include time-related commands, such as having your lights turn on or off at specific times each day. It can also include non-scheduled events, such as turning on all the lights in your home when your security system alarm is triggered. Once you start to understand the possibilities of home automation scheduling, you can come up with any number of useful and creative solutions to make your life better.

Home automation is also called domotics. Can you guess which two words have been implied in the term?

2 Examples of domotics in daily life are turning off the lights when no one is around, or reducing automatically the air conditioning when the external temperature goes down. In pairs, find other examples around you.

home appliances: elettrodomestici ovens: forni triggered: innescato scheduling: programmazione

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cutting-edge: all’avanguardia camera: telecamera hands-on control: controllo diretto power outlets: prese di corrente electronic locks: protezioni elettroniche

Remote Control The other main characteristic of cutting-edge home automation is remote monitoring and access. While a limited amount of one-way remote monitoring has been possible for some time, it’s only since the rise in smartphones and tablets that we’ve had the ability to truly connect to our home networks while we’re away. With the right home automation system, you can use any Internet-connected device to view and control the system itself and any attached devices. Monitoring apps can provide a wealth of information about your home, from the status of the current moment to a detailed history of what has happened up to now. You can check your security system’s status, whether the lights are on, whether the doors are locked, what the current temperature of your home is and much more. With cameras as part of your home automation system, you can even pull up real-time video feeds and literally see what’s going on in your home while you’re away. Even simple notifications can be used to perform many important tasks. You can program your system to send you a text message or an email whenever your security system registers a potential problem. The real hands-on control comes in when you start interacting with the home automation system from your remote app. In addition to arming and disarming your security system, you can reprogram the scheduling, lock and unlock doors, reset the thermostat and adjust the lights all from your phone, from anywhere in the world. As manufacturers are creating more and more smart devices and appliances all the time, the possibilities for home automation are virtually limitless.

Home automation components Anything that can be connected to a network can be automated and controlled remotely. In the real world, home automation most commonly connects simple binary devices. This includes ‘on-and-off’ devices such as lights, power outlets and electronic locks, but also devices such as security sensors which have only two states, ‘open’ and ‘closed’. Where home automation becomes truly ‘smart’ is in the Internet-enabled devices that attach to this network and control it. The classic control unit is the home computer, for which many of the earlier home automation systems were designed. Manufacturers have produced a wide variety of smart devices, many of which are full of innovative features but few of which offer the kind of integration needed to be part of a complete home automation system. For the time being, the home security providers that specialize in home automation have focused on the most critical and useful parts of a connected home. At a basic level, this means the doors and windows and environmental devices (thermostat, smoke detectors, temperature, humidity, fire and carbon dioxide sensors) that keep you safe and comfortable. For additional real-time security, convenience and control, home automation systems from security providers should also include options for video cameras. 206

MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on THEORY

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones. T F

1 A home becomes ‘smart’ when the integration of high technologies aims at the satisfaction of individuals’ needs. 2 Automation is possible thanks to the advances of mechanization. 3 Remote monitoring and access are just a secondary aspect of home automation. 4 Monitoring apps can provide a wealth of information about your home. 5 Even with cameras your home automation system can’t show you what’s going on in your house when you are out. 6 At the moment the experts specialized in home security automation have focused on the most critical and useful parts of a connected home.

n n n n

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

3 Answer these questions. 1 What 2 What 3 What 4 What

kind of science is domotics? 5 What are the advances brought in monitoring with does HVAC stand for? the rise of smartphones and tablets? kind of machinery does automation include? 6 What are the functions of digital electronics and is meant by simple binary device? computer science in automation?

Vocabulary 4 Complete the text about the advantages of home automation with the words from the box. energy − lighting − devices − cooling − saving − advantage temperature − heating − outlets − thermostats One clear (1) ____________ of home automation is the unmatched potential for energy (2) ____________, and therefore cost savings. Your thermostat is already ‘smart’ in the sense that it uses a (3) ____________ threshold to govern the home’s heating and (4) ____________ system. In most cases, (5) ____________ can also be programmed with different target temperatures in order to keep (6) ____________ usage at a minimum during the hours when you’re least likely to benefit from the (7)____________ and cooling. At the most basic level, home automation extends that scheduled programmability to (8) ____________, so that you can suit your energy usage to your usual daily schedule. With more flexible home automation systems, electrical (9) ____________ or even individual (10) ____________ can also be automatically powered down during hours of the day when they’re not needed.

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. Use the words from the box in exercise 4 to formulate sentences about the issue in this chapter. Example: Student A: One of the advantages of domotics technology is that it increases the comfort quality of the domestic space. Student B: One of Home Automation’s benefits is its saving of energy consumption.

Writing 6 Using the guidelines below write a short passage where you describe how a simple home automation system works.

STEP STEP STEP STEP

1: Install a network (with HVAC and other systems). 2: Sensors check a variety of information in the home: light, heat… 3: Computer evaluates data and responds to the information received. 4: Install a device for external communication which will allow the owner…

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FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

Match words and pictures.

1 keyboard 2 modem 3 monitor 4 printer 5 mouse 6 hard drive 7 scanner

B C

G E

2 Match the words and their definitions. 1 mouse 2 scanner 3 monitor 4 browser 5 RAM 6 HTML 7 hotspot 8 WWW

a n an area where WiFi access is availabe b n acronym for HyperText Markup Language c n acronym for Random Access Memory d n it allows written or printed information to be taken onto a computer and stored e n the most popular and comprehensive of the Internet networks f n the primary device for displaying information from the computer g n a small device for navigating and interacting with the computer, by moving the cursor h n a program which allows surfing the net

3 Complete the sentences with the words from the box. sensor − application − radio waves − byte − icon − menu − domotics − cloud − gigabyte − hard drive 1 A piece of computer information made up of eight bits is a ________________________________________. 2 A ____________________ is a virtual space where you can store your data. 3 A large capacity storage device made of multiple disks housed in a rigid case is a_____________________. 4 WiFi is a technology that uses ____________________ to provide network connectivity. 5 A ____________________ converts a physical parameter into a signal that can be measured electrically. 6 A list of program commands listed by topic is a__________________________________________________. 7 ____________________ is the combination of informatics and telematics. 8 A graphic symbol for an application, file or folder is an____________________________________________. 9 A program in which you do your work is an______________________________________________________. 10 1 ____________________ = 1024 megabytes.

4 Basic computer terminology: choose the correct option. 1 A copy of a file or disk you make for archiving purposes is a document/a backup. 2 File/application menu is the generic word for an application, document, control panel or other computer data. 3 To move the mouse while its button is being depressed is to digitise/to drag. 4 Control panel/database is a program that allows you to change settings in a program or change the way a Mac looks and behaves. 5 To transfer data from one computer to another if you are on the receiving end is to download/to drag. 6 A file you create, as opposed to the application which created it, is a document/a backup. 7 The file/application menu is on the right side of the screen header and lists running applications. 8 An electronic list of information that can be sorted and/or searched is a control panel/database.

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MO DULE 8 | FOCUS on LANGUAGE

Grammar VIDEO

PAST SIMPLE

Si usa il Past simple per indicare azioni avvenute e conclusesi nel passato. Solitamente è accompagnato da avverbi e espressioni di tempo come yesterday, last year, two days ago, etc. Il Past simple dei verbi regolari nella forma affermativa si ottiene aggiungendo -ed all’infinito senza to: In 1953, IBM introduced its first mass produced computer. • L’ausiliare per la forma negativa e per la forma interrogativa è did/didn’t per tutte le persone: - Did Babbage complete the Analytical Engine? - No, he didn’t. His son completed only a portion of the machine. I verbi irregolari hanno forme passate diverse tra loro: The 90s gave us Windows operating system. Computers of the first generation had no operating systems.

VIDEO

PRESENT PERFECT

Si usa il Present perfect per parlare di azioni avvenute in un tempo non precisato del passato o in un tempo non ancora concluso. Solitamente è accompagnato da avverbi e congiunzioni come recently, ever e never, already, yet, just, for e since, etc. Modern science has recently developed new technological devices.

Complete the sentences with the Past simple.

1 The abacus ______________________ (come) into use more than 2000 years ago. 2 In 1991, the London Science Museum ______________________ (complete) Babbage’s Difference Engine. 3 The ENIAC ______________________ (use) about 18,000 vacuum tubes. 4 The ENIAC ______________________ (weigh) almost 50 tons. 5 UNIVAC 1101 ______________________ (run) a program from memory. 6 In 1953, IBM ______________________ (introduce) the first personal computer. 7 The first iPad ______________________ (arrive) on the market in 2010. 8 Steve Jobs ______________________ (die) in 2011.

2 Past simple or Present perfect? 1 Why ______________________ (come) so late from work yesterday? 2 ___________________ you ___________________ (already/started) the course in systems and automation? 3 I ______________________ (never/see) a robot. 4 In 1946 the United States ______________________ (build) ENIAC. 5 I ______________________ (study) English for 10 years. 6 My family ______________________ (buy) the first computer 20 years ago. 7 The technician ______________________ (just/assemble) the hardware of our PCs. 8 The IT lesson ______________________ (finish) 15 minutes ago.

Translation

3 Translate these sentences into Italian. 1 ‘Did they build the first commercial NC machines in the 1940s?’ ‘No they didn’t. They built them in the 1950s.’ 2 We have used computers since we were born. 3 Apple created the first Macintosh computer in 1984. 4 In 1822 Charles Babbage began developing the Difference Engine.

4 Translate these sentences into English. 1 Prima della fine del 19° secolo la parola computer descriveva una persona che eseguiva calcoli e non una macchina. 2 ‘Quando l’IBM ha introdotto il 701?’ ‘Nel 1953.’ 3 ‘Quando hai imparato a usare il computer?’ ‘Ho appena imparato.’ 4 L’uso dei droni al di fuori dell’ambiente militare è appena iniziato.

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CLIL: Information Technology

Virtual reality WARM UP

Virtual reality means ‘reality that is not real’. How can reality be unreal?

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MO DULE 8 | CLIL

In technical terms virtual reality (VR) describes a three-dimensional, computer-generated environment which can be explored and interacted with by a person. This artificial environment is created by software and presented to the user in such a way that the user suspends belief and accepts it as a real environment. On a computer, virtual reality is primarily experienced through two of the five senses: sight and sound. There are different types of virtual reality systems but the simplest form of virtual reality is a 3D image that can be explored interactively on a computer screen, usually by manipulating keys, joysticks or the mouse so that the content of the image moves in some direction or zooms in or out. Looking through a virtual reality headset, which has two small screens instead of the lenses, the outside world is out of view. In short, a virtual reality headset shows an image and as soon as the user moves their heads it modifies that image to make it seems like they are really there. 3D audio can also enhance the experience and make the user forget their physical surroundings. The screens are very close to the user’s eyes and they react to the way the user moves their head; this is made possible because of the presence of built-in sensors placed inside the headset. This technology is mainly used in movies and gaming, but virtual reality has other possible uses. It can be used for distance learning, medical training and procedures, and even psychological therapy to treat disorders like PTSD. There are many different types of virtual reality systems but they all share the same characteristics such as the ability to allow the person to view three-dimensional images. With all the possibilities in store for VR, it seems like it’s only a matter of time before it becomes commonplace.

2 Match the two parts of the sentences. 1 Virtual reality describes 2 A VR headset 3 There are built-in sensors 4 Virtual reality is mainly used 5 All types of virtual reality 6 Virtual reality can be also used

n placed inside the headset. a n in movies and gaming. b n allow the users to see 3D images. c n a three-dimensional, computer-generated d environment. n for distance learning, medical training and e procedures, and even PTSD treatment. n has two small screens instead of the lenses. f

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3

PET Complete the text with the words from the box.

Virtual reality is the creation of a virtual environment presented (1) _____________________ our senses in (2) _____________________ a way that we experience it (3) _____________________ if we were really there. It (4) _____________________ a mix of various technologies to achieve (5) _____________________ goal and is a technically complex feat that has to account (6) _____________________ our perception and cognition. It has (7) _____________________ entertainment and serious uses. The technology is becoming (8) _____________________ and more widespread. We can expect to see (9) _____________________ more innovative uses for the technology in the future and perhaps a fundamental way in (10) _____________________ we communicate and work thanks to the possibilities of virtual reality. 1 A at 2 A kind 3 A like 4 A is using 5 A this 6 A to 7 A as 8 A cheaper 9 A most 10 A which

B in B such B so B used B these B for B also B cheap B much B that

C to C same C such C uses C those C on C both C cheapest C lots of C who

D into D as D as D use D such D with D together with D more cheap D many D whose

4 Match the words with their definitions. 1 environment 2 software 3 sight 4 zoom 5 surroundings 6 in store

a n the objects, buildings, natural things around a person at a particular time b n increase suddenly and quickly c n the natural features of a place d n something unexpected about to happen e n the physical ability to see f n the sets of programs that tell a computer how to do a particular task

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. Ask and answer the following questions. 1 What is virtual reality? 2 How does virtual reality achieve its aim? 3 What are its uses? 4 What’s the future of this technology?

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MAP your KNOWLEDGE

THE COMPUTER WORLD HARDWARE

SOFTWARE

RAM

Memory

ROM

NETWORKS Operating system

LAN

hard drive WAN

Bus display

CAD

Internet

printer Output devices

protocols

CAM

storage devices

audio outputs Rendering software

mouse

WWW HTTP(S)

keyboard Input devices

joystick

connections

optical scanner

bluetooth

graphic tablet/stylus Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Wifi

control unit (CU) arithmetic logic unit (ALU) motherboard

MECHATRONICS FACTORY ROBOTS

DOMOTICS

DRONES

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

Mechanical Electrical

Remote monitoring/access

Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)

Optical

Cameras

mapping

Thermal

Power outlets

security and surveillance

Magnetic

Electronic locks

weather monitoring

Thermostat

parcels delivery

Smoke detectors

entertainment industry

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

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SENSORS

MO DULE 8 | MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Military use Civilian use

MODULE

9 Heating and Refrigeration

FOCUS on THEORY

CLIL: E nergy Systems

Heating systems Refrigeration systems Pumps

District heating

FOCUS on LANGUAGE

MAP your KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary Grammar

Air conditioners According to 2016 statistics, the largest market for air conditioners is China (40.59 million units). With only 6 million units, Europe is the smallest market.

213

FOCUS on THEORY

Heating systems WARM UP

What sort of heating system have you got in your house?

blocks of flats: caseggiati convectors: termosifoni, radiatori propel: spingono, muovono without bursting: senza scoppiare open-vented system: sistema con bocchettone di areazione aperto vessel: contenitore filling loop: ciclo di riempimento

Hot-water central system Central heating systems create the heating for an entire building from one central point. The heat is then delivered to the places where it is to be used. Hot-water heating is used to heat many blocks of flats. The heat generator, the central source from where hot water is distributed to all areas, is also called the boiler. Fuel (gas or oil) is burned in the boiler to heat the water. Pipes carry the heated water to convectors located in the rooms to be heated. The amount of heat given off by a convector depends on its shape and the amount of exposed metal surface. Steam heating works much like hot-water heating except that the water is converted to steam before being forced through the pipes to the convectors. Steam is used to heat buildings, but it is also used in steam turbines which drive electric generators and propel ships. In water-tube boilers, gases flow over water filled tubes. Boilers must be strong enough to hold the high pressure inside without bursting. They are built carefully and are tested many times before they are used. There are two main types of domestic boilers: conventional and combis (or combination). There is also a hybrid known as a system boiler. In conventional boilers fuel is burned and the hot gases produced are passed through a heat exchanger where much of the heat is transferred to water thus raising the waterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s temperature. Most conventional boilers are installed in open-vented systems. All modern boilers are now installed with a sealed system which has replaced the tank and the expansion pipe of the open-vented system with an expansion vessel, a safety blow-off valve and a filling loop. A combi boiler is both a high-efficiency water heater and a central heating boiler combined within one compact unit. System boilers are essentially conventional boilers that also incorporate an expansion vessel and a circulating pump.

MORE ABOUT... A radiator is a set of pipes or tubes that gives off heat to its surroundings. The ordinary steam or hot-water radiators in homes transfer heat to the air in a room. When warmed, the air next to the pipes expands and becomes lighter. This makes it rise like a balloon, and cooler air from the room streams in to take its place. In this way, a constant circulation of air occurs.

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MORE ABOUT... In a household or an office heated by a central heat system, installing Thermostatic Radiator Valves (TRVs) to the radiators can both improve comfort and save energy. The user can adjust the temperature of a single radiator (and thus of a single room) simply by turning the TRV, setting it according to their needs. As TRVs sense the air temperature around them to regulate the flow of water through the radiator, they must not be covered by curtains or blocked by furniture. Lately, smart TRVs have made their appearance on the market. A smart TRV has a motion sensor which detects when you are home to automatically learn your schedule and acting according to it. The thermostat can be controlled manually on its display via smartphone app or web and, because it learns fast from every manual adjustment you make, the heating will be on only when you need it. A recent research showed that the use of TRVs can reduce heating bills up to 20% a year.

PET Read the text and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones. T F 1 Central heating systems create the heating for an entire building at different central points. n n 2 Water is heated in the boiler by burning fuel. n n 3 Hot-water heating uses hot water carried by pipes to radiators. n n 4 Steam heating is quite different from hot-water heating. n n 5 The metal container where a liquid, after being heated, is changed into vapour is called a boiler. n n 6 Conventional boilers are made up of a burner and a gas to provide a source of hot water. n n 7 Combi boilers operate in a different way from conventional ones. n n 8 System boilers are essentially similar to combi boilers. n n

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 boiler 2 source 3 sealed 4 generator 5 hybrid 6 valve 7 tank 8 pump

a n part of a pipe that opens and shuts to control the flow of liquid, gas, or air b n a machine for forcing liquid or gas into or out of something c n a machine that produces electricity d n a container for boiling water that is used to provide heating in a house e n a large container for storing liquid or gas f n something that comes from a mixture of two or more different things g n shut or protected with something that prevents air, water, gas from getting in or out h n a thing, place, activity that you get something from

Listening 4

33 Listen to this technician talking about home heating systems and answer the questions.

1 How does a radiator system heat a house? 2 How does hot water enter radiators? 3 How does the vented air system operate? 4 Where are pipes placed in the underfloor heating system? 5 Why has underfloor heating gained popularity among consumers?

Writing 5 Write a short summary (about 90 words) of what you know of boilers with the help of the guidelines below. • How a heating system works. • Main types of heating systems. • Main types of domestic boilers.

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1 What powers warm-air central heating?

ceiling grilles: griglie di condotti di areazione (sul soffitto) sidewall registers: griglie di condotti di areazione (a muro) sucks in: aspira vent: bocchettone dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;areazione fan: ventilatore

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Warm-air central heating Warm-air central heating units heat up your home during the cooler months, and provide an efficient alternative to traditional central heating systems. The most usual means of powering warm-air heating is through natural gas, although oil and electricity can be used instead. The biggest advantage of installing a warm-air heating system is the fast direct heating of air which goes at a comfortable speed directly where it is needed via ceiling grilles, sidewall registers or floor grilles. Gas warm-air heating or electric warm-air heating can be utilised depending on individual requirements and the homesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; capabilities. Warm-air heating, or warm-air central heating, is the process of turning cool air into warm air. A warm-air heater sucks in the surrounding cooler air through a vent and that air is then pushed over a heat exchanger via a fan. The heated metal plates within the exchanger heat the cool air as it passes across, turning it into warm air. Once the air has been warmed, it is passed out to the remainder of the building. This continual process carries on until a predetermined level set on the thermostat is reached. The system then remains on standby mode until the temperature drops below a limit (set by the occupants of the house) at which point it begins to start warming the air again. One of the main benefits of using air heating is the running costs, which can be up to 18% lower in comparison with other heating systems, yet warm-air systems still include the option of heating hot water. The other large benefit is the air filter that can remove harmful particles. This means that all of the air in your house can be electronically cleaned approximately six times an hour. The result is a cleaner, healthier environment for all occupants of the household, especially for those who suffer from hay fever or respiratory conditions. Another advantage is the fact that radiators are not required and, in addition, air heating can incorporate a cooling system for summertime.

MO DULE 9 | FOCUS on THEORY

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is the biggest advantage of a warm-air system? 2 How does the warm air pass directly where it is needed? 3 How does a warm-air heating system work? 4 What is the function of a thermostat? 5 List a couple of advantages of the warm-air system. 6 Why is an air filter useful?

Vocabulary 3 Read the text again and find phrases that are opposite in meaning to the ones listed below. 1 warmer months _____________________________ 5 minimum benefit ____________________________ 2 the smallest advantage ______________________ 6 manually cleaned ___________________________ 3 general requirements ________________________ 7 polluted environment ________________________ 4 variable level _______________________________

Listening 4

34 PET Listen to this expert talking about the warm-air heating system and fill in the gaps. Then, read the text in its full form and say what you think about the speaker’s attitude.

To be honest, we must admit that even though (1) _________________ a warm-air unit offers several benefits, it is worth considering also that as they are usually associated with new build (2) __________________, installing a system into an (3) __________________ house can be very expensive. However, unlike wet (4) __________________ systems, warm-air ones do not risk a (5) __________________ at the hands of (6) __________________ leaks, sticking valves or (7) __________________ failure, which means they are a more effective heating system. In addition, there is the option to have an air (8) __________________ on, which removes particles such as pollen, tobacco (9) __________________ and other intolerances. Finally, it offers a longer life (10) __________________ than wet-radiator systems. A He is decisively for warm-air heating. B He thinks warm-air heating presents several drawbacks. C He thinks warm-air heating offers more advantages than disadvantages.

Writing 5 You have been asked to promote the installation of a warm-air system in private homes. Write a short presentation with the help of the guidelines below.

• Main advantages of the system. • How the system works (heated air/blown/rooms/through ducts, registers). • Why this system is to be preferred to hot-water heating.

Speaking 6 Refer to exercise 5 and read your presentation to the class. If any of your classmates do not evaluate your promotion positively, try to convince them. You can use phrases like these:

• I understand your point, but you have to consider… • You may be right on this point, but just think of the great advantages such as… • I’m sure you’ll agree with me when you consider…

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Do you think that alternative heating systems

A are less expensive than conventional ones? B are more environmentally friendly than conventional ones?

joists: travetti blower: compressore ad aria ductwork: sistema di tubazioni partitions: parti divisorie roof overhangs: sporgenze del tetto

Alternative heating systems It can be expensive to heat a home or building, so many homeowners and owners of other buildings make efforts to cut down on their heating expenses. One way that this can be done is by installing an alternative heating system. Some of the common alternative heating systems include hydronic floor heating, geothermal heat pumps and passive solar heating systems. In addition to saving money, alternative heating systems often use cleaner fuel and are more efficient. Hydronic floor heating (or radiant heating) has become a popular choice as an alternative heating system in residential and commercial buildings. This system consists of pipes or a tubing system installed on a wooden subfloor and covered by a thin layer of concrete. Other installation methods require the encasement of pipes in a concrete floor or between floor joists underneath the subfloor. The piping connects to a boiler, operating on electricity, oil, propane or natural gas, which circulates water or a special heat-producing fluid through the supply end of the pipes. Cooled fluid returns to the boiler, through the other end of the pipe, for recirculating when the thermostat calls for heat. This system has the advantage of distributing heat more evenly than the more common forced-air heating system. Geothermal heating systems rely on the natural ground temperature of the Earth. The temperature not far below the surface typically stays at a consistent 12.8Â° to 15.6Â°. A heat pump installed in the building has the capacity to both heat and cool the structure. The unit circulates warm water through pipes installed underground. The heat pump moves the warm water to the building. A blower distributes the warm air to rooms through a ductwork system. This system is quite expensive, but in the long run allows consistent savings. It is suitable for moderate climate zones. Thermal storage is how today humans convert the sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s energy directly into electricity, through solar thermal and solar photovoltaic systems. Passive solar heating systems do not require the use of electricity or power-driven devices, such as pumps, fans, or electrical control equipment. The energy of the sun comes through large windows installed on the side of the structure that is nearest to the Equator. The structure also makes use of walls, floors and partitions that have dark surfaces to absorb heat. These components also serve as thermal mass. In addition, building structures such as roof overhangs can help prevent underheating or overheating of the building. Using the concepts of convection, conduction and radiation, passive solar alternative heating systems distribute heat to different sections of the home.

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ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 In addition to being less expensive, what other advantages do alternative heating systems offer? 2 How is radiant heating often referred to? 3 What do you know about the installation methods of hydronic floor heating? 4 What does the geothermal alternative heating system rely on? 5 What are the advantages and disadvantages of the geothermal alternative system? 6 What is meant by thermal storage? 7 How do solar alternative heating systems distribute heat?

Vocabulary 3 Read the text again and find phrases that are opposite in meaning to the ones listed below. 1 selected choice ____________________________ 2 thick layer _________________________________ 3 cold water ________________________________

4 traditional heating systems __________________ 5 dissipate heat _____________________________

Listening 4

PET Listen to a technician talking about the solar water heating system and say if the statements below are true (T) or false (F). Then correct the false ones. 35

T F 1 In a solar water heating system, water from a large storage tank is heated by the sun as the water passes through solar pipes. 2 As it uses a small pump to circulate the water from the storage tank through the collectors and back into the storage, the system is called active. 3 A thermostat turns on the pump manually. 4 The pump is turned on when the water temperature in the tank water is higher than in the collector. 5 The system is called â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;open-loopâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; because the loop of plumbing from the storage tank up to the collectors is open to city water pressure. 6 A pressure and temperature relief valve is usually located near the solar tank.

n n

Speaking 5 Prepare a short presentation about alternative heating systems and finish by giving your opinion about the most efficient and reliable ones.

VIDEO 6 Look at the video about solar thermal heating systems and answer the questions. 1 What is the Energy Conservation Group promoting in the video? 2 Complete these sentences about the three parts of the process: a first the collector absorbs ______________________ b then it transfers the heat _______________________ c finally the hot fluid heats _______________________ 3 What are the main benefits of this system?

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Refrigeration systems WARM UP

What temperatures are produced by the process of refrigeration? What kinds of food need refrigerators?

ACTIVITIE S

liquefies: si liquefà coils: bobine, serpentine

Mechanical refrigeration Jacob Perkins, an American inventor, developed the first compression machine for refrigeration in 1834. Most modern refrigerators work on the vapour compression refrigeration cycle. In its simplest form there are four fundamental operations required to complete one cycle: compression, condensation, expansion and vaporisation. The system is based on the principle that absorption of heat by a fluid (refrigerant) as it changes from a liquid to a gas lowers the temperature of the objects around it. In the compression system, which is employed in electric home refrigerators and commercial installations, a compressor, controlled by a thermostat, exerts pressure on a vaporised refrigerant, forcing it to pass through a condenser, where it loses heat and liquefies. It then moves through the coils of the refrigeration compartment. Then it vaporises drawing heat from whatever is in the compartment. The refrigerant then passes back to the compressor and the cycle is repeated. Therefore, refrigeration is a process in which work is done by moving heat from one location to another. The work of heat transport is traditionally driven by mechanical means, but can also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other methods. For many years refrigerants of the clorofluorocarbon (CFC) family were used in electric refrigerators, but when it was proved that they damaged the Earth’s ozone layer, they were replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) which are liquids that boil at relatively low temperatures. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to, household refrigerators, industrial freezers, air conditioning.

MORE ABOUT... Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Food stored at or below -18°C is safe indefinitely. Most household freezers maintain temperatures from -23 to -18°C, although some freezer-only units can achieve -34°C and lower. Refrigerators generally do not achieve lower than -23°C, since the same coolant loop serves both compartments: lowering the freezer compartment temperature excessively causes difficulties in maintaining above-freezing temperature in the refrigerator compartment.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and complete the following sentences. 1 The first mechanical refrigeration was developed _________________________________________________ . 2 The vapour compression refrigeration cycle in its simplest form is based on the principles of____________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ . 3 In mechanical refrigeration liquids ____________________________________________ when they vaporise. 4 The refrigerant then passes back to the compressor and __________________________________________ . 5 The CFC was replaced by the HFC because _____________________________________________________ .

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents for these words. 1 vaporizzazione _____________________________ 2 bassa pressione _____________________________ 3 alta pressione ______________________________ 4 mezzo di raffreddamento _____________________

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5 stato liquido ________________________________ 6 valvola di espansione ________________________ 7 assorbimento _______________________________ 8 magnetismo ________________________________

The Internet (or smart) refrigerator is a fridge which has been programmed to sense what kinds of products are being stored inside it and keep a track of the stock. It may even be able to determine when a product needs to be replenished. At the moment, while this technology is still evolving, there are two possible ways to keep the inventory of the fridge. You can entry data manually or, if food packaging is equipped with a barcode or an RFID tag, the fridge automatically detects what is being put into it. The information is stored in the computer to let you know what is in the unit without ever having to open it. The smart refrigerator can record the date: food that is sensitive to spoiling can be closely monitored. It may even be able to send alerts when the food reaches a point where it may be suspect. This alert may be displayed on the refrigerator’s screen or may be sent to a computer or a smartphone. If you have leftovers in the fridge, the smart refrigerator can even formulate possible recipes with them, helping you using as much food in the refrigerator as possible, cutting down on waste and additional food costs. Though there are many advantages to smart refrigerators, they also have some possible drawbacks: the most relevant, most foods are not currently labelled with RFID tags, so an accurate inventory depends on the user manually inputting a lot of items into processing unit. Also, the unit may not be able to exactly tell how much of a product is left and when it may run out.

ACT IV IT IE S

MORE ABOUT...

Reading comprehension 4 With the help of the picture, rearrange the following sentences in the correct order 1-6. n One is the intake opening (or port) where a refrigerant vapour enters the compressor. n Finally, the compressor is controlled by a b thermostat which turns on the compressor to start the compression cycle when the temperature increases, and turns it off when the temperature decreases. n First the refrigerant enters the evaporator, c absorbs heat and changes from liquid to vapour. n The other is the discharge port where d the compressed refrigerant vapour is discharged into the condenser for cooling. n The system is made up of an evaporator, a e compressor, a condenser, a refrigerant and a thermostat. n The vapour refrigerant moves into the f compressor, which has two openings.

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. Ask and answer questions about the cycle of vapour compression refrigeration. Refer to the picture.

Student A: Is a thermostat included in the system? Student B: Yes, together with an evaporator, a compressor, a condenser and a refrigerant.

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1 What is the basic principle of air conditioning?

MORE ABOUT... The term freon is generally used for any of various non-flammable fluorocarbons used as refrigerants.

ACT IV IT IE S

coolant: fluido refrigerante heat sink: dissipatore di calore storages: depositi cooling season: i mesi piĂš caldi (in cui si usa lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;aria condizionata)

Air conditioning Air conditioning is the process of altering the properties of air (primarily temperature and humidity) to more favourable conditions. More generally, air conditioning can refer to any form of technological cooling, heating, ventilation or disinfection that modifies the condition of air. An air conditioner, often referred to as air con, AC or A/C (not to be confused with the abbreviation for alternating current) is a major home appliance system or mechanism designed to change the air temperature and humidity within an area. The basic principle of air conditioners is to transport heat from one station to another. The system is used for cooling and sometimes heating depending on the air properties at a given time. The main mechanical components of air conditioners are a compressor, a fan, a condenser coil, an evaporator coil and a chemical refrigerant, commonly referred to as freon. In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation and air conditioning is referred to as HVAC. Air conditioning can also be provided by a simple process called free cooling which uses pumps to circulate a coolant (typically water or a glycol mix) from a cold source, which in turn acts as a heat sink for the energy that is removed from the cooled space. Free cooling systems can be very efficient and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal energy storage (STES), so the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Some systems with small storages are hybrids, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is addedin because the temperature of the storage gradually increases during the cooling season, thereby declining in effectiveness. Free cooling and hybrid systems are mature technology.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and complete the following sentences. 1 Air conditioning is the process of altering the properties of ________________________________________ . 2 HVAC in construction means__________________________________________________________________ . 3 Free cooling is a process which ______________________________________________________ from a cold source, which in turns acts as a ________________________________________________________________.

3 Read the text again and answer the questions. 1 What does an air conditioner consist of? 2 What is its main function?

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3 What is freon? 4 Why is a heat pump necessary?

4 Read the text about air conditioning system and complete it with the words from the box. compressor − refrigerators − heat − process − liquid − coils − gas − evaporator − circuit − condenser

Air conditioning systems employ the same operating principles and basic components as (1) ________________. An air conditioner cools a home with a cold indoor coil called the (2) ______________________. The (3) __________________, a hot outside coil, releases the collected (4) ___________________ outside. The evaporator and the condenser (5) ___________________ are serpentine tubing. A pump, called the (6) ______________________, moves the refrigerant between the evaporator and the condenser, forcing it through the (7) _________________ of tubing. The liquid refrigerant evaporates in the indoor evaporator coil, pulling heat out of indoor air and consequently cooling the home. The hot refrigerant (8) _______________ is pumped outdoors into the condenser where it reverts back to a (9) ______________________ giving up its heat to the air flowing over the condenser metal tubing. The liquid then recirculates to the evaporator coils to start the cooling (10) ______________________ again.

ACT IV IT IE S

Vocabulary

Writing 5 Write a short description (about 80 words) of the refrigeration process. Use the first sentences and the guidelines below. The mechanics of the freon evaporation cycle is the same in a refrigerator as in an air conditioner. Instead of cooling just a small, insulated space inside a refrigerator, an air conditioner cools a room, a house, or a building. 1 Cool freon gas is compressed and becomes… 2 The hot gas runs through a coil and it… 3 The freon liquid runs through an expansion valve and it … 4 This cold gas runs through a coil that allows the gas to absorb the heat and…

MORE ABOUT... The use of air conditioning is increasing pollution in the environment by releasing poisonous gases into the atmosphere. These gases include the chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons. They have a negative impact on the environment as they are part of the greenhouse gases that trap heat and cause consumption of the ozone layer. The problem is that the hotter our environment gets, the more reliant we become on air conditioning systems. Air conditioning can also be dangerous for our health. The air filters lose a bit of their integrity with continuous use and allow harmful compounds from outside into your home or office. These can cause allergies and in some cases even cause eye, nose and throat irritation. Furthermore, there is the issue that air conditioning systems consume a lot more electricity and put a strain on the electricity generation industry. It also leads to more pollution considering the generation of electricity involves burning of coal in some countries. Not all countries are able to generate electricity with hydrothermal energy. The higher the demand exerted on the generator, the higher the release of carbon monoxide and other unhealthy gases.

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1 What is the primary job of the car-cooling system?

ACTI VITIE S

airflow: flusso d’aria belt-driven fan: ventola di trasmissione a cinghia fins and cores: alette e nuclei threshold: soglia

Car-cooling systems Internal combustion engines produce power by burning the fuel to create tremendous heat and pressure, which is converted to mechanical power to move the vehicle. However, engines produce more heat than they convert into power and consequently some type of cooling system to control operating temperatures and prevent overheating is needed. Two types of cooling systems have been utilised over the decades: air and water. Engines, in some vehicles, were cooled directly by airflow over the cylinder heads and block. There was just a belt-driven fan to blow air over the engine, but air-cooled engines in automobiles tend to suffer from higher operating temperatures with greater losses in performance and fuel economy and so nowadays the vast majority of motor vehicles feature closed-loop liquid cooling systems. The water pump circulates the coolant through the cylinder block and cylinder heads, to absorb and carry away the excess combustion heat and to the radiator, which exchanges the heat into the atmospheric air moving past its cooling fins and cores. Since internal combustion engines do not operate efficiently in terms of emissions until they are up to full operating temperature, a thermostat restricts flow of coolant until coolant temperatures climb into the normal range. From that point on, the thermostat will only restrict coolant flow if the temperature begins to fall below the threshold of normal, typically around 82°C. One final component in the cooling system is the coolant itself. Believe it or not, for pure cooling efficiency, water is the best choice. Its ability to absorb and transfer heat quickly and efficiently, along with its abundance and low cost, makes it the perfect coolant, even if it presents two drawbacks. Water freezes at temperatures of 0°C or lower, and it tends to promote corrosion. To address these problems, modern automotive coolant is a mix of ethylene-glycol, the antifreeze component in the coolant, and water. To prevent corrosion, an additive package of rust inhibitors and a water pump lubricant is blended into the coolant.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 How does mechanical power move a vehicle? 2 What are the main cooling systems? 3 Which of the two cooling systems is mainly utilised for motor vehicles? 4 What is the function of a thermostat? 5 What are the cooling system main drawbacks?

Vocabulary 3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 hoses a n an instrument used for keeping a room or a machine at a particular temperature 2 coolant b n long rubber or plastic tubes 3 fan c n becoming too hot 4 radiator d n liquid or gas used to cool something especially an engine 5 thermostat e n a device for delivering large volumes of air with only a low pressure increase n the part of a car which stops the engine from getting too hot 6 overheating f

Speaking 4 Work in pairs. Take turns with your partner asking and answering questions about the symptoms and consequences of overheating. You can refer to the guidelines below. • Symptoms: warning light; needle on the temperature gauge; steam under the hood. • Consequences: ruin gaskets; crack cylinder heads; break piston rings; coolant into engine oil; damage to bearings.

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Pumps WARM UP Pumps are devices for moving liquid and gases. They are used in mining, irrigation, boilers, atomic engines, air conditioners, automobiles, wells, home-heating systems, and city water plants. Pumps are usually classified as dynamic, positive displacement and centrifugal pumps.

Dynamic pumps

1 What are pumps most frequently used for? What is the function of a water pump in a radiator?

These pumps are used to pump air as well as liquids. The most common are axial-flow pumps. They consist of several propeller-like blades attached to a single shaft. At the inlet, the first set of rotating blades speeds up the air in a direction parallel to the shaft of the pump. Pressure builds up in the areas between the rows of blades as the blades continue to rotate. Axial pumps pump liquids. They are often used in low-pressure irrigation, water supply.

shaft: asse inlet: (punto di) immissione well-water: pozzi dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;acqua

Positive displacement pumps

MORE ABOUT...

These pumps deliver a constant volume of liquid for each cycle against varying discharge pressure or head. They can be classified as the rotary type, which moves fluid using a rotating mechanism which creates a vacuum that captures and draws in the liquid; and the reciprocating type, where a piston slides back and forth in a cylinder: with each movement, it traps part of the fluid which is then moved toward the discharge side of the pump. This is used for well-water pumps, tyre pumps, air and gas compressors, and vacuum pumps. Among them there are:

Lift Pumps , the simplest reciprocating pumps, are used to pump water from wells; they are often called suction pumps. Force pumps are used in water wells and fire engines. They resemble lift pumps, but they discharge the water at high pressure, rather than merely lifting it out. Force pumps are generally run by mechanical power. Gear Pumps are usually used to pump thick fluids such as oil: lubricating oil pumps of car engines are usually gear pumps. A gear pump consists mainly of a pair of meshing gears that rotate in a housing. As the fluid moves into the inlet region, it is trapped between the gear teeth, and carried around to the outlet side. The pressure in the outlet region builds up quickly, until it is high enough to discharge the fluid, until it is stored inside the housing.

Gas pumps are often called compressors or fans. They are very similar to pumps: both are mechanical devices that increase the pressure of a liquid or a gas by reducing its volume and both can transport it through a pipe. Their uses can be split into the 3 groups: situations that directly take and use compressed air (painting or chemical spraying; sand blasting; air dusting); situations in which something is rotated by the force of compressed air (air turbines, grinders, hammers); situations that perform measurements or control through the flow of pressurized air.

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casing: tubazione di rivestimento impeller: ventola, girante sealing: sigillante rotor: rotore torque: forza torcente leakage: perdita, fuoriuscita cantilever: mensola

Centrifugal pumps Centrifugal pumps are one of the most popular types of pumps: their applications are countless. Their design varies depending on the type of pump but the components common to all pumps, such as shaft, bearings and casing, all work together to induce flow and raise the water pressure. The most basic type of centrifugal pump is the end suction centrifugal pump, which, in addition to all the basic components, has also an impeller, which increases the velocity of the liquid passing through it. This high velocity is then converted to a highpressure force. In this pump, the discharge exit is located at the top. The components of centrifugal pumps can be classified as a wet-end or mechanical-end components.

The wet-end components include those devices that affect the pump’s hydraulic performance: the impeller and the casing. The impeller is one of the crucial parts of the pump. Without it, fluids cannot enter the pump and make it rotate. When the fluids rotate, the impeller is adding a centrifugal force to move it out in the radial directions. The casing of a centrifugal pump acts as a pressure container and is responsible for directing liquids to flow in and out of the pump. This pump ensures the velocity of the fluid exiting the pump is not too high. Also, static pressure is increased to overcome any resistance from the system. The mechanical-end components

are within the casing that works to support the impeller. This casing includes the pump shaft, sealing and the bearings. The pump shaft, or rotor, is responsible for connecting the pump’s impeller with the motor. It is designed to transmit torque from the motor to the impeller. The shaft’s sealing is made up of packing rings. This sealing is to prevent water leakage as the high-water pressures inside the casing makes it likely for water to escape through tiny cracks. The bearings are responsible for carrying the weight of the impellers. They are fitted at the exit side of the pump since the suction side needs to be kept clear to allow fluids to flow. The impeller is mounted on the bearings in a cantilever-type configuration. Cooling oil for the bearings is also required in pumps with higher flow rates.

How they work MORE ABOUT... Most rotary pumps are self-priming. The pump end doesn’t need to be filled with liquid to start the pumping action. Instead, the movement of the rotating elements creates a partial vacuum sufficient to lift or draw liquid into the pump and begin the process.

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Centrifugal pumps work by converting a rotational energy from a motor to induce a flow or raise the pressure of liquid. When a fluid enters from the suction end of the pump, the impeller catches the fluids and then rotates, making the fluid entering the pump rotate as well. During this process, the fluid gains velocity and pressure as it leaves the impeller. A diffuser or scroll inside the pump then decelerates the fluid flow, further increasing the fluid pressure. A unique feature of centrifugal pumps is their ability to provide high-flow rates compared to displacement type pumps. The flow rates of fluids from a centrifugal pump also vary depending on changes in the total dynamic head of the piping system.

MO DULE 9 | FOCUS on THEORY

2 Read the text and answer the questions. 1 What is the main function of pumps? 5 Which are the mechanical components? 2 Which are the main components common to 6 What is the function of the impeller? centrifugal pumps? 7 What is one of the main differences between 3 What is the most basic type of centrifugal pump? centrifugal and displacement type pumps? 4 Which are the wet-end components?

Vocabulary

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

3 Match the words with their definitions. 1 discharge 2 casing 3 impeller 4 gear 5 vacuum 6 vane

a n toothed machine element b n a space from which all the air has been taken away c n gas, liquid, smoke, etc. sent out d n an outer layer of metal, rubber etc. that covers and protects something e n a flat blade moved by water to produce power to drive a machine f n rotating component of a centrifugal pump

Listening 4

36 Listen to this description of how a lift pump works and then fill in the gaps to complete the text.

The simplest reciprocating pump is the lift pump. It is used to pump water from (1) _____________. Lift pumps are often called (2) _____________ pumps, because they create a partial vacuum that lifts the water from the well. The piston in the (3) _____________ has a valve that opens as the piston moves down, but closes as the piston moves up. The bottom of the cylinder has a (4) _____________ that connects it to a (5) _____________ that extends to the water. The first downstroke of the piston presses against the air beneath it, and forces the air upward and out through the valve. A partial (6) _____________ is formed when the piston rises. The water from the well then flows into the cylinder. The water cannot sink back into the well, because the cylinder valve (7) _____________ when the water tries to run downward. After a few (8) _____________, the piston sinks below the rising water in the cylinder. The water then flows through the valve to the top of the piston. The next (9) _____________ of the piston lifts the water and discharges it from the spout.

VIDEO 5 Watch this video about regenerative turbine pumps and centrifugal pumps and answer the questions. 1 What is the main difference between turbine pumps and centrifugal pumps? 2 How many times can a liquid pass between the vanes of a centrifugal pump’s impeller? 3 And in a regenerative pump? 4 Are centrifugal pumps designed to handle gas in a liquid? Why? 5 Which solution is to be preferred where cavitation is a concern?

Heating and Refrigeration | MO DULE 9

227

FOCUS on LANGUAGE Vocabulary 1

Match the words with their definitions.

1 conditioner a n a device for causing air to flow in a given direction 2 compressor b n a device capable of changing hot air into cold air 3 coolant c n gas pump 4 coil d n a machine by which mechanical or heat energy is used to produce and maintain 5 fan a low temperature 6 refrigerator e n a liquid substance used in refrigeration f n a series of spiral loops or rings

2 Insert the words from the box to complete the sentences. overheating − cools − cars − system − conditioning designers − temperatures − solar − vehicle − pump

1 A way of heating and cooling an electric (1) _______________________ is to use a heat pump.

2 A heat (2) _______________________ pumps heat from one location to another. 3 Refrigerators and air (3) _______________________ units are examples of heat pumps. 4 When air conditioning both heats and (4) _______________________ it is a reversible heat pump. 5 Most building (5) _______________________ know that the best way to heat a building is to keep heat in and the best way to cool the building is to keep heat out. 6 As for (6) _______________________, they can reach (7) _______________________ which may be extremely cold in winter or extremely hot in summer. 7 Before a heating/cooling (8) _______________________ is installed, it is worth thinking about the best method. 8 The big problem with (9) _______________________ stems from the fact that most cars are highly efficient passive (10) _______________________ heating systems.

3 Choose the correct alternative to complete the text. What a pump actually does is to move a column/quantity of liquid to create a force/flow. Pressure results from a restriction/expansion on that column of liquid when energy/water passes through a nozzle. Most pumps used in the pressure cleaning farm/industry rely on a system of hoses/valves and cylinders. The movement of a valve/piston in the cylinder draws water through the outlet/inlet valve and expels it through the inlet/outlet valve.

4 Write the Italian of the following words.

228

1 boiler

________________________

5 heat

________________________

2 duct

________________________

6 pipe

________________________

3 fuel

________________________

7 coil

________________________

4 pollution ________________________

8 fan

________________________

MO DULE 9 | FOCUS on LANGUAGE

Grammar VIDEO

THE FUTURE

Will + forma base del verbo Uso • esprimere previsioni: you’ll be successful in your work; • esprimere decisioni prese sul momento: I’ll turn on the heating, it’s a bit cold in this room; • dopo I think, I suppose, I hope, I promise, I’m sure, I expect e dopo l’avverbio probably: I think/I hope you’ll get the job.

To be going to + forma base del verbo Uso • esprimere un’intenzione: I’m going to buy a new refrigerator; • riferimento a fatti che sicuramente si verificheranno: you’re going to hurt your hands if you don’t use rubber gloves.

Present continuous Uso • esprimere un’azione futura già decisa in precedenza: they’re installing the new air conditioner next week.

Make sentences in the future according to the track. Use the will form.

1 I / sure / you pass / your exams. 2 I promise / I help you / office work. 3 It / rain/tomorrow? 4 They probably / need / a new computer. 5 I / do not think / we go out / tonight. 6 Did you send that email? Oh, I forgot. I / send it / right now.

2 Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form of the future. 1 Look! That machine is on fire! It (to explode) _______________________! 2 I (to visit) _______________________ the new factory in Manchester, but I’ve not decided when yet. 3 We hope he (get) _______________________ his promotion soon. He really deserves it. 4 I’ve already decided: I (to cut down) ______________ on my heating expenses. 5 I think I (to check) _______________________ the radiator before leaving. 6 We (to put) _______________________ on the market three new pump models next month.

VIDEO

FIRST CONDITIONAL

• Proposizione principale (main clause): will/won’t + infinito • Proposizione secondaria (sub clause): if + presente I’ll get a taxi if I’m late. Il periodo ipotetico di primo tipo indica una condizione molto probabile. NB: la sub clause, oltre che da if, può essere introdotta da when, as soon as, until.

3 Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses. 1 If there (to be) __________________ a problem of overheating, the steam (to come out) _______________________ under the hood. 2 The vehicle (to move) _____________________ if the internal combustion engines (to produce) _______________________ power. 3 When air (to rush) ______________ past the tubes it (to cool) ________________ the water. 4 If the car (to move) ____________ slowly, an engine-driven fan (help) ____________________ supply air. 5 When fuel (to be) ____________ burnt in the boiler, the water (to become) ___________ hot. 6 You (to prevent) ____________ corrosion in the cooling system if you (to blend) ___________ the coolant with an additive package. 7 In the future, _______________ (to be) the advantages of a heating system ______________ more than the disadvantages? 8 If you use means of convection, conduction and radiation, passive solar alternative heating systems (to distribute) __________________ heat to different sections of the home.

Translation 4 Translate these sentences into English. 1 Se vorrete conoscere i tipi di caldaia dovrete studiare questa lezione. 2 Il sistema di riscaldamento non funziona, così questa notte sarà freddo. 3 Se lo chiederete avrete una nuova caldaia. 4 Quando farà freddo accenderò il riscaldamento. 5 Quando installerete il nuovo scaldabagno? 6 “Il congelatore non funziona.” “ Lo riparerò al più presto possibile.”

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CLIL: Energy Systems

District heating WARM UP

Work in pairs. Discuss the following points about heat networks. • Two hundred small boilers in two hundred different homes, with two hundred chances of breaking down, two hundred bills to pay.

• One large boiler for everyone. The large boiler will be more expensive, but the cost can be split between two hundred households.

Which one is cheaper and less polluting?

insulated: isolati cogeneration plant: impianto di cogenerazione carbon footprints: impronte ecologiche oversupply: sovrapproduzione tap water: acqua del rubinetto reliable: affidabile

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MO DULE 9 | CLIL

A very advanced hot-water heating system is the district heating, or heat networks. This system consists of a network of insulated pipes used to deliver heat, in the form of hot water (or steam), from a centralized location (a large boiler) to the end users. Networks vary in size and length: they can carry heat just a few hundred metres between homes, to several kilometres supplying space and water heating to entire communities and industrial areas. In addition to the central boiler, heat can be obtained from a cogeneration plant (or CHP, combined heat power). It burns fossil fuels, but the use of biomass is rapidly increasing, as well as geothermal heating, heat pumps, central solar heating and nuclear power are also used. More, a cogeneration plant can produce heat and electricity simultaneously. Compared to localized boilers, district heating plants can provide higher efficiency levels and better pollution control: according to some research, it is the cheapest method of cutting carbon emissions, and has one of the lowest carbon footprints of all fossil generation plants. Moreover, heat networks also capture and redistribute heat that would otherwise be wasted: the oversupply heat produced by power stations, factories, server farms and public transport networks is piped into the network, eliminating waste, lowering carbon emissions and fuel consumption.

How district heating works From the centralized boiler, heat is pumped to customers as hot water in a dual-pipe district heating network located underground. Once in the heat distribution centre, the heat is delivered from the district heating network to houses and buildings, where it is spread by radiators or ventilation equipment. Tap water too can be heated by district heating. The heat distribution centres are factory-made units, which are reliable and durable. Once cooled down, the water of the district heating network returns from the heat distribution centre to the production plant for reheating. District heating includes: • a high-powered central boiler fuelled by oil, gas, woodchips, etc.; • a network of well-insulated pipes buried underneath the streets, carrying the hot water into each home; • a heat exchanger where the network enters each home: it convoys the heat from the network to the network inside the home: radiators, domestic hot water, showers, etc. District heating is constantly evolving: it is part of the smart energy system of the future. District cooling systems with an operating principle that is similar to that of district heating have started to appear next to district heating systems. In the future, district heating and cooling will be strongly coupled together as it is possible to produce electricity, heat and cooling in the same process. This is called trigeneration.

• superior energy efficiency, which implies less energy wasting and less pollution • it’s cheaper: a single heating installation for fifteen, two hundred or one thousand households consume less resources and costs less than for fifteen, two hundred or one thousand individual installations • it’s very user-friendly: consumers have their heat delivered to their homes just like water, gas, electricity without worries over servicing or repairs • it can operate together with other heat sources that cannot be used individually: thermal sources or basement volcanic heat

ACT IV IT IE S

Benefits of district heating

Reading comprehension 2 Answer these questions. 1 What is district heating? 2 What are the main differences between the two main systems? 3 What does district heating include? 4 Describe how district heating works. 5 What are the benefits of a district heating system? 6 What is a trigeneration system?

Vocabulary 3 Find the English equivalents of these words in the text. 1 interrato ___________________________________ 2 sistema di areazione _________________________ 3 teleriscaldamento ___________________________ 4 convogliato in tubi __________________________ 5 trucioli di legno _____________________________

4 PET

6 il più economico ____________________________ 7 fattoria ____________________________________ 8 consegnato ________________________________ 9 raffreddato _________________________________ 10 alimentato _________________________________

Read the text below and fill the gaps with the correct word.

Efficient district heat production, (1) _____________________ when it combines heat and power generation, (2) _____________________ the environmental impacts. Its superior energy efficiency and environmental friendliness (3) _____________________ based especially (4) _____________________ the fact that district heating utilises heat energy generated in electricity production and (5) _____________________ well waste heat from industrial and other processes, (6) _____________________ would otherwise be wasted. Combined heat and power generation is almost twice as efficient as separate generation of electricity and heat. District heat is also produced in separate heating plants. (7) _____________________ process uses an increasing amount of renewable fuels. For example, wood combustion is more effective in larger units than in small ones: the same amount of fuel will provide (8) _____________________ energy for the same use. 1 A special 2 A reduce 3 A are 4 A in 5 A like 6 A which 7 A that 8 A much

B in B reduced B is B about B such B what B this B most

C especially C reduces C will be C to C as C who C these C many

D specialty D is reducing D was D on D so D whose D those D more

Speaking 5 Work in pairs. With the help of exercise 2 give a brief account of the advantages of district heating. Heating and Refrigeration | MO DULE 9

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MAP your KNOWLEDGE

HEATING AND REFRIGERATION HEATING SYSTEMS

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Steam fan compressor

conventional boilers Hot water

Air conditioning

hybrid boilers

refrigerant

combi

evaporator

Warm air

hydronic Alternative

condenser

air

geothermal

Car cooling water

thermal

PUMPS

DYNAMIC PUMPS

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

Axial-flow pump

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Reciprocating type

Axial pump

End suction Centrifugal pump lift pump

Rotary type

force pump gear pump

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Cultural Background

DOSSIER 1 GEOGRAPHY

DOSSIER 2 HISTORY

DOSSIER 3 ECONOMY

DOSSIER 4 LITERATURE

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DOSSIER

WARM UP

Discuss these questions in pairs or small groups.

1 Have you ever been to the UK? 2 What is the capital city? What facts do you know about it? 3 What other cities or landmarks/ places can you name? Why are they famous? 4 What do you know about the geography of the country? Can you think of any mountains or rivers?

GEOGRAPHY The UK – Quick facts The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly called the United Kingdom or the UK, includes the countries of England , Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Great Britain (or sometimes just Britain) refers to the largest island which includes the countries of England, Scotland and Wales while the expression British Isles refers to this entire group of islands off the north west coast of mainland Europe, including Great Britain, Ireland, the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, the Orkney Islands and many others. The UK covers an area of just under 244,000 km2 and has a population of approximately 64.6 million, with 54.3 million people living in England, 5.3 million in Scotland, 3.1 million in Wales and 1.8 million in Northern Ireland. England is the most densely populated with 413 people per square kilometre and Scotland the least densely populated with 68 people per square kilometre. The capital city of England and the UK is London, situated in the south east of the country on the River Thames. A famous tourist destination, as well as one of the most important business and financial centres in the world, London has a population of 8.5 million. Cardiff, located on the Bristol Channel, is the capital of Wales and with a population of 354,300, it is the largest city in the country. Edinburgh, with a population of 492,700, is the capital of Scotland while the capital of Northern Ireland is Belfast (population 281,000).

ACT ACT IV ITIV IEIT S IE S

The term ‘England’ is often incorrectly used to refer to the whole of the UK and the term ‘English’ to refer to the citizens, instead of using ‘British’ or the individual country’s nationality.

234

England 54.3 million

Scotland

Reading comprehension

Edinburgh

2 Read the text and complete the fact files.

Wales

149 per sq km

DO S S I E R 1 | UK vs USA

Northern Ireland

135 per sq km

The national flag of the UK is the Union Flag (often called the Union Jack) and it is made up of the flags of Scotland, England and Northern Ireland.

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Cambridge

WARM UP

Which country/ area of the UK do you think… • has the highest mountain? • is the flattest? • has the largest freshwater lake? • has lots of canals?

2 Quickly read

the texts to check if you were correct.

fens: acquitrini marshland: paludi moors: lande, brughiere quaint: pittoreschi

Geography of the UK The East of England The East of England is the lowest and flattest region of England, with fens and reclaimed marshland, much of it barely above sea level. It is an important agriculture area, mostly for cereals and vegetables. There are also some important fishing ports and Felixstowe is the largest container port in the country. Cambridge is famous for its world-renowned university and around the city there are a lot of high-tech businesses, particularly in the fields of software, electronics and biotechnology. Stratford upon Avon

The Midlands

The Midlands is an area of mostly flat land in central England. Birmingham, the biggest city, was an important centre during the Industrial Revolution, together with other industrial cities such as Coventry, Derby and Leicester. The area is linked to London through a large network of man-made canals which were built to transport goods from this busy industrial area to the capital. The area also has a lot of agricultural land and there are famous tourist destinations such as Stratford upon Avon (Shakespeare’s birthplace), Nottingham (Robin Hood’s land) and Lincoln (famous for its Gothic cathedral).

The North of England

Manchester

The Pennines run north to south down the centre of this region and there are the Cumbrian mountains in the west, both of which offer spectacular countryside, ranging from lakes to wild open moors, isolated villages and sheep farms. This area is also famous for its factories, coal mines and industrial cities: Sunderland and Newcastle for shipbuilding; Sheffield for steel; Manchester for cotton. These industries went into decline after World War II and many were closed down, resulting in high unemployment and poverty particularly in the 1980s. These cities have undergone economic revival, becoming centres for culture and tourism as well as for new businesses and enterprises.

The South of England This area is characterised by gentle hills, fertile farmland, quaint villages and historical cities and landmarks, such as Bath with its Roman origins, the prehistoric monument at Stonehenge and the chalk figure of the Long Man at Wilmington. The river Thames flows across southern England, starting as a small stream in the Cotswolds and flowing through important towns and cities such as Oxford, Reading, Windsor and, of course, London. Cornwall and Devon in the south west of England have dramatic, rocky coastlines and high moorland areas. The south coast is a popular tourist destination and also has several important ports such as Southampton and Portsmouth. London

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Scotland

Edinburgh

Scotland forms the northern part of Great Britain and it is bordered by England to the south and surrounded by the North Sea and Atlantic Ocean. Apart from the mainland, there are hundreds of islands but only about 95 of them are inhabited. The main population, however, lives in the Central Lowlands area. Glasgow, the biggest city in Scotland, was once famous for heavy industry, in particular shipbuilding. Now most businesses are in the tertiary sector. Edinburgh is an important financial centre. The Highlands in the north of Scotland offer incredible mountain scenery with many lochs (lakes), including the famous Loch Ness, and Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles at 1,344 m.

Wales

Snowdonia

Wales is a small country, 274 km from north to south. It borders England to the east and the rest is over 1,200 km of coastline. The north of the country is mountainous and Snowdon is the highest peak at 1,085 m. Tourism in this area is very important. As you travel south, there are more hills and valleys. The south coast is the main inhabited and industrialised area, with cities like Swansea and Cardiff. This was an important coal mining area but now business and financial services form the main part of the economy. The River Severn, the longest river in Great Britain, starts in mid Wales and then flows through central England to the Bristol Channel.

Northern Ireland Northern Ireland shares a border with the Republic of Ireland and is separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea. It has a varied terrain with the Mourne Mountains, fertile agricultural land and beautiful coasts and beaches. Lough Neagh is the largest freshwater lake in the British Isles. The River Lagan valley and the area around Belfast are the main industrial areas and about a third of the population lives here. There are many spectacular tourist spots such as the Giantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Causeway, a World Heritage Site, and the seven stone circles at Beaghmore.

The Giantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Causeway

PET Read the texts again and decide if these sentences are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones. T F

1 The East of England does not have any coastline. 2 There are a large number of software and electronics companies near Cambridge. 3 It would be possible to travel from Birmingham to London by boat. 4 The Pennines are mountains in Scotland. 5 The north of England had many important industries in the past. 6 The River Thames starts in London. 7 Scotland shares a border with Wales. 8 Most people in Scotland live on the Scottish islands. 9 The south of Wales is less mountainous than the north. 10 Coal mining is still very important in Wales. 11 The Irish Sea divides Northern Ireland from the Republic of Ireland. 12 There is a lot of industry around the city of Belfast.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

Industrial and financial centres in the UK

Speaking 4 Choose one of the four countries of the UK and prepare a short presentation (3-5 minutes), including details about the population, the geography of the area and any important cities or landmarks.

Geography |

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WARM UP

Have you ever been to the USA? What places did you visit or would you like to visit?

2 Use the information in the fact file to complete this presentation of the USA.

The USA â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Quick facts Name: United States of America Area: 9,826,675 km2 Borders with: Mexico, Canada, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean No. of states: 50 (48 contiguous states; Hawaii and Alaska are separate) + the District of Columbia

Capital city: Washington DC Population: 322,755,353 State with highest population: California State with lowest population density: Alaska Flag: Stars and Stripes

The United States of America is situated between the Pacific and (1) ________________ Oceans and it has borders to the north with (2) ________________ and to the south with (3) ________________. It is formed of (4) ________________ states and a federal district . Two of these states are actually separate from the rest: Alaska is located to the north west of Canada and (5) ________________ is an archipelago in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. The US also has overseas territories, such as the United States Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and American Samoa in the South Pacific, which are controlled to various degrees by the US government. The USA covers an area of (6) ________________, more than twice the size of the European Union. The population is currently estimated at (7) ________________. The District of Columbia has the highest population density at 10,994 per square mile, followed by New Jersey at 1,218 per square mile. The two states with the lowest population density are Wyoming and (8) ________________ with, respectively, 6 and 1.3 inhabitants per square mile. (9) ________________ is the state with the highest population, 39,144,818 (2015 estimated figure). The US flag, commonly called the (10) ________________, has 50 white stars to represent the number of states and 13 stripes to represent the original 13 colonies. This is the District of Columbia where the capital city Washington DC is located. It is land which was donated by the State of Maryland specifically to build the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capital and is not part of any state.

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ACTIVITIE S

Listening 37 PET Listen to a tourist guide talking about three different tourist attractions/geographical features in the USA and fill in the missing information.

Geography |

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WARM UP

Read the texts quickly to find the answers to these questions. 1 Which is the smallest state in the USA? 2 Which is the largest state? 3 Which is the largest city? 4 Where is the highest mountain? 5 Where is the lowest point in the USA? 6 Where is the largest lake?

prairies: praterie grasslands: pascoli

Fortune 500 is an annual list, compiled and published by the business magazine Fortune, of the top 500 companies in the USA. The classification is based on the companies gross revenue and includes companies like Exxon Mobil, Walmart, Apple and Ford. Some Fortune 500 companies based in Atlanta are Delta Airlines, Home Depot and UPS.

Geography of the USA The North East This region of the USA, from the capital Washington up the Atlantic coast to the border with Canada, has the largest city – New York – and the smallest state – Rhode Island. It is the most densely populated and industrialised region, with a number of important cities along the Atlantic coast. Philadelphia and Boston are both historically important, having played a significant role in American history; Washington is the political capital and New York the financial, business and cultural capital. Delaware and Baltimore are also important cities. This area also has farmlands, forests and valleys with the Appalachian mountains in the east. The St. Lawrence Seaway connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes.

The South East This region covers the states from Louisiana across to Georgia, and up to Virginia in the north and down to Florida in the south. Traditionally an agricultural area for growing cotton, tobacco, rice and sugar, it is now more diversified and economically stronger, with many important cities and business centres. New Orleans, a port and a centre for tourism, is situated in the flat lowlands of the Mississippi Delta. Atlanta is well known for CNN and many Fortune 500 companies are located there. Miami, with its Latin American influences, is a tourist’s dream, along with the rest of Florida, with its wide beaches, the Everglades and theme parks.

The Midwest This region, which includes amongst others the states of Wisconsin, Ohio, Minnesota and Iowa, is sometimes called the ‘heart’ of the USA. It is an area of flat, fertile land which is vital for agriculture with crops like corn, wheat and oats. The northern states also produce milk and cheese. The longest river in the USA, the Missouri, starts in Montana and flows into the Mississippi River, the second longest river in the USA. In the north, on the Canadian border, there are the Great Lakes. Lake Superior is the largest and is over 560 km long. Important industrial cities include Chicago for steel, chemicals and Grand Canyon financial services, Detroit for cars and Cleveland for steel and petroleum refining, although as heavy industry declines, they are moving towards becoming centres for new technologies and services.

The South West This region (Arizona, Texas, New Mexico and Oklahoma) shares a border with Mexico. It is full of open spaces, with prairies, grasslands and deserts, but at the same time it is home to some of the fastest growing cities in the USA, thanks in part to the climate. The Rocky Mountains extend north from New Mexico, and the Colorado River, which created the spectacular canyons like the Grand Canyon, flows through Arizona. There are many Native American reservations in this area, and it also is influenced by Mexican culture. 240

Miami

DO S S I E R 1 | UK vs USA

Yosemite National Park

Alamo Square, San Francisco

The West This is a very geographically diverse region, but all of the states are mountainous to some extent. The Rocky Mountains run approximately north to south through the central states of this region, while the Sierra Nevada mountain range is in southern California and the Cascade mountains are in Oregon and Washington. To the east of the Rocky Mountains there are the Great Plains, while to the west there are the arid deserts of Utah and Nevada. The lowest point in the USA is Death Valley in California at 86 metres below sea level. The area has some agriculture, especially fruit, vegetables and wine in the Pacific Coast area, as well as sheep and cattle farming and mining. Tourism is an important industry both in the major cities, such as Las Vegas, Los Angeles and San Francisco, as well as the many National Parks, like Yellowstone and Yosemite.

Hawaii

Alaska and Hawaii, although detached from the other western states, are often classified together with this region. Alaska, the largest state in the USA, is mountainous and has the highest peak in the USA (Mount McKinley, 6,194 m). Many parts of the state are uninhabited and the majority of the population lives in the area of Anchorage. There are vast crude oil deposits in the region. The Hawaiian islands are volcanic. Tourism is the main industry, although the islands do export coffee, pineapple and sugar. US megalopolises

2 Read the texts again and answer these questions. 7 Why is there a lot of Mexican influence in the 1 What is the landscape like in the North East? South West? 2 What is the purpose of the St. Lawrence Seaway? 8 What common feature do the Western states 3 Which areas of the South East attract a lot of share? tourism and why? 9 Where is most of the agriculture located in this 4 What is the economy of this area based on? region? 5 What foodstuffs are produced in the Midwest? 10 How do the economic resources of Alaska and 6 How have the industrial cities of the Midwest Hawaii differ? changed?

AC TI V IT IE S

Reading comprehension

cattle: bestiame crude oil: petrolio greggio

Internet research 3 Plan a trip across the USA, from coast to coast. Then present your ideal journey to the class.

• Which states would you travel through? • Which important cities/areas would you visit?

• How would the landscape change during your trip? • Where would you spend most time? Why?

Geography |

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English-Speaking World WARM UP

What do you know about the Commonwealth? And about Canada? What languages are spoken there? Who is the Head of State?

Current Commonwealth nations: Canada One of the most unique institutions in the world of politics and international relations is the Commonwealth of Nations: a group of 53 independent sovereign states – the largest of which are India, Nigeria, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Kenya and South Africa. The Commonwealth of Nations comprises a combined population of 2.3 billion people – almost a third of the world’s population. All of the Commonwealth states have historical links with the UK, and most are former colonies, which is why the symbolic Head of the Commonwealth is Queen Elizabeth II. They are all legislatively independent parliamentary democracies, which can vote to remain part of the Commonwealth or to leave it. So, in practice, what does it mean to be a Commonwealth state? Despite their diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds all member states are regarded as equal in status, and co-operate within a framework of common values and goals, such as the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace, which are carried out through multilateral projects and meetings. They even organise the quadrennial Commonwealth Games – an event similar to the Olympics.

Canada Canada is peculiar as a Commonwealth state because it is a former colony of both France and the UK. The country is made up of ten provinces and three territories, including the province of Quebec where 85% of the population are French speakers, and which has French as its official language. Canada has a population of approximately 35 million people, of whom 22% are French speakers, and a further 17% bilingual. Not surprisingly, there is some opposition from French-speaking Canadians to the fact that their Head of State is the British Monarch. However, the national government have been very careful to promote multiculturalism and to ensure that it is also protected by the constitution. Furthermore, the role of the Queen in Canada is only a symbolic and diplomatic one – she regularly visits all areas of the country to maintain relations, but is never involved in internal politics. Although all Commonwealth members have equal status in the organisation, Canada’s role is particularly relevant. It is the second largest financial contributor, and the funds are used to help less developed, poorer member states; it also makes a great contribution in terms of education and it has hosted the Commonwealth Games no fewer than four times. These are possibly the main reasons why Canada’s membership of the Commonwealth does not appear to be in question.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the texts and answer these questions. 1 Why is Queen Elizabeth II the symbolic Head of the Commonwealth? 2 What do all Commonwealth members have in common from a legal point of view? 3 How is Canada different from other Commonwealth members?

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4 Why are some French-speaking Canadians unhappy that Canada belongs to the Commonwealth? 5 What has the Canadian government tried to do to solve this problem? 6 How is Canada particularly involved in Commonwealth affairs?

Meet Justin Trudeau Thanks to his father, Justin Trudeau’s name was well known in Canada before he launched his election campaign, but who, really, is Justin Trudeau?

years to come, Justin Trudeau assumed the mantle of an advocate more and more, talking to youth or promoting environmental issues. Closest to his heart was his work to create the Canadian Avalanche Centre, hoping to produce some good out of his brother Michel’s death, who had perished in an avalanche in 1998. Yet it wasn’t until 2008 that he became a full-pledged politician with his election as a Liberal Party parliamentarian.

A During his childhood, he was in

the spotlight because of his father’s job. Just a few months after Trudeau was born, US President Richard Nixon made a state visit to Ottawa and made a bold, if lighthearted, prediction. “Tonight, we’ll dispense with the formalities,” Nixon said according to reports. “I’d like to toast the future prime minister of Canada: to Justin Pierre Trudeau.” After his childhood, Justin Trudeau kept a fairly low profile. He graduated from McGill University, in his family’s hometown of Montreal in 1994. Then, rather than follow his father into politics, he chose a different path – out west, and as a schoolteacher.

C Whispers said he was a lightweight who’d only gotten

so far on his family name. He proved them wrong in a 2012 charity boxing match – the sport being one of his passions – as he beat his opponent Patrick Brazeau, a military vet and then-senator from Canada’s Conservative Party. And he proved them wrong again during his 78-day election campaign and with his victory. After his election, Trudeau said, “We defeated the idea that Canadians should be satisfied with less, and that better isn’t possible. My friends, this is Canada, where better is always possible.”

B However, he was thrust into the public spotlight again

on his father’s death in 2000. In his eulogy, Trudeau talked about his father and the lessons he’d taught, including the importance of humility and public service. In the

Reading comprehension 3

FIRST Read the article and decide which paragraph…

1 gives an example of one of Trudeau’s hobbies? 2 refers to a family tragedy? 3 mentions his first introduction to a politician?

____ ____ ____

4 suggests some people thought Trudeau would not succeed? 5 refers to Trudeau’s hopes for the future of Canada? 6 mentions memories of the past?

____ ____ ____

Listening 4

ACTIVITIE S

Justin Trudeau was elected Prime Minister of Canada in October 2015. His father, Pierre Trudeau, was Prime Minister from 1968 to 1979 and from 1980 to 1984.

FIRST Listen to these stories about the disagreement over the use of the French and English languages in Quebec and complete the sentences. 38

1 The Old Navy chain of shops ___________ to rename its brand ‘La Vieille Rivière’. 2 The owner of the Indian Restaurant was accused of ___________ the law, because he was promoting a British beer. 3 ‘Go Montreal’ was a ___________ used by the Party of the Mayor of Montreal. 4 Imperial Oil decided not to keep the name of its gas stations because of ___________.

5 Quebec Government offices were criticised because their automated phone system gave ___________ in English before French. 6 The story about the woman who complained about a monolingual parrot may be an ___________. 7 The news story about bilingual dogs in Montreal was ___________.

Speaking 5 Discuss these questions in pairs. 1 Is the Commonwealth a valuable institution? What benefits do you think it brings to its members? 2 Do you think monarchies still have an important role to play today? 3 How well are Canada and its politics covered by the media in your country?

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When you imagine Australia and New Zealand, what are the first five things that you think of? Write them down, and then compare with a partner.

Current Commonwealth nations: Australia and New Zealand Australia and New Zealand are the two largest countries in the continent of Oceania in the Southern Hemisphere.

SIMILARITIES • They are both island states, and are surrounded by the South Pacific Ocean and, in the case of Australia, the Indian Ocean too. • Both countries were once colonies of the British Empire and are now members of the Commonwealth group of countries – so they are English-speaking countries. • Australia has 2 cities with a population of over 4 million people – Sydney and Melbourne. However, the capital – Canberra – is only the country’s 7th largest city. Similarly, the largest city in New Zealand is Auckland with a population of 1.4 million while the capital – Wellington – is the third largest city. • Because they are both in the Southern Hemisphere the seasons are inverted compared to Europe – so Christmas occurs in the middle of summer, and August is a cold month.

• Both countries have indigenous minority populations – known as the Aborigines in Australia and the Maoris in New Zealand. • It is possible to find animals which cannot be found in the wild in any other place on Earth: Australia is famous for its kangaroos and wallabies, the possum, the koala bear and a wild dog called the dingo. New Zealand has an unusual bird called the kiwi, which has a long beak and cannot fly; and many types of penguins and marine animals that can only be found there.

DIFFERENCES

Because both Australia and New Zealand are part of the Commonwealth they have a lot in common with Great Britain – for example, they drive on the left and their head of state is Queen Elizabeth II.

• Australia is an enormous country – almost as large as the USA and the 6th largest in the world, while New Zealand is only slightly larger than Great Britain; • Australia has a larger population – about 23.7 million, compared to only 4.5 million in New Zealand; • About 70% of Australian land is arid. However, the country also has mountains where it snows in winter, and, in the North, which is closer to the Equator, the climate is tropical. Because New Zealand is further south, it has a cooler, wetter, temperate climate.

ACT IV ITI ES

MORE ABOUT...

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Despite these differences, Australia and New Zealand have always been economically and politically close. Since 1983 there has been a trade agreement between the two countries known as Anzcerta, which has benefitted them both substantially.

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and decide if these sentences are true (T) or false (F).

1 Both Australia and New Zealand are in the Southern Hemisphere. 2 Both countries are islands in the Indian Ocean. 3 At Christmas time it is warm in Australia. 4 You can find kangaroos in New Zealand and Australia. 5 New Zealand has a larger population than Australia. 6 Australia has a varied climate. 7 The climate in New Zealand is cooler because the country is further south. DO S S I E R 1 | English-Speaking World

T F

Uluru or Ayers Rock In the centre of the Australian desert there is a unique and mysterious land feature, listed as a World Heritage Site, known as Ayers Rock, or Uluru – two official names – one given by the white colonialists and the other by the native Aborigines, the Anangu. It is a large sandstone mass standing 348 m high in a dry, flat area, with very little vegetation, and is considered sacred to the indigenous people. Nearly half a million people visit the rock for tourism every year and it is considered particularly beautiful at sunset when it changes colour and becomes red.

There are many mysteries connected to Uluru. For the Anangu people it is considered the resting ground of the spirits of the creators of the world itself. The Anangu do not climb to the top of the rock and do not want parts of it to be photographed for spiritual reasons. One other mystery connected to the rock is that nobody should take away any pieces of rock from the site. If they do, they will be cursed by evil spirits. This possibly seems just a superstition, but many people have reported strange incidents after taking rocks away from the site.

Dreamtime

The aboriginal Australians have a very original form of spirituality called ‘dreaming’, or ‘dreamtime’. They tell stories about the creation of sacred places, land, people, animals and plants; and they believe that every creature also exists eternally in a dream form – so the soul exists both before and after life. They also use this code to establish laws and customs. Connected to this tradition is the belief in ‘songlines’ – paths of energy which the white man cannot see but Aborigines can sense. These invisible lines help them to find their way when walking long distances in the desert – a practice called ‘walkabout’ which Aboriginal boys have to perform as a ritual to become sandstone: arenaria adults. They are called ‘songlines’ because the Aborigines sing as they walk, to help them recognise the path. Uluru cursed: maledetti and the surrounding area is crossed by many songlines which is another reason why it is sacred for the Aborigines.

3 Read the texts about Uluru and Dreamtime and answer these questions. 5 What is ‘dreamtime’? 1 Why does Uluru have two names? 2 What is unusual about Uluru at a certain time of day? 6 What do the Aborigines do to help them recognise the paths of energy? 3 Why do the Anangu people not climb the rock? 7 What is ‘walkabout’ and why do Aborigines 4 What apparently happens if you take rocks away do it? from Uluru?

Listening 4

ACTIVITIE S

Reading comprehension

PET Listen to this description of the Aborigines and fill in the missing information.

The Aborigines

1 The term Aborigine is used to refer to the indigenous or (1) ___________ people of Australia. 2 These people once spoke about (2) ___________ different languages. 3 One cultural difference was that the Aborigines did not usually wear (3) ___________. 4 The Europeans did not treat the Aborigines well because they thought they were (4) ___________. 5 The boomerang is used as a (5) ___________ by native Australians. 6 Their culture is rich in music, stories and art, but it did not have a (6) ___________.

Writing 5

PET Write a story (about 100 words). It must begin with this sentence:

‘We arrived at Uluru at 3 o’clock in the afternoon and the thermometer in the coach said it was 42°C.’

Geography |

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English-Speaking World WARM UP

What do you know about Singapore and India and their economies?

thrive: prosperare

ACT IV I TIE S

The Ease of Doing Business Index is an index created by the World Bank and is based on the study of laws and regulations directly affecting businesses. Higher rankings indicate better, usually simpler, regulations for businesses and stronger protections of property rights. In 2016, the UK was ranked 6th, the USA 7th, while Italy was number 45.

Current Commonwealth nations: Singapore and India The Four Asian Tigers or Asian Dragons is an expression used in reference to the highly-developed economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan, which all maintained exceptionally high-growth rates (in excess of 7% a year) and rapid industrialisation between the early 1960s and 1990s. They are advanced and high-income economies, specialising in areas of competitive advantage. For example, Hong Kong and Singapore have become world-leading international financial centres, whereas South Korea and Taiwan are world leaders in manufacturing information technology.

Singapore Singapore, one of the Four Asian Tigers, has an extremely developed economy and is one of the most open, and thus competitive, markets in the world. For the last ten years, the World Bank Ease of Doing Business Index has ranked Singapore as the best country in the world to do business with. This innovative and highly successful mixed economic system – where both the market and the state have equally strong roles in the government – is known as the ‘Singapore Model’. This model was born out of necessity because the country has a relatively small domestic market, so it has to open its economy to external markets in order for the economy to thrive. The government has also actively encouraged new industries to develop in Singapore in order to respond to the needs of the global market. The Singapore government’s strong economic policies have led some commentators to label the country as ‘Singapore Inc.’ – where the country appears to be run more like a corporation than a nation.

Reading comprehension & Speaking 2 Read the texts and answer these questions. 1 What countries make up the Four Asian Tigers? Why do you think they are referred to as tigers or dragons? 2 What similarities are there between the four countries?

3 How is the Ease of Doing Business Index created? Do you think Italy’s position is surprising? 4 What is the Singapore Model? 5 Why is the country sometimes referred to as Singapore Inc.?

Listening 3

40 FIRST Listen to an educational expert talking about the higher education system in Singapore, and complete the missing information.

1 ___________ of people attend Polytechnics in Singapore, while 20% attend university. 2 Government reviews are aimed at ensuring higher education programmes are ___________ for the workplace. 3 Companies consider ___________ skills important attributes in an employee. 4 The Internet, computer-aided instruction packages and ___________ are widely used in teaching. 5 In the future, the role of the ___________ in higher education is likely to increase. 6 If there are more postgraduates, there will be an increase in ___________.

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DO S S I E R 1 | English-Speaking World

India: from emerging to surging India is the second most populated country in the world after China. Since it achieved independence from British rule in 1947, the country has developed at an incredible pace in areas such as industry, IT, education and foreign trade. Exports in 2014 stood at approximately $330 million. However, there is still an alarming disparity in the country: the literacy rate is only 69% in the over 15s; nearly 30% of the population lives under the national poverty line; millions have no access to decent sanitation. In addition, there are huge problems connected with violence and discrimination against women, which the government is attempting to face.

Mumbai, financial capital of India

Why India Is Increasing Its UK Investments When it comes to Indian investment in the UK, among the most high profile is Tata Motors’ ownership of carmaker Jaguar Land Rover. Yet this is just the tip of an iceberg when it comes to UK firms owned by Indian businesses. According to a report from government department UK Trade & Investment (UKTI), India is now the thirdlargest source of foreign direct investment into the UK. 1 These created 7,730 new UK jobs and safeguarded a further 1,620. 2 In addition to Tata Motors, Indian IT firms Infosys and Wipro have UK operations. Meanwhile, sister Tata business, Tata Global Beverages, owns best-selling Tetley Tea; and Tata Steel has significant UK operations, despite recently announced job cuts due to falling demand and cheaper steel from China. Alpesh Patel, of a London-based private equity business, says that the quality of Indian small to medium-sized enterprises has improved significantly over the past 10

He adds that the ease of doing business in years. 3 the UK, as well as the English language and familiarity with UK institutions, also makes the UK an attractive proposition for Indian investors. The UK’s historical connections with the rest of the world, including Africa, are also key in attracting Indian investment. 4 ‘Advanced engineering is a big strength for the UK,’ says Mr Rajani, UK India business group leader at accountancy firm PricewaterhouseCoopers. ‘High-end engineering, high-end advanced services, high-end pharmaceuticals are very interesting areas for Indian companies.’ But what about UK investment going into India? Between 2000 and 2015, the UK invested £14.5bn in India, accounting for around 9% of foreign direct investment in the country, according to a report by UK business group the CBI. 5 The CBI study added that in total UK companies are estimated to employ 691,000 people in India. That is 5.5% of the organised private sector workforce.

4 FIRST

Read the article and choose the best sentence to fill each gap. There is one extra sentence you do not need.

a This makes the UK the largest foreign investor in India after Singapore and Mauritius. b Overall there are now more than 800 Indian-owned businesses in the UK, employing more than 110,000 people. c Their investors need to look for financing from the UK to put into their UK operations.

d It stated that, in 2014, investment from India into the UK increased by 64%, with investments in 122 projects. e Furthermore, Indian firms are also keen to tap into British hi-tech expertise. f Many of them are looking to enter EU markets using the UK as their gateway.

ACT IV I TI ES

Reading comprehension

Speaking 5 Discuss these questions in pairs. 1 What do you think are the most positive/negative aspects of the development of these countries’ economies? 2 Do you think they will continue to grow as quickly in the future?

3 Many people from the West work in Singapore and India. Why do you think this is? 4 Would you consider working in one of these countries? Why/Why not? 5 What about visiting as a tourist?

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English-Speaking World WARM UP

What is colonisation? Can you name any countries that have been colonised? Do you think it is a good or a bad thing? Why?

AC TI V IT IE S

scramble: lotta, corsa break down: sfaldarsi, crollare

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Colonisation in Africa Although the African continent had been exploited by Europeans as early as the 15th century, the colonisation of Africa by European countries – most notably Britain and France – started at the end of the 19th century. The entire continent was colonised in only 25 years (1885-1910) during a wave of activity known as the ‘Scramble for Africa’. The main reason why colonisation took place was economic: in the 19th century European countries were industrialising rapidly, they were looking for new sources of raw materials for manufacturing and Africa was an extremely rich source of minerals, agriculture and other natural resources. The British government colonised 19 African countries in every part of the continent. The largest of these were Egypt and Sudan in the North, Nigeria in the West, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda in the East, and Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa in the South. The British interest in these parts of Africa was strategic. They exploited the mineral resources in the South and tried to control the River Nile for trade with India. There was even a plan to link South Africa to the Suez Canal by rail, but it was never completed. One very clear example of European intervention in Africa can be seen by looking at the borders between the different countries. These borders were created by the Europeans with little or no regard for existing ethno-linguistic groups or political organisations of the time. Furthermore, the borders often moved according to changes in political agreements between the European countries, leading to a great amount of confusion and conflict among the native people. Colonisation was also a form of racism, given that the colonists dictated how the countries were governed, often using violence against the African people. In addition, they would often support a particular ethnic group, usually a conservative minority, in order to encourage them to go against the interests of their own countrymen. Nowhere was this more evident than in South Africa under Dutch and British rule. Colonialism started to break down in the 1930s in North Africa, where people had more access to education and had a strong awareness of the injustice they were living under. The desire for independence spread quite rapidly across the continent. At the end of World War II, European countries were in great debt, consequently African demands for independence were gradually accepted, and by 1960 colonial occupation of Africa was virtually over. Livingstone the explorer

Reading comprehension 2

PET Read the text and choose the correct option.

1 Which of these statements is true? ‘The ‘Scramble for Africa’… A ended in the 19th Century. B only concerned the French and the British. C is another term for colonisation. D was a short period of intense European activity in Africa.

3 Which of the following statements is NOT true? The borders that the Europeans created between African countries… A sometimes changed. B reflected differences in language. C did not consider existing political divisions. D created tension among the Africans.

2 The main reason given for colonisation is… A the need to industrialise Africa. B competition between European countries. C that European countries needed more resources. D there was not enough agriculture in Europe.

4 What does the author say caused the end of colonisation? A The colonialists could not afford to continue occupying Africa. B The African countries had too many debts. C There were lots of educated people in North Africa. D World War II started.

DO S S I E R 1 | English-Speaking World

From Royal to Revolutionary; Prisoner to President After being jailed for life in 1964, Nelson Mandela became a worldwide symbol of resistance to apartheid. But his opposition to racism began many years before. Born into an African royal family largely dispossessed by colonisation, his grandfather had been a king and his father was a chief. However Mandela was destined not for royalty but for revolution. Nelson Mandela He attended a Methodist boarding (1918-2013) school and the only black university in South Africa, Fort Hare. However, he began to rebel against authority and was expelled. He joined the African National Congress in 1944 and helped establish its youth league. Together with a group of young, intelligent and highly motivated colleagues, he set about transforming the ANC into a mass political movement. The origins of apartheid went right back to the very beginnings of European rule in Southern Africa, but it was only with the election of the first National Party government in 1948, in a white-only ballot, that racial segregation was thoroughly codified in law. This meant, for example, that marriage between people of different races was prohibited and certain races were forced into living in designated areas. During the 1950s, Mandela was involved in numerous ANC protests and campaigns of mass civil disobedience against apartheid. He was also arrested and charged with treason. As the extreme violence against blacks continued at the hands of the government, he committed to an armed struggle and the ANC started to carry out sabotage attacks.

In 1962, Mandela was arrested and then, two years later, imprisoned for life in Robben Island jail. His story could have ended there. Both he and the ANC had been effectively silenced, Western governments continued to support South Africa’s apartheid regime and change seemed as far away as ever. But the rise of the militant Black Consciousness Movement during the 1970s and the death in custody of one of its founders, student activist Steve Biko, renewed interest in Mr Mandela and the ANC. As the black townships went up in flames, an active worldwide anti-apartheid movement was growing, focusing on the express aim of freeing Nelson Mandela and his fellow prisoners. Sanctions, demonstrations and music concerts were just a few of the many ways that his situation was kept in the public eye. South Africa became more isolated, businesses and banks refused to do business with it and the demand for change increased. In 1990, the South African government, which had already begun to water down some aspects of apartheid legislation, finally agreed to open negotiations, and Nelson Mandela was released. He easily won the election in 1994 and became South Africa’s first black president, by which time apartheid treason: tradimento had been dismantled. South water down: alleggerire Africa’s people were now equal under the law and could vote, and live, as they wished. Source – BBC News – © BBC 2013

3 Read the article and answer these questions. 4 In what way could the story of Mandela have 1 What kind of youth did Mandela have? ended with his imprisonment? 2 Why did the situation for non-whites change in 1948? 5 Why did South Africa become more cut off? 3 How did Mandela and the ANC change during the 6 Why do you think the article has this title? 1950s?

Listening 4

41 PET Listen to a music journalist talking about the anti-apartheid movement within the music industry during the 1980s and decide if these sentences are true (T) or false (F).

1 The music industry was the only sector to protest against apartheid. 2 The journalist knew who Mandela was before he heard the song ‘Free Nelson Mandela’. 3 Peter Gabriel’s song was about an anti-apartheid protester who was killed. 4 The artists of the song ‘Sun City’ performed it in Sun City, South Africa. 5 People in South Africa were not able to see Nelson Mandela 70th birthday concert on TV. 6 Only famous musicians took part in the Nelson Mandela 70th birthday concert.

Geography |

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Reading comprehension

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DOSSIER

WARM UP

Scan the texts quickly and match these historic figures to the correct description.

1 Claudius 2 William I 3 King John 4 Henry VIII 5 Oliver Cromwell 6 Wellington a

d e

formed the Church of England won the Battle of Waterloo important figure in the Civil War signed the Magna Carta ruled under the feudal system first Roman Emperor to conquer Britain

Under the Feudal System the king had complete control and owned all the land, which he leased to his barons. These barons swore to be faithful to the king. In turn, the barons gave the land to their knights, who had to fight and protect the baron and king when needed. At the lowest level, there were the servants or serfs.

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HISTORY A brief history of the UK Prehistoric history The first people to inhabit the British Isles were hunters and gatherers. Around 4500 BC the introduction of farming marked the beginning of the Neolithic period, when people started to have more settled lives and introduced rituals and ceremonies. Famous monuments, like Stonehenge, were built in this period. Through the Bronze and the Iron Ages the population increased and defensive forts were built.

The Anglo-Saxons (410-800) With the departure of the Romans, Britain was vulnerable to attacks from the Anglo-Saxons, from northwest Europe. They invaded and eventually settled in most of England, some of Scotland, but not Wales or Ireland. The country was divided into several kingdoms.

The Romans

The Vikings

(43-410 AD) The Romans first arrived under Julius Caesar in 55 and 54 BC but the first conquest was carried out by Claudius and his troops in 43 AD. They gradually conquered all of what is now England and Wales but never managed to conquer Scotland. In fact, they built Hadrianâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Wall across the north of the country to protect them from the Scottish tribes. The Romans founded many important settlements, such as London, Bath, Manchester and York. They also built roads and introduced sanitation and sewage systems.

(800-1066) The next invasions came from the Vikings from Scandinavia. They settled in many areas and dominated a large part of the country, taking over political control. Yorvik (now York) was their capital. Their legacy was the formation of the independent kingdoms of Scotland and England.

DO S S I E R 2 | UK vs USA

The Normans (1066-1154) In 1066 William, the Duke of Normandy, defeated the Saxons at the Battle of Hastings. He became King William I of England and ruled the country under the Feudal System . The Normans built many stone churches and cathedrals, as well as castles to protect the land.

The Tudors (1485-1603)

High and Late Middle Ages (1154-1485) This part of the Middle Ages was marked by war (the Hundred Years War between England and France), natural disasters (such as the plague in 1348 killing between 30% and 45% of the population) and public rebellion. The monarchy was starting to become less dominant and in 1215 King John was forced by his feudal barons to sign the Magna Carta, the oldest constitutional charter in Europe, which imposed limits on the monarch’s power.

This period had perhaps two of the country’s strongest monarchs: Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth I. Henry, who had six wives in his attempt to have a male heir, separated from the Catholic Church as the Pope would not allow him to divorce and remarry. He appointed himself head of the Protestant Church of England. Queen Elizabeth I reigned over a period of great discovery and exploration as well as cultural renewal. On her death, the crown passed to her cousin James Stuart, King of Scotland.

The Stuarts (1603 -1714) With James I now king of Ireland and England, as well as Scotland, it started to be difficult to maintain peace between the Catholics and Protestants. Civil War broke out in 1642 between Royalists, who supported the monarch, and Parliamentarians, led by Oliver Cromwell, who were against the absolute power held by the king and in favour of a more powerful parliament. King Charles I, who succeeded James, was executed in 1649 and later Cromwell became Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. The monarchy was restored in 1660.

The Georgians (1714-1837) After Queen Anne, the last of the Stuarts, the crown passed to George, from the House of Hanover. The Georgian period (there were four kings of the same name) saw social change, for example the abolition of slavery, and the increase in the power of Parliament. It was also a period of wars, notably the American War of Independence and the Napoleonic Wars, with Nelson beating Napoleon at the Battle of Trafalgar and Wellington’s victory at Waterloo.

PET Now read the texts more carefully and decide if these sentences are true (T) or false (F). T F

1 The Romans invaded Britain before the Anglo-Saxons. 2 The Anglo-Saxons settled in Wales. 3 The Kingdoms of England and Scotland were formed under the Vikings. 4 During the Middle Ages the figure of the king became even more important. 5 Queen Elizabeth I was one of Henry VIII’s wives. 6 The Civil War was between supporters of the king and supporters of Parliament. 7 During the Stuart Age, the country became a republic for a short period of time. 8 Slavery became illegal during the Georgian period.

ACT IV I TI ES

Reading comprehension

Internet research 3 Choose one of the historical periods above and compare it to the same period in your country.

Write a short report, including these points:

• what the significant events and developments in your country were; • who the important people were;

• any similarities or connections with British history.

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WARM UP

Read the text quickly and choose the correct heading for each paragraph.

1 New employment possibilities 2 A change in the country’s economy 3 Money and capital 4 Developments in the textile industry 5 The importance of steam

The Industrial Revolution and the Victorian period A

During the Industrial Revolution (mid 18th to mid 19th century) fundamental changes occurred in England, and then spread throughout Europe and North America. The economy shifted from agriculture to industry and trade and Britain became the world’s first industrial nation. B

The invention of the steam engine and its application in industry caused a great leap for industrialisation. It was used to drive machinery in factories and in agriculture and it was crucial to the development of the first steam locomotives and a reliable and efficient rail service. The railways, together with improved road and canal links, revolutionised communication and the transport of people and goods. C

The most dramatic changes were seen first in the textile industry. Prior to 1760, the manufacture of textiles occurred in the home, a ‘cottage industry’, and involved a long process from raw material to finished product. Then new inventions, such as power looms, were perfected and the manufacture of textiles became a much quicker and more efficient process. The number of mills rapidly increased, particularly in the north of England, and towns and cities quickly grew in size as people moved from the countryside to work in the new factories. D

Agriculture still provided food for the population and raw materials for the textile industry but improved methods of farming, irrigation, livestock breeding and the use of steam powered machinery meant that less labour was necessary, leaving many without work. Thanks to steam power, the demand for coal grew and coal mining in turn underwent major changes as production steadily increased to meet this demand. Many people, including women and children, found new work in the coalmines as well as the ironworks and other factories that were rapidly expanding. E leap: balzo in avanti power looms: telai meccanici mills: stabilimenti

The ownership of factories and machinery was a new source of wealth and owners needed funds: long-term capital to expand operations and short-term capital to purchase raw materials and pay wages to their employees. A banking system was set up and London became the country’s banking and financial services centre.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text again and answer these questions.

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1 Why was the development of steam power important for the Industrial Revolution? 2 Why did people move from the countryside to cities and towns? 3 Which region of England developed most during the Industrial Revolution? 4 What changes happened in the field of textiles? DO S S I E R 2 | UK vs USA

The Victorian Compromise

Queen Victoria

The dramatic and rapid n Born: 24/5/1819 changes during the Victorian n Died: 22/1/1901 period meant that, on the one n Length of reign: 1837-1901 hand, there was the progress n Married: Prince Albert, brought about by the Industrial from Germany Revolution, the rising wealth of n Children: nine the upper and middle classes and the expanding power of Britain and its empire; on the other hand there was the poverty, deprivation and injustice faced by the working classes. This contradiction is often referred to as the Victorian Compromise. During this period, the upper classes continued to prosper and the middle classes had the possibility to improve themselves and their fortunes. The values of the Church, family and home were fundamental. The family unit was based around the authoritarian father, with the mother in a submissive role. Morality and respectability were key, and society became almost puritanical. Monuments and buildings were constructed to celebrate civic identity and pride. Philanthropy and charity were important, so libraries, wash houses and swimming baths were built to allow members of the working classes to improve themselves. However, in reality, this was hardly possible. The housing conditions for the working classes were awful, with no clean water or proper sanitation. Working hours were long, often as many as 16 hours a day, in dirty factories full of dangerous machinery. Children, even as young as five, had to work too, for example in the textile mills, mines and as chimney sweeps, and had little or no education. Disease and epidemics were widespread and infant mortality was high. If people were too poor to support themselves, they were sent to workhouses . It is clear that the morals, beliefs and values of the Victorians were not reflected in the reality of the society around them. Nonetheless, this contradiction meant many reformers fought to improve and change conditions for the working and lower classes. As the century progressed, various social reforms were introduced to reduce working hours, improve health and grant free education to children. Improvements were also made to the cities with clean water, sewage systems and gas lighting.

sewage systems: sistemi fognari

People with no money, job or home, as well as orphans, were sent to these workhouses, which provided them with basic food and somewhere to live. In the workhouse they had to work and conditions were terrible. An example can be found in Charles Dickensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Oliver Twist.

3 Read the text and answer these questions.

1 What does the term Victorian Compromise refer to? 2 What values did the upper classes have? 3 How did the working classes live?

4 What was life like for children? 5 What was the purpose of a workhouse? 6 What changes came about towards the end of the Victorian period?

Speaking 4 Discuss these questions in pairs.

ACT IV I TIE S

Reading comprehension

1 Which developments in the Victorian age do you think were most important? Why? 2 Why was life difficult for children in the Victorian period? 3 What do you think was the most difficult aspect for children/adults?

History |

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WARM UP

What do you think the expression ‘The sun never sets on the Empire’ means? Read the first paragraph to check.

stems: deriva

Most former British colonies are members of the Commonwealth. This is a non-political, voluntary association to promote democracy, human rights and world peace. Queen Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth. Apart from the UK, she is also the head of state for 15 members.

The British Empire Origins

The origins of the British Empire go back to the 16th century and Britain’s interest in exploring the world to search for resources and establish new trading posts. At its height in the 1920s, the British Empire covered approximately 25% of the land in the world with 25% of the world’s population. The famous saying ‘The sun never sets on the Empire’ stems from the fact that, because of the extent of the British territories, it was always daytime somewhere in the Empire.

The rise The first British colonies were established in North America at the beginning of the 17th century. At the same time, Caribbean islands like Jamaica and Barbados were colonised and sugar plantations, which used slave labour, were set up. Because of this slave trade, parts of East Africa like Sierra Leone and Nigeria became economically important to Britain. Britain lost the 13 North American colonies with the Declaration of Independence in 1776 but continued to colonise other parts of the world, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and South Africa. Thanks to its position, South Africa was strategically important for sea travel to Asia and for the same reason, the British took control of the Suez Canal in Egypt. All these countries not only supplied raw materials to Britain, they were also new markets for the export of British products.

The decline Towards the end of the 19th century, however, the industrial growth of other countries increased competition for Britain and trade began to decrease. Furthermore, people were distancing themselves from the racist notion of imperialism. In 1931, Britain agreed to form a Commonwealth of Nations with Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia. After World War II, Britain, in serious economic difficulties, no longer had the money to maintain an empire. India was the first country to gain independence in 1947. By the end of the 1960s all the African colonies, apart from Rhodesia (renamed Zimbabwe in 1980) were independent, and by the end of the nineties so were the Caribbean islands. The last colony was Hong Kong which was returned to China in 1997. Britain undoubtedly left its mark on its colonies – for better and for worse – including its language, but the colonies also changed Britain, especially with the widespread immigration from the colonies after World War II.

Reading comprehension 2 Scan the text and underline all the countries that were once part of the British Empire. Which of these countries were the first and the last to gain independence?

3 Read the text and note down two reasons for:

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Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi n Born on 2nd October 1869 in Porbandar, Gujarat, India. n Leader of the Indian nationalist movement against British rule, imprisoned several times. n Practised non-violent protest to achieve political and social progress. n Often called ‘Mahatma’, which means ‘great soul’. n Assassinated on 30th January 1948 in Delhi.

Is Gandhi Still a Hero? W

hen Mahatma Gandhi came to London in 1931, he stayed in the poverty-stricken East End of the city, then visited struggling cotton mill workers in Lancashire. Now he is honoured with a statue in London’s Parliament Square, looking out over the Palace of Westminster. When the statue was announced, the British Prime Minister, David Cameron, said Gandhi’s ‘approach of nonviolence will resonate forever as a positive legacy, not just for the UK and India, but the world over’. The statue is designed to pay tribute to a man who lived humbly, loved humanity and practised non-violent struggle against a powerful adversary: the British Empire. In his day, Gandhi was a thorn in the side of his British rulers before Indian Independence – with his campaigns of civil disobedience and his dangerously powerful charisma. But in present-day Britain, Gandhi is admired by a generation that is embarrassed about its colonial history and admires non-violent methods of effecting

change. In India, decades of Indian schoolchildren have learned to call Gandhi ‘the Father of the Nation’ and his face is everywhere, from banknotes to public buildings. But the values Gandhi embodied – a vision of selfsufficiency for India and a lack of commercialism – seem old-fashioned to many in today’s urban, industrialised, hi-tech India. Now, a fast-paced, young generation craves luxury goods and international travel, not the chance to retreat to a village and make cloth. That leads to another truth: a reversal in economic fortunes as well as attitudes. In the first half of the last century, many in Britain considered themselves economically superior to India. Now, by contrast, British politicians are rushing to praise it, eager to attract its students to study and its business moguls to invest. No wonder the establishment wants to salute Gandhi and show him respect. Source – BBC News – © BBC 2015

moguls: magnati

PET Read the article and choose the correct option.

1 What is the purpose of this article? 4 How has India changed since Gandhi was A To inform readers of a new statue of Gandhi in London. alive? B To explain India’s fight for independence. A It has not changed and remains C To show how attitudes to Gandhi have changed. old-fashioned. D To describe the injustices of British rule in India. B It is economically more powerful. C It now feels superior to the UK. 2 Why did the UK government decide to erect D Young people no longer remember the statue of Gandhi? Gandhi. A He was an important British figure. B He represents a positive period in British history. C He characterises values for all the world. D They wanted to apologise to India. 3 What do most British people today think of Gandhi? A They believe that he was a dangerous man. B They are embarrassed about what he did. C They think he is not an important part of history. D They respect his methods of fighting.

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

5 Which of these statements best summarises the last paragraph? A The British opinion of India has changed dramatically. B Indian students want to study in the UK. C British politicians are cautious about doing business with India. D India owes its fortune to the British Empire.

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Read the texts quickly and choose the correct heading for each paragraph.

1 Society/Culture 2 War/Conflict 3 Politics/ Economy

MORE ABOUT... One of the most memorable battles fought by the Royal Air Force was the Battle of Britain, the first significant strategic defeat suffered by Adolph Hitler’s Third Reich during the Second World War. Between July and October 1940, the RAF’s Spitfires and Hurricanes, piloted by men as young as 18, fought this battle in the skies over the south of England against the German Luftwaffe.

Key moments in the 20th century A

Britain fought in World War I (19141918) and World War II (1939-1945), both of which left the country in serious economic difficulties. In April 1982 Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, a British Overseas Territory in the South Atlantic Ocean. The British government decided to send troops to regain possession of the islands. In June 1982 Argentina surrendered. The Northern Ireland ‘Troubles’, regarding the status of Northern Ireland within the UK, covered the period between the riots in 1969 and the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, although the conflict and its reasons date much further back. During these three decades, there was much violence and killing from both the unionist community (mainly Protestant, in support of remaining part of the UK) and the nationalist community (mainly Catholic, in favour of a united Ireland). In December 1988, a terrorist bomb on a transatlantic Pan Am flight exploded in the air above the Scottish town of Lockerbie, killing all 259 people on board and 11 people on the ground. British troops were part of the coalition force involved in the Gulf War in 1990-1991, after Iraq invaded Kuwait.

Between World Wars I and II, there was an economic recession as exports fell and unemployment rose. Trade unions became stronger and there was a 9-day general strike in 1926, over plans to cut wages and increase working hours. After World War II, Labour won the general election and the modern welfare state was created, with the foundation of a national health service. The government also nationalised major industries like coal and the railways. In 1979, Margaret Thatcher, the leader of the Conservative Party, became the country’s first female Prime Minister and she started to introduce free-market policies. The Conservative Government’s policy included privatisation, the closure of many industries and cuts in government spending. Closing industries, especially in the north of England, created massive unemployment and strikes, such as the coal miners’ strike of 1984/85. It was, however, also a period of economic boom with the privatisation of state-owned industries and the liberalisation of the stock market. After 18 years of Conservative governments, New Labour won the General Election in 1997 and Tony Blair became Prime Minister. Under his government, constitutional reforms were made regarding devolution for Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. 256

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Diana, the Princess of Wales,

The period during and after World War I saw a big change in the was well-known for her role of women in society. With so many men involved in the war, charitable work and support of various international campaigns. women started to work in factories and to do jobs for which they had previously been considered unsuitable. In 1918 women over the age of 30 won the right to vote, but it was not until 1928 that all women over 21 were able to vote. The 50s and 60s saw a time of affluence, with people now able to buy cars, washing machines, fridges and televisions. The ‘Swinging Sixties’ are often considered a liberal and permissive decade. The laws regarding divorce, abortion and homosexuality were liberalised. Fashion had a new look with Mary Quant and the mini-skirt. Groups like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones were changing the music scene. England even won the football World Cup in 1966! In 1971 a new decimal currency (100p = £1) was launched in the UK. In 1973 the UK joined the European Economic Community, but it did not adopt the Euro as its currency in 1999 like most other EU member states did. In 1996 BSE - or ‘mad cow disease’ – caused a crisis in the UK beef industry, with many farmers facing financial ruin due to the mass slaughter of animals and the ban on exports of beef. In 1997 Diana, the Princess of Wales, was killed in a car crash in Paris, together affluence: benessere with her companion Dodi Fayed, and the driver of the car Henri Paul.

2 Read the texts again and answer these questions. 1 What international wars or conflicts was the UK involved in during the 20th century? 2 What were the ‘Troubles’ in Northern Ireland and when did they end? 3 What was the UK’s economic situation like between the two World Wars? 4 Who was Margaret Thatcher? 5 What were the positive and negative effects of her Conservative Government during the 1980s?

6 Who is Tony Blair? What was his government involved in? 7 How did the role of women change after World War I? 8 When did they get the vote? 9 What were the 1960s like in the UK? 10 How was the beef industry in the UK affected by BSE?

ACTIVITI ES

Punk music and culture

Reading comprehension

Speaking 3 In pairs, use the information in the texts to prepare a timeline of major events that affected the UK in the 20th century, and then add similar key moments for Italy. Now discuss these questions.

• What key moments were both countries involved in? • Which events affected the other nation? How and to what extent?

Writing 4 Choose a particular event or situation that happened in the UK during the 20th century. Do some further research and write a short report. You should include:

• the background or events leading up to the moment; • description of the event, significant people and/or places; • the consequences and after effects.

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Why are these dates important in American history? 1492: ___________

1776: ___________ 1861: ___________

MORE ABOUT... After the Constitution was ratified, many Americans felt it did not specify the rights of individuals, so 10 amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were added to the Constitution to guarantee things like freedom of speech. Since the Bill of Rights was adopted more than 200 years ago, only 17 more amendments have been added to the Constitution (for example, abolition of slavery and voting rights for women).

A brief history of the USA Native Americans There are several theories regarding the arrival of the first Americans, which is estimated to be around 20,000 to 60,000 years ago. They probably arrived by crossing the bridge of land that once linked Asia to Alaska and gradually moved south and settled along the Pacific Ocean, in the mountains and deserts of the Southwest, and along the Mississippi River. Each tribe of Native Americans adapted to their environment and lived by gathering or hunting their food, farming and fishing. Their lives were, and often still are, closely linked to the land.

Arrival of the Europeans After Columbus discovered America in 1492, the next century was dominated by explorers and settlers. After their conquest of Mexico, the Spanish moved into the south (New Mexico, California, Texas) as well as Florida. The French colonised parts of Canada and Louisiana in the south while the English founded settlements along the Atlantic Coast. Their first successful colony was Jamestown in Virginia near Chesapeake Bay in 1607. The Pilgrim Fathers arrived on the ship The Mayflower in 1620 and established a colony in Plymouth, Massachusetts. There were also German and Dutch colonies. This period saw the drastic reduction in the number of Native Americans, killed by fighting or by the diseases brought by the European explorers and settlers.

War of Independence During the 1700s the thirteen Colonies grew in terms of population and economic strength. However, Britain imposed more and more oppressive restrictions and taxes on them so resentment grew. In 1773 there was the famous Boston Tea Party, where a group of protesters attacked British ships and threw their cargo of tea into Boston Harbour. On 4th July 1776 the Declaration of Independence was signed but fighting continued until a peace treaty was signed with Britain in 1783. A new Constitution was formed and George Washington became the first President of the United States of America in 1789. 258

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Moving to the West The USA grew dramatically in size when, in 1803, a massive area of land around the Mississippi and the Great Plains was bought from the French (the ‘Louisiana Purchase’). Then Florida was purchased from the Spanish in 1819 and, by 1848, Mexico had been forced to hand over Texas, New Mexico and California. People had started to move westwards across the continent to settle in the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains and California, where gold had been discovered. To do this, they fought the Native Americans and forced them to move from their land.

Civil War By now the USA was an enormous country but with some fundamental differences between the states. The northern states were the main centres of finance, commerce and manufacturing where slavery was illegal. The southern states were mainly agricultural and used slave labour to produce tobacco, sugar and cotton. Tension increased between North and South and when Lincoln was elected President, the southern states left the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The Civil War between the Union (the northern states) and the Confederacy (the southern states) lasted from 1861 to 1865 and was won eventually by the North but with the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives on both sides. The slave trade

2 Read the texts and answer these questions. 1 When and how did the first Americans probably arrive? 2 In which part of the country did the English form their first colonies? 3 What happened to the Native Americans during the period of colonisation?

4 What were the protestors at the Boston Tea Party protesting against? 5 Who was the first President of the United States? 6 What was the ‘Louisiana Purchase’? 7 What were the major differences between the northern and southern states before the Civil War?

Internet research

AC TI V ITIE S

Reading comprehension

3 Do some research on one of the historical figures mentioned in the text and write a description. History |

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WARM UP

Do you know which famous person said ‘Any customer can have a car painted any colour that he wants so long as it is black’?

brought about: causata assembly line: catena di montaggio reversed: invertì conveyor belt: nastro trasportatore

ACT IV I TI ES

Mass production is the method of producing goods in large quantities at low cost per unit while maintaining high quality standards.

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Mass production The basis for mass production was the development of the machine tool industry. Although some basic tools had existed for centuries, their translation into industrial machine tools capable of precisely cutting and shaping hard metals was brought about by a series of 19th century innovators, first in Britain and then in the USA. Large numbers of identical parts could be produced at a low cost and with a small workforce.

A scene from the film Modern Times

The assembly line The true ancestor of this industrial technique was the 19th century meat packing industry in Cincinnati and Chicago. Based on observations of the meat packing industry, the American automobile manufacturer Henry Ford designed an assembly line that began operation in 1913. Previously, cars were individually crafted by teams of skilled workmen – a slow and expensive procedure. The use of a continuous moving assembly line reversed this process. Instead of workers going to the car, the car came to the worker who performed the same task of assembly over and over again. Workers remained in place, adding one component to each car as it moved past them on the line. Delivery of parts by conveyor belt to the workers was carefully timed to keep the assembly line moving smoothly and efficiently. Ford’s methods drastically reduced assembly time per vehicle from about 12.5 hours to 6 hours and, thanks to continuous improvements, to 93 minutes in 1914. The price of a private car was also reduced, making it accessible to the common man and forcing both Ford’s competitors and his parts suppliers to imitate his technique. The assembly line spread through a large part of US industry, bringing dramatic gains in productivity and causing skilled workers to be replaced with low cost, unskilled labour.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer these questions. 1 How did the development of machine tools help mass production? 2 What is an assembly line? 3 Who introduced this concept to the automobile industry?

4 When was it introduced? 5 What benefits did the assembly line bring to US industry? 6 Were there any disadvantages? What were they?

3 Complete this table to describe car production before and after the assembly line. Before the assembly line

After the assembly line

__________________________________________ __________________________________________

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The Great Depression

WARM UP

The Great Depression was an economic recession in North America, Europe and other industrialised areas of the world that began in 1929 and lasted until about 1939. It could be possible to say that the Great Depression began with the disastrous collapse of stock market prices on the New York Stock Exchange on 29th October 1929, so called Black Tuesday. However the American and global economy had been in chaos six months before then and there were a variety of factors that caused and worsened the Great Depression. The 1920s, known as the ‘Roaring Twenties’, were a period when America was overdependent on production, with automobiles as the leading industry. There was also a great disparity between rich and poor. More than 60% of the population was living below the poverty level while only 5% of the wealthiest people in America accounted for 33% of the income and the richest 1% owned 40% of the nation’s wealth. This uneven distribution of wealth was also reflected in the unequal distribution of riches between industry and agriculture. While America prospered during the 1920s, most of Europe, still suffering from the devastation of World War I, fell into economic decline. America soon became the world’s banker and as Europe started to default on loans and to buy fewer American products, the Great Depression spread. Before the Great Depression, stock market regulations were very loose and investors were able to speculate wildly. They could buy stocks on margin, which meant they needed only 10% of the price of a stock to be able to complete the purchase. All of this out-of-control speculation led to falsely high stock prices. Then, when the stock market began to fall quickly in the months leading up to the October 1929 crash, these speculative investors could not honour their margin calls and a massive sell-off began. After a great rise in the stock market between early 1928 and September 1929, in September the market began to drop and on 29th October 1929, after a week of panic, there was the crash.

Do you know the Italian equivalent for these terms?

• share • shareholder • Stock Exchange

uneven: disuguale default: diventare inadempiente sell-off: liquidazione

2 Read the text and complete these sentences. 1 The Great Depression lasted about… 2 For six months before Black Tuesday, the American economy had been… 3 In the 1920s, … was unevenly distributed.

4 The Stock Market did not have proper … before the Great Depression. 5 Stock prices were falsely high because of… 6 The market crashed on…

Listening 3

42 PET Listen to what happened over the next three years and decide if these sentences are true (T) or false (F).

1 In 1932, stock prices were worth 20% less than in 1929. 2 Americans took their money out of the banks. 3 People spent less and production decreased. 4 A consequence of this was an increase in the number of people without work. 5 After the First World War, many European countries had lent the USA money. 6 Great Britain and Germany suffered the Great Depression less than other European countries.

ACTIV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

T F

Speaking 4 Discuss these questions in small groups.

1 Why do you think we use the expression ‘Black Tuesday’ when talking about the Great Depression? 2 Have you heard the word ‘Black’ used with other days of the week? What events do they refer to?

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WARM UP

What aspects of 20th century American history have you studied? Are the events or people mentioned on these pages?

Key moments in the 20th century (1) Prohibition

Prohibition was the ban on the sale, manufacture and transport of alcohol in the USA from 1920 to 1933. There were religious, moral and health reasons for banning alcohol. Many supporters believed that alcohol had destructive effects on peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lives and that modern life had lost sight of the values of the Pilgrim Fathers. They believed it would cut crime levels and domestic violence against women caused by drunk husbands. While the ban reduced the amount of alcohol consumed, it also caused an increase in underground, organised criminal activity, with gangsters like Al Capone in Chicago. Speakeasies, bars where alcohol was served illegally, became very popular. People also started to make their own alcohol at home and bootlegging â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the activity of illegally transporting alcohol into the USA â&#x20AC;&#x201C; became a big business. Popular routes were from the Caribbean to Florida and from Canada across the Great Lakes and the Detroit River. Bootlegging was a major source of income for organised crime during the Prohibition period.

Pearl Harbour On the 7th December 1941 the Japanese attacked the American naval base in Pearl Harbour, Hawaii. In the surprise attack, hundreds of Japanese fighter planes destroyed or damaged 18 American naval ships and hundreds of planes. More than 2,000 American Army and Navy personnel died, and many more were wounded. There were also civilian casualties and injuries. The following day US Congress declared war on Japan. Before then, the USA had been supplying war material to the Allies but was not at war. After Germany and Italy had declared war on the USA, the US troops also joined the Allies fighting in Europe. Victory in Europe was celebrated on 8th May 1945 with the surrender of Nazi Germany. However, it was only after the USA dropped nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki that the Japanese surrendered and the war ended. Unlike Britain, the USA was in a strong economic position after the war and started to dominate the world economy.

Reading comprehension

The Marshall Plan

2 Read the texts and answer these questions. 1 What was prohibition? 2 Why was it introduced? 3 What were the effects of prohibition? 4 What was bootlegging and why was it important for organised crime? 5 What happened at Pearl Harbour?

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6 Were the Americans expecting an attack from the Japanese? 7 How had the Americans been involved in the war until that point? 8 How did the situation of the UK and the USA differ at the end of the Second World War?

Civil rights movement In the 1950s and 60s the American civil rights movement carried out campaigns of civil resistance, such as boycotts, sit ins and marches, against racial discrimination and segregation. Two of the many figures involved in civil rights campaigns in the USA were Martin Luther King Jr and Malcolm X. In spite of their opposing ideologies, they were both dedicated to the fight for racial advancement.

Martin Luther King Jr. Born in Atlanta in 1929 to a Baptist minister and his school teacher wife, King studied at Morehouse College in Atlanta and Boston University’s School of Theology, receiving his doctorate in 1955. He became the minister of a Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, and was chosen as the head of a new group to support the Montgomery bus boycott, where the town’s black citizens boycotted the bus system for 13 months, a protest that ended with the ruling by the US Supreme Court that segregation on the city’s public buses was unconstitutional. During this time King developed his leadership techniques and nonviolent protest strategy, taken from Gandhi, that he combined with Christian social gospel ideas. He quickly emerged as a national civil rights leader and in 1963 he led the Birmingham campaign, the largest civil rights protest yet, with mass meetings, sit-ins, marches and a boycott of city shops. Later the same year, he gave his famous ‘I have a dream’ speech during the civil rights march in Washington. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964. King was arrested 13 times, his home was bombed on more than one occasion and attempts were made to kill him. He was assassinated in Memphis on 4th April 1968 while he was in the city to support the strike by sanitation workers.

Malcolm X Malcolm Little was born in Omaha, Nebraska, on 19th May 1925. After his father’s death and his mother was put in an institution, he was raised in various reform schools and foster homes. While he was in prison for burglary, Malcolm joined the Nation of Islam. After prison he moved to Chicago, became a minister for the Nation of Islam and changed his name to Malcolm X. He soon became the leading spokesman for the Nation of Islam, an organisation of black nationalists, led by Elijah Muhammad, who were in favour of black separatism regulated by a version of the Muslim faith. This ideology was quite the opposite of King’s and in the beginning Malcolm X was critical of King and his nonviolent activism and cooperation with whites. The support for black nationalism grew as many activists felt that nonviolent resistance to the whitedominated power structure was no longer sufficient to get results. In 1964 Malcolm X broke away from the Nation of Islam and later formed his own group, the Organization of African American Unity, which was ready to support any action, including violence, which would get significant results. Malcolm X was assassinated on 21st February 1965.

MORE ABOUT... The two men met in person only once. King had just finished a press conference regarding the Senate debate on the Civil Rights Act of 1964 when he met Malcolm X in the corridor. The two shook hands.

Rosa Parks

ACT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 3 Read the texts and say which civil rights leader(s)... 1 had a difficult childhood. 2 obtained a PhD. 3 changed his name. 4 was a minister.

5 won the Nobel Peace Prize. 6 believed in non-violence. 7 supported black nationalism. 8 was assassinated.

VIDEO 4 Watch this video of the famous Martin Luther King 'I have a dream' speech and then have a class debate about it. Do you think these issues are still relevant today? Discuss about:

• • • •

racism social equality social justice violence in society

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Key moments in the 20th century (2) Apollo 11 In 1961, the space race between the USA and USSR got even fiercer. In 1957 the Soviet Union had already launched the satellite Sputnik 1 and sent a dog into space in Sputnik 2, but on April 12th, 1961 the Russians became the first nation to send a man, Yuri Gagarin, into space. These successes by the Russians led President John F. Kennedy to promise that the USA would put a man on the moon before the end of the decade. They succeeded on 21st July 1969. Apollo 11, the fifth manned mission in NASA’s Apollo programme, was launched from Kennedy Space Centre in Florida on July 16th. Five days later the astronauts, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins, landed on the moon’s surface and Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon, saying these famous words: ‘That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.’

Vietnam War protesters The Vietnam War (1955-1975) saw the United States of America involved in a war which was over 8,000 miles away and in which 58,000 young Americans, many only 19 years old, lost their lives. As the number of military personnel in Vietnam grew, and American citizens saw the increasing horrors and failures of the war, the anti-war protest movement gathered strength. There was a large student protest movement, with many students burning their draft cards and other young people fleeing from the country to escape military service. The emerging counterculture of hippies, who were disillusioned generally with politics and society, and the Woodstock festival also became a symbol of the anti-war protest. On 15th October 1969, about two million people from all walks of life were involved in the Peace Moratorium – religious services, seminars, rallies and meetings across all the nation – to show their dissent and to pay tribute to American personnel killed in the war. There continued to be many similar marches and protests, especially in the capital Washington DC, until the ceasefire and withdrawal of American troops in 1973.

The Cold War Much of the second half of the 20th century was marked by the Cold War between the world’s superpowers, the USA and the USSR. Even before the Second World War, there was a lot of fear of communism in the USA and that it could infiltrate American society. This anxiety increased after the end of the war and was exploited by US Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy during the early 1950s. He accused many people, including Hollywood stars and directors, of carrying out un-American activities or being communist agents. Although during the Cold War there was no direct military conflict, there was extremely strong political and military tension, and both countries developed an arsenal of nuclear weapons. The Cuban Missile Crisis almost brought the world to a nuclear war in 1962. US President Ronald Reagan and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev were fundamental in ending this conflict, as they met at various summits to negotiate the reduction in nuclear arms. The end of the Cold War can be said to be at the Malta Summit in 1989, with an agreement between President George Bush Sr and Gorbachev, just a few weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989, a symbol of this East-West divide.

Reading comprehension 1

Read the texts and write notes about what happened on these dates.

early 1950s − 1955 − 1957 − 1961 − 1962 − 1969 − 1975 − 1989 264

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The assassination of JFK John Fitzgerald Kennedy

n Born on 29th May 1917 in Massachusetts n Part of a wealthy, Irish-American family n Graduated from Harvard University in 1940 n Entered politics in 1946 as a Democrat, and was elected to the House of Representatives and then the Senate n Became president in 1960, defeating Richard Nixon n Was the youngest president of the USA and the first Catholic president n Presidential career marked by Cold War tension and civil rights movement n Assassinated on 22nd November 1963 in Dallas, Texas, by Lee Harvey Oswald

In 2013, 50 years after the assassination, many journalists, authors and TV networks reflected on JFK’s death, the conspiracy theories surrounding it, and whether the killer had been correctly identified and the truth about what really happened revealed. This CNN article is from November 2013.

ifty years after President John F. Kennedy’s assassination, most people are aware that the Warren Commission’s investigation into JFK’s murder was inadequate, rushed and manipulated by powerful officials. So, it may come as a surprise that, despite everything, a large part of the commission’s basic conclusion turns out to be correct. Lee Harvey Oswald almost certainly was the man who killed President Kennedy. Oswald was a deeply troubled man, a castaway who never fit well anywhere and could get along with few. On November 22, 1963, he grabbed his rifle and planned to go out in a blaze of history-making glory by striking out at the ultimate symbol of power and success, a president who by pure chance would be passing by his place of low-level employment. Had Oswald not been killed by Jack Ruby, we probably would have learned as much in a few weeks or months.

Yet the story doesn’t necessarily end with Oswald. There is no question that many powerful individuals and groups, some with whom Oswald had personal association, possessed the means, motive and opportunity to kill President Kennedy. Was Oswald encouraged or manipulated in any way? Did anyone overtly or covertly aid him? After the assassination, were the FBI and especially the CIA simply trying to cover up for their incompetence in missing Oswald’s nature and intent, or were there more sinister motives? So much time has passed that we may never know, but our one chance to discover more is in the release of the still-classified documents, including items from the CIA, which should happened in 2017. Transparency cannot bring President Kennedy back, but at long last it could help America to come to terms fully with November 22, 1963. Source – CNN News – © CNN 2013

2 Read the article and answer these questions.

1 What was the Warren Commission? 2 What criticisms are there of this Commission? 3 What kind of person was Oswald according to the article?

4 Can we be sure that wanting to go out in a ‘blaze of glory’ was the reason behind Oswald’s actions? 5 Why doesn’t the story of JFK’s assassination stop with Oswald? 6 Is it possible that we will find out exactly what happened?

Speaking

AC TI V IT IE S

Writing

3 Choose an important figure from 20th century American history. Do some research and prepare a short presentation (3-5 minutes) to give to the class. Include information about:

• the person’s family/background; • the political and social climate at the time;

• important national or international events at the time; • how he/she was an important person in American history.

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INSTITUTIONS WARM UP

Who is the reigning monarch of the UK? Who is the current Prime Minister?

The word ‘parliament’ comes from the Old French for ‘speaking’ and was originally used in the 13th century to describe the after-dinner discussions between monks in their cloisters.

The UK political system The United Kingdom is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch. This means that a king or queen is the Head of State (currently Queen Elizabeth II) and a prime minister (currently Theresa May) is the Head of the Government, which is voted into power by the people. The monarch once had absolute power, but this has been reduced to very limited powers and ceremonial duties. The monarch must remain politically impartial.

Parliament The business of Parliament takes place in two Houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Their work is similar: legislation, scrutiny of the government and debate of current issues. Generally, the decisions made in one House have to be approved by the other. In this way the two-chamber system acts as a check and balance for both Houses.

THE HOUSE OF LORDS

THE HOUSE OF COMMONS The Commons is made up of 650 Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected by the public every five years. They represent many different political parties, although the majority belong to one of the three major parties, Labour, Conservative or Liberal Democrat. MPs debate the big political issues of the day and proposals for new laws. While most laws have to be approved by both houses, the Commons is solely responsible for decisions regarding financial Bills, such as proposed new taxes. Every Wednesday, MPs from all parties can question the Prime Minister on any subject, although they usually focus on the controversial issues of the moment. Debates are often very lively and dynamic, with MPs interrupting each other to challenge what is being said. However, certain rules must be followed and no ‘unparliamentary’ language is allowed.

MORE ABOUT... • When MPs vote in the Commons they say ‘aye’ or ‘no’. In the Lords, Members vote saying ‘content’ or ‘not content’. • MPs are not allowed to speak in the space between two red lines running along the length of the Chamber. It has been claimed that these lines are traditionally two swords’ lengths apart to prevent MPs duelling.

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The House of Lords is the second chamber of the UK Parliament and it processes and revises legislation (but does not veto laws passed by the Commons), acts as a check on government and provides a forum of independent expertise. Unlike MPs, the numbers of Lords are not fixed (there are currently 820 members), they are not elected by the public and they are not paid. In the past, hereditary peers (where the title of Lord was passed onto an heir) were automatically allowed to sit and vote in the House of Lords. This practice was stopped in 1999 and now the majority of members are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister or of the House of Lords Appointments Commission, an independent, public body. 26 of the Lords are Church of England archbishops and bishops. Some members support one of the three major political parties, while many others are independent.

The Constitution The United Kingdom, unlike other countries such as Germany and the USA, does not have a single, written constitution. Instead the British Constitution is formed by various written sources, including statute law (laws passed by Parliament), case law made by judges, and international treaties. There are also some unwritten sources, including parliamentary conventions and royal prerogatives.

Devolution UK devolution created a national Parliament in Scotland, a national Assembly in Wales and a national Assembly in Northern Ireland. This process transferred varying levels of power from the UK Parliament to these countries – but kept authority over the devolved institutions in the UK Parliament itself. The devolved powers include matters like education, culture, environment, transport, justice and health. The Scottish Parliament (129 elected members) and the National Assembly for Wales (60 elected members) took responsibility for their devolved powers on 1st July 1999, the Northern Ireland Assembly (108 elected members) followed on 2nd December 1999.

THE SOVEREIGN Along with the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the Sovereign is an integral part of the institution of Parliament, but the monarch is only really involved on occasions of symbolic significance, such as the State Opening of Parliament. The reigning monarch also has to approve all new laws – by the so-called Royal Assent – but this is just a formality.

Local governmental structures

2 Read the texts and decide if these sentences are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones. 1 The two houses have similar responsibilities. 2 MPs are elected by the public. 3 Both the House of Commons and Lords have to approve new financial laws. 4 MPs have a weekly opportunity to put questions to the Prime Minister. 5 Members of the House of Lords are elected. 6 Hereditary peers are no longer automatically allowed to be part of the House of Lords. 7 All members of the House of Lords belong to a political party. 8 The monarch has an important role in deciding new laws. 9 Education and healthcare were not part of the devolved powers. 10 Devolution in the UK took place on two separate dates.

T F

ACT IV I TI ES

Reading comprehension

Speaking 3 Discuss these questions in pairs. 1 Is there any form of devolution in Italy? 2 Which political party is in favour of devolution?

3 Do you think it is a positive thing? Why/Why not?

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Do you recognise the buildings in the photos on these pages? Which cities are they in?

misdemeanors: infrazioni, violazioni acquitted: assolto

MORE ABOUT... The US Constitution is the world’s oldest written national constitution still in effect.

The US political system The Constitution

The USA is a constitutional federal republic formed by 50 states. The US Constitution, which was ratified in 1788 and entered into force in 1789, is the framework for the American system of government. It defines the three separate branches of government (legislative, executive and judicial), their powers and a system of checks and balances. Each branch has some form of power over the others to ensure no single branch can become dominant. The Constitution, as the supreme law of the land, limits the legislative and executive powers of all levels of government. Any law or part of a law that is considered to be in conflict with the Constitution can be invalidated by the Supreme Court. Amendments to the Constitution are possible, but so far only 27 amendments have been made. The first ten amendments to the Constitution, called the Bill of Rights, guarantee important freedoms to every American, including freedom of speech, press, and religion. The other amendments mainly concern the expansion of political and civil liberties such as the abolition of slavery and voting rights.

The US Government

LEGISLATIVE BRANCH (Congress) SENATE

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

100 senators (two from each State)

435 representatives (the number for each State depends on its population) plus non-voting representatives from the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico and US Virgin Islands

Six-year terms; no limit on the number of terms, elected on a rotational basis so there are always experienced legislators

Two-year terms; no limit on the number of terms; all elected at the same time

Shared powers: • Legislation must pass both houses before it is presented to the President to be signed into law • Oversees the Executive Branch • Overrules a presidential veto

www.state.gov

Unique powers: • Confirms presidential appointments to the Supreme Court and key positions within the Executive Branch • Approves or rejects international treaties negotiated by the President • Conducts the trial and acts as jury in the case of impeachment of the President

Unique powers: • Can impeach the President and Supreme Court Justices • All bills for raising revenue must originate in the House • Selects the President in cases where no presidential candidate receives a majority of electoral votes

Reading comprehension 2 Read the introductory text and answer these questions. 1 When did the Constitution come into force? 2 What does it define? 3 What is the Bill of Rights? 4 How many other amendments have been made to the Constitution?

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Impeachment is the formal process in which an official is accused of ‘treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.’ Three presidents have faced impeachment: Andrew Johnson was saved from conviction by one vote; Richard Nixon avoided impeachment by resigning; Bill Clinton was acquitted.

EXECUTIVE BRANCH PRESIDENT

VICE PRESIDENT

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

INDEPENDENT AGENCIES

Four-year term (maximum two terms)

15 departments, including Dept. of State, Dept. of Homeland Security and Dept. of the Treasury

Numerous agencies including the Federal Reserve, the Environmental Protection Agency, NASA and CIA

• Appoints Supreme Court justices, federal judges, department secretaries and agency heads • Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces • Negotiates international treaties • Vetoes or approves legislation passed by Congress

• First in line to assume the presidency if the President dies, becomes incapacitated, or is removed from office • Takes part in Cabinet Meetings • President of the Senate and can break tie votes

The secretaries of each department are appointed by the President and form part of the Cabinet

The heads of each agency are appointed by the President

• Advise the President, administer and enforce the law, provide various governmental services

• Help carry out policy and provide special services

JUDICIAL BRANCH

www.whitehouse.gov

SUPREME COURT

LOWER FEDERAL COURTS

One chief justice and eight associate justices (the size of the Supreme Court is established by Congress)

E.g. Courts of Appeal, Federal District Courts, Bankruptcy Courts (jurisdictions, number of judges and budgets are established by Congress)

Presidential appointment, for life (can only be removed through impeachment and conviction) • Examines laws and government actions to ensure they do not violate the principles laid down in the Constitution • Can declare legislation and presidential acts unconstitutional

• Interpret and apply the federal laws in criminal and civil cases

www.supremecourt.gov

3 Read the information on these pages about the US Government and say which branches/people/ institutions the following statements refer to. 1 appoints Supreme Court justices 2 declares laws to be against the Constitution 3 impeaches the President 4 has non-voting members 5 confirms presidential nominations

6 has a limit on the number of terms that can be served 7 controls and checks the executive branch 8 are part of the Cabinet 9 holds the position for life 10 provide special services for the government

Speaking

AC TI V IT IE S

Reading comprehension

4 Choose one of the three branches of the US government and prepare a short presentation (3-5 minutes). Use the above information, as well as additional research, to talk about the structure, functions, responsibilities and people currently in positions of power within the branch.

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ECONOMY UK economy

WARM UP

This pie chart shows UK employment according to sector. Which section of the chart represents construction, manufacturing, mining and extraction, services and agriculture? Do you think the division of labour in Italy is similar?

Britain’s industrial north in the 1980s

Natural resources and energy

Britain’s large deposits of coal and iron ore were fundamental in the country’s Industrial Revolution and subsequent industrial development. However, most of the mines in Wales, northern England and central Scotland are now closed. The 1970s saw the start of production of North Sea oil and gas and currently these provide about 70% of the UK’s total primary energy. The UK is the 3rd largest gas producer and the 2nd largest oil producer in Europe. The offshore oil and gas industry supports approximately 375,000 jobs across the UK, both directly in the oil and gas companies, as well as in the supply chain and goods and services sector. The main regions are Scotland, with 45% of the workforce, and South East England with 21%. While coal and gas remain the principal sources for the UK’s electricity needs, the country also generates electricity through nine nuclear power plants. Having been built between the 1960s and 1980s, these are coming to the end of their productive life so plans are underway to build more, the first in Somerset which is predicted to provide up to 7% of the country’s electricity needs. Investment in renewable energy sources is on the increase, particularly with onshore and offshore wind farms. Source: www.oilandgasuk.co.uk and www.decc.gov.uk

Agriculture

86%

Occupying over 17 million hectares, agriculture accounts for around 70% the land use in the UK and employs 476,000 people (2014 figure). Agriculture is highly mechanised, intensive and efficient, producing about two thirds of the country’s food needs. Between 2013 and 2014, the total productivity of the agricultural industry rose by 6%, following two negative years with poor productivity due to extremely bad weather conditions. The principal products are cereal crops, with wheat representing over 40% of the total, followed by barley, oilseed rape, maize, potatoes and sugar beet. Livestock farming includes dairy cattle (for milk, butter and cheese), beef cattle, sheep and lambs, pigs, and poultry. Within the EU28 member states, the UK is the fourth largest producer of cereals, the largest producer of sheep meat and the third largest producer of poultry, beef, and veal. Source: www.gov.uk/government/statistics

Reading comprehension 2 Read the texts on these pages and answer these questions. 1 How does the UK oil and gas industry rank compared to the rest of Europe? 2 How does the country satisfy its electricity needs? 3 What forms of renewable energy are common in the UK?

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4 Which is the main cereal cultivated in the UK? 5 How many hectares of forest are there in the UK? 6 How does the UK fishing industry rank compared to the rest of Europe? 7 Are the UK’s forestry and fishing industries sufficient to support internal demand?

Forestry Only 13% of the land area in the UK, or around 3 million hectares, is forest and the most densely wooded area is Scotland. 40,000 people are employed in the forestry and primary wood processing sectors. To satisfy demand, the UK needs to import large quantities of forest products (including sawn wood, wood based panels, pulp and paper products). In 2014 imports totalled £7.178 million. Source: www.forestry.gov.uk

Fishing Although the fishing industry is in decline, the UK is in second place among EU member states in terms of the tonnage of its fishing fleet. In 2014, there were 6,383 fishing vessels and the number of fishermen employed in the industry was 11,845 most of whom worked in Scotland and Wales. The main fishing areas are the northern part of the North Sea and the west of Scotland and the principal fish caught are cod, haddock, mackerel and herring, as well as some shellfish such as crabs. The UK’s major exports are mackerel, salmon and herring in particular to France, the Netherlands and Russia while the country imports principally cod, tuna, shrimps and prawns. Source: www.gov.uk/government/statistics

BP Bets $200 Million on Renewables The energy sector is going through many changes but BP remains one of the most competitive companies in the challenge of going green. Thanks to climate change awareness, all major oil companies are under pressure to shift away from the traditional fossil fuels, like oil and gas, and get into cleaner sources of energy. Under the slogan ‘Beyond Petroleum’, 1 acquiring a large stake in Lightsource, a solar power developer based in the UK. While the demand for oil, which has been growing steadfastly at about 1.7% per annum in the last years, is expected to eventually level off to less than 1% a year through 2040, renewables like solar and wind power are increasingly seen as a good business opportunity: 2 That figure is much lower, however, than the 18% in estimated average returns that a drilling project offers. BP solar investments go back to 1980s, but they have always raised more than an issue, and now manufacturing equipment like solar panels is an area largely dominated by Asian companies, 3 But BP is confident in Lightsource proving itself as a vehicle to take advantage of what’s forecast 4 BP said its $200 million investment would eventually give it a 43% stake in Lightsource, which will be renamed Lightsource BP. BP’s investment will be used to help Lightsource grow globally, and develop solar projects able to manage BP is one of the world’s installations 5 The investment is tiny six largest oil and gas compared to BP’s capital expenditure of companies, with about $16 billion this year. headquarters in London. Adapted from The New York Times

FIRST Read the article about British Petroleum and choose the best sentence to fill each gap. There is one extra sentence you do not need.

a they are estimated to return between 7% and 10% on capital invested b that could power about half a million homes c as 10% to 15% annual growth in solar power in the next years. d BP is now investing billions in renewables, e BP interest in fossil fuels has increased f because of their more competitive price.

ACT IV I TI ES

Reading comprehension

Speaking 4 Discuss these questions in small groups.

1 Are there any important oil and gas companies in Italy? Where do they operate? 2 How does the energy sector in the UK compare to that in Italy? 3 What kind of renewable energy sources are common in Italy? What are their advantages/disadvantages?

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What famous British industries and products can you think of?

Stilton, a type of blue cheese made by adding mould spores to pasteurised milk, is made in central England in the counties of Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire. It has the EU Protected Designation of Origin label and there are only 6 diaries licensed to produce it. Over 1 million Stilton cheeses are made each year, with more than 10% being exported worldwide.

Industry and manufacturing The heavy industry of the UK’s industrial past – such as shipbuilding and steelmaking – no longer represents the bulk of the country’s industry. Where these industries remain, they are efficient and cost effective, employing fewer people in fewer locations and factories than in the past. The manufacturing industry employs around 2.6 million people in the UK and, in 2014, was worth 8% of the total economic output of the country. Goods produced in the sector account for 44% of all UK exports. Currently the three biggest industries which contribute the most to the total manufacturing and employment figures are food, beverages and tobacco, chemicals and pharmaceuticals and publishing and printing. National and international food companies like Associated British Foods, food processing, Kellogg’s, producer of well-known breakfast cereals, and SABMiller, beer and soft drinks, exist alongside smaller enterprises producing specialist or traditional products like Scotch whisky and stilton cheese . GlaxoSmithKline is one of the largest and leading pharmaceutical companies in the world which researches and develops new drugs, but also produces household names like Aquafresh and Sensodyne toothpastes. BAE Systems is at the forefront of the aerospace sector, while HarperCollins is one of the many companies in the publishing and printing sector, which is mostly located in London and the South East. There are no longer any British owned mass car manufacturers as they have all been taken over by overseas companies. However, companies like BMW, Nissan and Honda have invested in car manufacturing in the UK and continued operating old plants as well as building new ones. Most car production is in the West Midlands. Morgan and Caterham are almost the only British car manufacturers left and they make highly specialised sports cars. There are also well-established companies in sectors like engineering, electronics and telecommunications, textiles, clothing and construction, while emerging areas include low-carbon and environmental goods, as well as biotechnology, nano-technology and advanced composite materials. Thanks to globalisation, UK manufacturers were able to outsource the various stages in the entire production chain (from R and D to after sales service) to different countries around the world in order to reduce costs or improve productivity. Today, however, the trend is to reshore some elements of these activities – that is bring them back to the UK – in order to improve quality and delivery times.

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and answer these questions.

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1 What kinds of heavy industry used to be important in the UK? 2 How many people work in the manufacturing sector? 3 What share of the UK’s GDP is represented by manufacturing? 4 What kind of companies are SABMiller, GlaxoSmithKline and Morgan? DO S S I E R 3 | UK vs USA

5 How has the British car manufacturing sector changed? 6 What new kinds of manufacturing companies are entering the market? 7 What effects has globalisation had on the UK manufacturing industry?

Is Brexit the way out?

rexit (short for British Exit) is the word used to refer to the United Kingdom’s decision to officially leave the European Union, an economic and political partnership of 28 countries. It was the result of a referendum held in the UK on June 23, 2016 in which more than 30 million people voted (52% leave, 48% remain). The EU single market, which was completed in 1992, allows the free movement of goods, services, money and people within the EU: it is possible to set up a business or take a job anywhere within it as if it were a single country. It was meant to boost trade, create jobs and lower prices. But it also requires common law-making to ensure products are made to the same technical standards and imposes other rules to ensure all actors play on the same level. ‘Leavers’ argued that Britain’s participation in the EU was a restrictive element for the country: as one of the EU’s main initiatives is free movement within the Union, they focussed on regaining border control and reclaiming business rights, in their opinion too limited by EU red-tape rules.

In addition, another negative aspect of participation in the EU highlighted by them were the high membership fees: the leavers insisted on the fact that if the UK separates itself from the EU, these fees can be used to benefit the UK. The opposite side, the proponents of remaining with the EU also focussed on the economic issues. Beside the UK receiving business benefits by being able to participate in the EU single market system, ‘remainers’ believe that being part of a wider community of nations provides economic and cultural strength. Big business tended to be in favour of ‘remaining’ because it allows money, people and goods move more easily around the world. Some UK exporters say they've had increased orders or enquiries because of the fall in the value of the pound, while others fear products for the European market may have to be made at plants in the EU. Prime Minister Theresa May has ruled out the UK staying in the single market once it ceases being a EU member, but until then (29 March 2019), the UK is still subject to

the laws of the EU. After Brexit, Britain is going to have to negotiate new deals all on its own, on a country-by-country and sectorby-sector basis. That is both a problem and an opportunity, because these things take years to be accomplished. The long-term assessment of costs and benefits to the UK economy after Brexit is still unclear, but what we know for sure is that the EU wants the UK to settle any outstanding bills before it leaves. There have been no official estimates published of the size of the bill, but the figure has been thought likely to be one of up to £44bn, but Downing Street says they are confident it will end up being below £40bn.

MORE ABOUT... When talking about Brexit, and referring specifically to the closeness of the UK's relationship with the EU, the words ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ are often used. While ‘hard’ Brexit could involve the UK refusing to compromise on issues like the free movement of people even if it meant leaving the single market, a ‘soft’ Brexit might imply the UK remaining a member of the single market and accepting the free movement of people as a result of that.

FIRST Read the article and choose the correct option.

1 Brexit is… A a new European nation. B a new commercial deal between the UK and the EU. C the UK leaving the EU. D a new type of online trading. 2 The European Union is… A a confederation of Nations. B an economic and political partnership. C an economic and commercial partnership. D a commercial and political partnership. 3 The EU single market aimed at… A boosting trade, create jobs and allow lower prices. B letting people circulate freely in the Union. C establishing a common price policy. D eliminating competition among its countries.

5 Negotiations after Brexit will be… A easier for the UK. B easier for the EU. C on a country-by-country and sector-by-sector basis. D longer than usual. 6 To be able to leave the EU, the UK… A needs to pay a huge sum to the EU. B needs special financial requirements. C doesn’t need to pay a huge sum to the EU. D needs all the other countries’ approval.

ACTIV IT IE S

Reading comprehension

4 ‘Leavers’ main points were about… A too many people entering the UK. B limiting free circulations of goods. C European taxes. D regaining border control and reclaiming business rights.

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Service sector

The tertiary sector is the largest in the UK and the economic output of the sector is worth 80% of all UK economic output. 86% of the workforce is employed by this sector which includes government, healthcare, financial services, banking, retail, education and tourism. The government, education, health and defence sector employs 7.6 million people, 27% of the total workforce. The retail and wholesale industry employs around 4.4 million people. The retail market has shown a slow, but gradual growth since the 2008 credit crunch decreased consumer spending. This market is dominated by large chain stores, which Britain’s Tesco is the world’s third credit crunch: stretta del largest retailer after America’s operate in most sectors like credito Walmart and France’s Carrefour. food, clothing and electrical goods. This means that smaller and independent shops find it more difficult to compete. For example, four supermarket chains – Asda, Tesco, Sainsbury’s and Morrisons – have over 75% of the market share. Most major stores also have online shops and the number of exclusive online retail businesses has grown rapidly over the last few years, following the sharp rise in internet shopping. Tourism is also a key part of the UK economy, with London being one of the top tourist city destinations in the world. It has been the fastest growing sector in the UK in terms of The Tower of London is one of London’s employment since 2010, and the tourism industry is predicted to most popular tourist attractions. be worth over £257 billion by 2025. Over 1 million people work in the financial services sector, and about one third are employed in London. Edinburgh, Leeds and the North West are also significant centres for the number of employees in financial services. The City of London is one of the leading international financial and banking centres in the world, with hundreds of foreign banks, offices and subsidiaries. It is home to the London Stock Exchange, the Bank of England and Lloyd’s – the world’s specialist insurance market. With London being such a significant international financial centre, the global financial crisis of 2008 hit the UK economy hard as banks had to make thousands of workers redundant and reduce their international operations. However, since then it has maintained The City of London a strong position within the global market and is predicted to or the ‘Square Mile’ continue to grow, thanks also to increased overseas investments.

Can you remember what percentage of the workforce is employed in the service sector in the UK? Why do you think it is so high? Has it always been this way?

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and complete these sentences. 1 80% of the UK’s GDP is represented by… 2 … are examples of the tertiary sector. 3 … people are employed in the retail sector and … in the financial services sector. 4 It is not easy for independent retailers to compete with…

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ACT IV IT IE S

Listening FIRST Listen to this profile of British businessman Richard Branson. Complete these sentences with a maximum of three words. 43

Current UK economic situation At the end of 2008, the UK was in a serious recession as a result of the global crisis, with declining house prices and high consumer debt. In 2010, the government introduced a five-year austerity programme to lower the country’s level of debt, cutting public spending and services and increasing taxes. Between 2009 and 2010, the Bank of England injected £200 billion into the economy through quantitative easing in order to help the country climb out of the recession by increasing spending and economic growth. Towards the end of 2011 it added a further £75 billion due to growing fears connected to the eurozone crisis. Since 2013, the economy has grown, albeit sluggishly, every year with services increasing fairly strongly but manufacturing and construction showing a slight drop. Since early 2016 unemployment has been below 5%, and the employment rate is at a record high. After Brexit referendum the pound has fallen by about 10% against Quantitative easing is other currencies, rising the UK goods and services’ competitiveness. In 2017 inflation a process by which a peaked at around 3%, as pound’s fall caused the price of import to rise, but it will be Central Bank creates back down again soon, as exchange-rate effects fall out of the year-on-year comparison money and uses it to buy assets such as used to calculate it. Low inflation is a good thing: with nominal wages increasing at 2% government bonds and a year, inflation should fall below 2% and real wages should rise again. More, lower high-quality debt from inflation means that the purchasing power is eroded less quickly. All this suggests that private companies. the unanimity forecast for economic growth in 2018 – around 1.8% – is probably about right. The bigger risk, however, remains Brexit.

4 Read the text and discuss these questions in pairs.

1 What was the economic situation like in 2008 in the UK? And in Italy? 2 What measures did the government take to try to lower debt? Did the Italian government take any similar measures?

3 What is the purpose of quantitative easing? 4 What signs of recovery have there been since 2013? Is the situation the same for Italy? 5 Why is low inflation a good thing?

Internet research

ACT IV I TI ES

Reading comprehension & Speaking

5 Using the information on these pages, write a short essay about the UK economy and current economic situation, underlining any similarities or differences with Italy. Go to www.imf.org for more information.

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This pie chart shows the US GDP by sector. In pairs, decide which section of the chart represents industry, services and agriculture. Do you think the breakdown of the GDP is similar in Italy?

1.6%

____________

20.6% 77.8%

____________ ____________ Source: CIA Factbook, 2014

AC TIV IT IE S

Biomass is organic material derived from plants or animals – which can be burned directly to provide heat or converted into other forms of energy such as biodiesel and ethanol.

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US economy

Farming, fishing and forestry

Agriculture represents approximately 1.6% of the GDP of the USA and employs under 1% of the total workforce: two facts which could seem to imply that it is insignificant in size and production output. On the contrary, the USA is actually one of the largest agricultural producers in the world and exports more farm products than any other country, as well as being able to satisfy its domestic demand. Most of the farms are large, agribusiness operations which are highly mechanised and employ relatively small numbers of workers. Migrant and seasonal workers are common in this sector. The major crops cultivated are corn, soybeans (Midwestern states), wheat (Great Plains), rice, cotton, tobacco (Southern states). Fruit, including grapes for wine, is grown in California, as well as in Washington and Florida. Beef cattle are important in Texas, Iowa and Nebraska while Wisconsin and Minnesota raise cattle for dairy products. Many US farmers are now using genetically engineered crops, particularly for soybeans, cotton and corn, although organic farming is on the increase too. The fishing industry is important in Alaska (salmon), New England (lobsters, oysters), California, Louisiana (shrimps), as well as the Gulf of Mexico in general. In the USA, forests account for approximately 3 million sq km of the land, and two thirds of the forests are considered timberlands, that is they can be used for the production of commercial wood products. The USA is one of the world’s leading producers and consumers of wood and wood products and the industry is predominant in the northwest Pacific coast areas, like Oregon and Washington, and also in Alaska.

Natural resources and energy The USA is rich in mineral deposits and some of the most important are: oil and natural gas (Alaska, Texas, California and the gulf of Mexico), coal (Appalachian mountains, Wyoming, West Virginia and Kentucky), gold (mostly in Nevada), copper (Arizona and Utah), lead (Missouri) and also silver, aluminium and zinc. These minerals continue to be important for the nation’s industrial sector and for global exports. The US’s primary energy sources are from fossil fuels – petroleum, natural gas and coal. The country can meet about 89% of its energy needs and imports the rest, mostly in the form of petroleum. Coal provides about 39% of the energy used to generate electricity, while nuclear power provides 19%. 13% of the nation’s electricity comes from renewable sources, with hydropower accounting for more than half of this. The nation’s hydroelectric capacity is mainly situated in Washington, California and Oregon. The largest hydroelectric facility is the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington. Biomass , wind, geothermal and solar are, in order of importance, the other renewable sources.

Reading comprehension

Mountaintop mining

2 Read the texts and answer these questions. 1 How important is agriculture for the US economy? 6 What percentage of US forests can be used for commercial purposes? 2 What are most of the US farms like? 3 What kind of workers are often employed in this 7 What are the main energy sources for the USA? 8 Can the US satisfy its domestic demand for energy? sector? 9 What percentage of electricity is generated by 4 Which genetically modified crops are most nuclear power? commonly used? 10 Which renewable energy sources are used to 5 Which states have an important fishing generate electricity? industry? DO S S I E R 3 | UK vs USA

Manufacturing and industry The US is one of the world’s leading manufacturing nations and industry represents around 20% of the nation’s GDP. Employment in the sector has been declining since the 1980s but output has remained relatively constant due to the advances in technology and productivity. Like the rest of the economy, the sector was hit hard by the 2008 financial crisis and recession. The industrial areas used to be concentrated in the Northeast and Midwest regions, particularly Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Illinois and New York, with steelmaking and automobile manufacturing among the leading industries. However, since the end of World War II, manufacturing industries have moved to the south and west of the nation. California and Texas are now the country’s leading manufacturing states: many of the Fortune 500 companies (e.g. Dell, Exxon Mobil, Kimberly-Clark, Texas Instruments) are located in Texas and in California (e.g. HP Inc., Apple, Chevron, SanDisk). California is important for the aerospace industry, as well as for the manufacture of heavy machinery for agriculture, construction, mining, and the oil industry. Since the early 1980s, it is one of the leading high tech manufacturing and R & D centres in the USA. In addition to oil companies, Texas is important for aeronautics, defence and military facilities, and in recent years the number of companies operating in the computer technology field has also increased. In those states with a high percentage of agriculture and livestock farming, food processing is naturally a key industry (e.g. California, Wisconsin, Ohio). Transportation equipment is an important sector and Michigan and Ohio are noted for their automobile production. Ohio is also the biggest state for the rubber and plastics industry. Industrial machinery, chemical, pharmaceutical, printing and publishing industries are also significant contributors to the country’s manufacturing output. The US economy is dominated by private companies, which have the freedom and flexibility to hire and fire staff and open and close plants and offices. Bureaucracy, regarding launching new products for example, is less than in some other countries. The US government and federal agencies control and regulate certain aspects of industry, such as work and safety conditions or food and drug safety. Given that the state and federal governments are major purchasers of goods and services from the private sector, they have the power to influence certain sectors of the economy and their activities, particularly in areas like aerospace and defence.

WARM UP

Which companies and products do you associate with American industry and manufacturing?

R & D (research and development): ricerca e sviluppo

2 Read the text and answer these questions. 1 Why has manufacturing output not declined over the years? 2 In which areas of the USA were the main industries situated? 3 When did companies begin to move to other areas? 4 Where are the leading R & D centres located? 5 Which industries are predominant in Texas?

6 Where is food processing an important industry? 7 Which two states are famous for producing cars? 8 Are there more private or government-owned enterprises in the USA? 9 What role do government agencies have in regulating industry? 10 How can the government affect some sectors of the economy?

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Reading comprehension

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Riding down the slope of the Valley of Innovation

ACT IV I TI ES

Silicon Valley is the nickname given in the early 1970s to the southern area of the San Francisco Bay, California, but it has expanded by the day since then. The name refers to the material (silicon) used in microchip manufacturing, the first large industry of the area where microprocessors were developed giving birth to a totally new era. Silicon Valley has become very popular since 1980s, when the IBM Personal Computer and various related hardware and software products hit the consumer market, and it is now home to many of the world’s largest high-tech and web corporations, including thousands of start-up companies, so that it’s used to indicate the whole American high-technology economic sector. Since 1950s, a crucial role has been held by Stanford University. Graduates are encouraged to start their own companies and as a result, today its residents are amongst the highest educated in the country. In 1969, the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International), operated one of the four original nodes that comprised ARPANET, a predecessor to the Internet. Silicon Valley is generally considered to have been the centre of the so-called ‘dot-com bubble’, when real estate prices skyrocketed to unprecedented levels. It started in the mid-1990s and collapsed after the NASDAQ stock market began to decline dramatically in April 2000. Years after the dot-com crash, Silicon Valley continues

to maintain its status as one of the top research and development centres in the world. According to The Wall Street Journal in 2006 12 of the 20 most inventive towns in America were in California, and 10 of those were in Silicon Valley, with San Jose leading the list. Another study (2008) found that Silicon Valley was the third largest high-tech centre in the United States, behind the New York and Washington metropolitan areas, with 225,300 high-tech jobs, and the highest concentration of high-tech workers of any metropolitan area, with 285.9 out of every 1,000 privatesector workers. It also has the highest average hightech salary ($144,800), detaining the US record of the most millionaires and the most billionaires in the United States. Silicon Valley also accounts for one-third of all of the venture capital investment in the United States, which has helped it to become a leading hub and startup ecosystem for high-tech innovation and scientific development. Famous companies in the Silicon Valley are Adobe Systems, Google LLC., Apple, eBay, Cisco Systems, Facebook, Netflix, Intel, HP, Electronic Arts, Symantec, Yahoo!, Tesla Inc. In time, the name Silicon Valley has become a worldwide synonym for leading high-tech research and enterprises, and inspired similar named locations, as well as research parks and technology centres with a comparable structure all around the world.

Reading comprehension 3 FIRST Read the text and choose the correct alternative. 1 The name Silicon Valley was born in 1970s/1980s. 4 In 2008, Silicon Valley was the third/second 2 At the Stanford University, graduates are largest high-tech centre in the US. encouraged to find a well-paid job in high-tech/ 5 Silicon Valley has the US/world record for the start their own companies. most billionaires. 3 The ‘dot-com bubble’ was a NASDAQ/real estate 6 All over the world, many high-tech centres are price crisis. called after/have a similar name to Silicon Valley.

Internet research 4 Research a successful American entrepreneur (e.g. Mark Zuckerberg, Sergey Brin, Larry Page, Oprah

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Winfrey, Warren Buffet) and write a short presentation. Include these points: • background and education; • business idea/start up; • ups and downs of career; • current situation. DO S S I E R 3 | UK vs USA

Services During the 20th century, the importance of the services sector to the US economy grew steadily, from about 50% of the GDP in 1929 to today’s 77%. Thanks to the increasing mechanisation and technology in the manufacturing industries the sector employs more than three quarters of the country’s workforce and, as a consequence, the related services, such as distribution, management, sales and finance became more important. Wholesale and retail trade is the leading business area, and the USA is probably the world’s leader in the retail industry. It is dominated by large retailers such as Sears, Target, Macy’s and Walmart, which is the biggest retailer in the USA and the world’s largest company by revenue: you can find its subsidiaries in many countries across the globe. The entertainment industry, including TV, advertising and media, is a fast-paced and very competitive industry, with the major players in New York and especially California, with the most famous TV and cinema productions. Tourism is a significant source of both employment and income, thanks to the wide variety of destinations including National Parks, beaches, cities and monuments attracting tourist from the US itself as well as from all over the world. Financial services, banking, insurance and real estate remain other key components of the services sector, even after the sub-prime mortgage crisis and financial crisis of 20072010. New York is still one of the leading financial capitals of the world, and its Stock Exchange is the largest in the world.

WARM UP

Walmart is the biggest US retailer; do you know any similar business where you live?

subsidiaries: filiali tax avoidance: evasione fiscale

E-commerce from A to Z When talking about commerce and services, you can’t leave out the first business which made a fortune of them. Amazon is the world's largest e-commerce store, accounting for 43% of US online retail sales. The Amazon’s subsidiary Amazon Web Services (AWS) provides on-demand cloud computing platforms, to individuals, companies and governments. Their services include computing, storage, database, analytics, and tools for the Internet of Things. Lately, they have started producing their own web series, along with webcasting others’ productions (Amazon Prime Video). But all that glitters is not gold. The first issue Amazon had to deal with was about avoiding paying tax on its profits by diverting sales out of major economies to Luxembourg,

a low-tax jurisdiction. This led to investigations by the UK government and the EU authorities and various tax reform initiatives to stop this form of tax avoidance. Then came the company’s working conditions, both in its offices and distribution warehouses: many journalistic investigations showed that the working conditions and stress of the job could increase the risk of mental and physical illness. Jeff Bezos, Amazon CEO and founder, has always responded to the criticisms and attacks, defending the position of the company and its methods.

A CT IV IT IE S

Reading comprehension 2 Read the text and complete these sentences.

1 Approximately 75% of the US workforce is… 2 Today, the services sector is more important to the economy than in the past because… and… 3 Walmart operates… and is… 4 ... are key sectors in California. 5 The sub-prime mortgage and financial crisis badly affected… 6 Amazon was under investigation because…

Speaking 3 Work in pairs. Have you ever bought anything online? How was your experience? Would you recommend it to your friends? Why?/Why not?

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LITERATURE William Shakespeare 1

Date and place of birth: ______________________ Personal life: _________ ______________________ His career: ___________ ______________________ His works: ____________ ______________________ Literary achievements: ______________________ Date and place of death: ______________________

Read the text about William Shakespeare and complete the biography card.

William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, where he was baptized in 1564. His father was a fairly prosperous leather merchant, his mother, Mary Arden, was the daughter of a landowner. In November 1582, when he was eighteen, he married Anne Hathaway, eight years his senior. She was pregnant when she got married. Susannah, Shakespeare’s first child, was born in May 1583. Less than two years later, twins Hamnet and Judy were born. Around the years 1587/1588, Shakespeare left his family and Stratford to go to London where he became a man of the theatre. Shakespeare was lucky in finding a patron in the Earl of Southampton, an aristocratic young man. Shakespeare worked exclusively for the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, a company of actors which was founded when the theatres reopened after the plague, and in which Shakespeare was a shareholder. In 1598, Shakespeare’s company, the Chamberlain’s Men, built a new playhouse and called it The Globe from its sign, which represented Atlantis carrying the earthly globe on his shoulder. Shakespeare was registered as actor-sharer. Most of his masterpieces were played in this theatre, including all his main tragedies. In 1611, after about twenty years in London, he retired to Stratford where he died in 1616 at the age of fifty-two. Today, besides his collection of 154 sonnets, there are thirty-seven plays that we know were written by Shakespeare. Among the best known of his comedies are Romeo and Juliet, Twelfth Night and The Merchant of Venice; some of his famous tragedies are Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello and King Lear.

2 Read the description of The Merchant of Venice. Bassanio, a Venetian nobleman who has wasted away all his wealth, asks the rich merchant Antonio, a dear friend of his, to lend him three thousand ducats in order to keep on properly wooing the young lady he wants to marry. This lady is the rich and beautiful heiress Portia who lives in Belmont, not far from Venice. As Antonio has all his money invested in overseas business ventures, he decides to borrow the sum that Bassanio needs from Shylock, a Jewish usurer whom Antonio has often blamed for his hateful activity. Shylock agrees to lend the money, but he binds the agreement to a condition: if his money is not returned on the appointed day he will cut ‘one pound of flesh’ from Antonio’s body. Antonio accepts the bargain. Shylock hates Antonio who has insulted him because he is a Jew, so he proposes the terms of the bond by which he secretly hopes to destroy Antonio. 280

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3 Shylock is a powerful character in the play. He is a Jew and money-lender. Are you familiar with other characters in literature who are Jews?

44 Read and listen to the extract from The Merchant of Venice.

Salerio asks Shylock what possible good it could do him to claim the forfeit, and Shylock answers with his famous speech of self-justification.

SHYLOCK: To bait fish withal: if it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge. He hath disgraced me, and hindered me half a million, laughed at my losses, mocked at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies; and what’s his reason? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer, as a Christian is? If you prick us do we not bleed? If you tickle us do we not laugh? If you poison us do we not die? And if you wrong us shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.

to bait fish: esca per i pesci hindered: mi ha impedito (di guadagnare) thwarted: contrastato humility: umiltà cristiana villainy: malvagità

5 Read the text again and answer the questions below. 1 Shylock wants revenge because Antonio has often badly treated him. Give examples. 2 Why has Antonio mistreated Shylock? 3 How is a Jew similar to a Christian? 4 Why does Shylock justify his revenge?

6 Which of the Christian virtues does Shylock speak of with more sarcasm for not being respected by the Christians?

7 Give a short description of Shylock in your own words. Do you justify his behaviour?

from BOOK to FILM This scene is from Act 1 (scene III). Antonio needs 3000 ducats and Shylock, the rich Jew, is ready to lend him the money but he asks Antonio to sign a bond: he will demand no interest, but if the agreement is broken and the money not returned in three months, the forfeit will be a pound of Antonio’s flesh.

Watch the scene and answer these questions.

1 Why isn’t Antonio afraid of signing the bond? 2 What is he unable to see? 3 What is Shylock’s secret intention?

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LITERATURE Wordsworth’s Romantic Nature

Read the text about William Wordsworth and complete the biography card.

MORE ABOUT... The poem I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud is about an experience Wordsworth had in the Lake District in 1804 while there with his sister, Dorothy, who described it in prose.

floats: fluttua hosts: moltitudini fluttering: svolazzando twinkle: scintillano tossing: scuotendo sparkling: allegro out-did: superarono glee: allegria gazed: fissai bliss: beatitudine

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William Wordsworth is a major Romantic poet. His poems are inspired by the extraordinary beauty of nature. He was born on 7th April 1770 in Cockermouth, near the Lake District. After finishing Grammar School, he went to Cambridge University. In 1791, he travelled to France and was impressed by its revolutionary spirit and the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity. After graduation, he returned to France, but became disillusioned with the Revolution since it had turned into the Reign of Terror and he became a conservative. Wordsworth was close friends with the poet Coleridge and together they wrote and published Lyrical Ballads in 1798. In its preface, Wordsworth defined poetry as ‘the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquillity.’ In 1807, he published Poems, in Two Volumes, which included ‘I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud’, ‘My Heart Leaps Up’ and ‘Intimations of Immortality’. In 1839 he received an honorary degree from Oxford University and was made Poet Laureate, an honour awarded to a poet whose work is of national significance, in 1843, seven years before his death in 1850.

Date and place of birth: ______________________ Education: ____________ ______________________ Publications: __________ ______________________ Political ideas: ________ ______________________ Poetical views: ________ ______________________

45 Listen and read the poem I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud. What is the rhyme scheme? Choose the correct pattern from the box.

ABCABC − ABABCC − ABABAB − ABABCD I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o’er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

The waves beside them danced; but they Out-did the sparkling waves in glee: A poet could not but be gay, In such a jocund company: I gazed – and gazed – but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought:

Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the milky way, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of a bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils.

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Walt Whitman

3 Read the poem again and choose the correct alternative to complete this description.

The poet was walking in the countryside when he saw a single flower/lots of flowers which were by a lake/a river. The flowers were motionless/dancing in the wind. He paid a lot of/little attention to the sight at that time. At the end of the poem, he remembers with joy/pain the sight of the flowers.

4 Read stanzas 1-3 and underline the parts describing the protagonist of the poem and the daffodils.

How is the protagonist compared to a natural object? How are the daffodils personified as human beings? Why is this important?

5 Now discuss these questions in pairs or small groups.

1 What feelings does the poem suggest to you? Sadness? Loneliness? Freedom? Why? 2 Why is the memory so important to the protagonist? 3 What do you think the final message of the poem is?

6 Read this text and find out more about the Lake District. What is the countryside like?

What problems does the area face?

The Lake District National Park Within Great Britain, there are 15 national parks: 10 in England, 3 in Wales and 2 in Scotland. These parks are protected areas due to their beautiful countryside, wildlife and cultural heritage. They range from mountainous areas, to woods, coastal areas and wetlands. Most visitors go to enjoy the natural landscape and scenery and to go walking or do other outdoor sports such as climbing and kayaking. They also visit the towns and villages within the parks. One of the oldest English parks is the Lake District National Park which was founded in 1951. It is also the largest, covering 2 2,292 km . This spectacular area, with its mountains, wooded valleys and many lakes also holds other records. You can find Windermere, the largest lake in England, which is over 18 km long. The wettest place in England is also in the Lake District. The village of Seathwaite once registered 316.4 mm of rain in 24 hours. You can also find the highest mountain in England, Scafell Pike at 978 m. With almost 16 million visitors a year, tourism is one of the biggest challenges for the park to face. While tourists spend over ÂŁ925 million every year, creating jobs and income for the local economy, they also bring with them pollution and traffic congestion (89% travel by car), litter, erosion and the risk of fires.

VIDEO 7 Watch this video about the Lake District and answer these questions. 1 How many lakes are there in the Lake District? 2 How long is Lake Windermere? 3 What activities can you do on or near Lake Windermere? 4 What is the name of the village where Wordsworth lived? 5 What is the name of the cottage where he lived? 6 How many visitors come to the cottage each year?

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LITERATURE

Charles Dickens and the Industrial Revolution The Great Exhibition (1851) The most striking aspect of Victorian Age was the growth of industry. The Great Exhibition was held in Hyde Park in the Crystal Palace, which was built of steel and glass to symbolise the nation’s confidence in its industrial preminence.

1 Read the text about Charles Dicken and complete the biography card.

Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth in 1812, and when he was ten, his family moved to London, where, in 1824, his father was sent to prison for debt. At the age of twelve, Dickens was forced to go to work in a factory. This experience was traumatic. When he was fourteen he went to work in a legal office and then entered journalism. He married in 1836 and the couple had ten children. His first successful novel, The Pickwick Papers, was published in monthly parts between 1836-1837. Many other novels followed, some of them on social themes such as Oliver Twist and Hard Times; others semiautobiographical such as David Copperfield. Another famous novel about growing up is Great Expectations. He died in London in 1870. As a writer, Dickens accepted the publishing conventions of his day. Readers did not buy the completed novel, but read it in serial form. No other writer was as capable as Dickens of depicting the vast panorama of social change in Victorian England. This is due to his capability of creating a series of typical characters, many of whom are caricatures. The main strength of his style is his humour, but Dickens used his novels not only to entertain his readers, but also to educate the heart of Victorian England.

2 Read the text about Hard Times and answer the questions.

Date and place of birth: ______________________ Education: ____________ ______________________ His career: ___________ ______________________ His works: ____________ ______________________ Publishing conventions: ______________________ Literary achievements: ______________________ Date and place of death: ______________________

3 Coketown is made up of two common words, coke and town. What general impression do you get of this town?

Hard Times belongs to the mature period of Dickens’s creative life when he turned to criticise the evils of industrial England. The story takes place in the industrial North, in one of the mill towns of Lancashire, and highlights the effects of the Industrial Revolution on man and the environment. The main themes are the exploitation of the working class by an unfeeling, self-righteous middle class of industrialists, and the damaging consequences of emphasising factual knowledge at the expense of feeling and imagination. 1 Where does the story take place? 2 Which are the main themes?

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4 Read the description of Coketown on the other page and check your answer.

COKETOWN It was a town of red brick, or of brick that would have been red if the smoke and ashes had allowed it; but, as matters stood, it was a town of unnatural red and black like the painted face of a savage. It was a town of machinery and tall chimneys, out of which interminable serpents of smoke trailed themselves for ever and ever, and never got uncoiled. It had a black canal in it, and a river that ran purple with ill-smelling dye, and vast piles of buildings full of windows where there was a rattling and a trembling all day long, and where the piston of the steam-engine worked monotonously up and down like the head of an elephant in a state of melancholy madness. It contained several large streets all very like one another, and many small streets still more like one another, inhabited by people equally like one another, who all went in and out at the same hours, with the same sound upon the same pavements, to do the same work, and to whom every day was the same as yesterday and tomorrow, and every year the counterpart of the last and the next. These attributes of Coketown were in the main inseparable from the work by which it was sustained; against them were to be set off, comforts of life which found their way all over the world, and elegancies of life which made, we will not ask how much of the fine lady, who could scarcely bear to hear the place mentioned. The rest of its features were voluntary, and they were these.You saw nothing in Coketown but ashes: cenere what was severely workful. If the members of a religious persuasion built a chapel there – as never got uncoiled: non the members of eighteen religious persuasions had done – they made it a pious warehouse of finivano mai di srotolarsi dye: sostanza usata per red brick; with sometimes (but this in highly ornamented examples) a bell in a bird-cage on tingere the top of it. All the public inscriptions in the town were painted alike, in severe characters of persuasion: credo black and white. The jail might have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been the religioso jail, the town-hall might have been either, or both, or anything else, for anything that appeared warehouse: magazzino steeple: campanile to the contrary in the graces of their construction. Fact, fact, fact, everywhere in the material jail: prigione aspect of the town; fact, fact, fact, everywhere in the immaterial. The M’Choakumchild school infirmary: ospedale was all fact, and the school of design was all fact, and the relations between master and man dearest: (qui) più were all fact, and everything was fact between the lying-in hospital to the cemetery, and what costoso you couldn’t state in figures, or show to be purchasable in its cheapest market and saleable in the dearest, was not, and never should be, world without end. Amen.

5 List the main features of Coketown. 6 What is the main principle that rules the life of the town? 7 Work in pairs: discuss if the concept of progress and civilization is supported or denied.

from BOOK to FILM This is the opening scene in the novel and it takes place in a school in Coketown, where Mr Gradgrind is talking about the importance of Facts and asking a girl, Sissy, the definition of a horse. Sissy is unable to answer, but another student, Bitzer, gives a very satisfactory answer.

Watch the clip and fill in the gaps with the missing words. twelve • iron • forty • mouth • spring Bitzer Quadruped. Graminivorous. (1) ____________ teeth, namely twenty-four grinders, four eye-teeth, and (2) ____________ incisive. Sheds coat in the (3) ______________; in marshy countries, sheds hoofs, too. Hoofs hard, but requiring to be shod with (4) ______________. Age known by marks in (5) ________________.

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LITERATURE

Elizabeth Gaskell and the Social Novel 1 Read the text about Elizabeth Gaskell and complete the biography card.

Date and place of birth: ______________________ Early life: ____________ ______________________ Married life: __________ ______________________ Literary output: _______ ______________________ Date and place of death: ______________________

Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell was born in London in 1810. She spent most of her childhood under the guardianship of an aunt who lived in Knutsford, a small village near Manchester. This town became the base for Cranford (1853) in the novel with the same name. In 1832 she married Reverend William Gaskell and they had four daughters and a son. In 1850, the Gaskells moved to a villa at 84 Plymouth Grove, in Manchester, where Elizabeth wrote her literary works, while her husband tutored the poor in his study. The Gaskells’ social circle included writers such as Charles Dickens and John Ruskin. Her close friend, Charlotte Brontë stayed there three times. Her biography Life of Charlotte Brontë (1857) provides a vivid picture of the town of Haworth, where the Brontë family lived. Although Gaskell’s own life-story can make her seem a wife and a mother who came to writing late, almost for something to do, this is far from the truth. Her output was substantial and highly professional. Her novels depict scenes of English country life which often highlight the huge social divide between the rich and the poor. Among her novels are Mary Barton (1848) and North and South (1855) which show her sympathy for the working class. She created believable characters and realistic backgrounds in her books. Her early works focused on factory work in the Midlands. She usually emphasised the role of women, with complex narratives and dynamic female characters. She died suddenly of heart failure in Holybourne, Hampshire, in 1865.

2 Read the description of North and South and answer the questions below. Elizabeth Gaskell began to work on North and South while Dickens’s Hard Times was being serialised in the magazine HouseholdWords. The Victorian period was known as the age of coal and iron, the raw materials of the nation’s wealth. Iron was worked into countless different products that were then exported to Britain’s markets around the world. The North of the title refers to the industrialised part of the country where goods are made and raw materials such as coal and iron are mined. The South refers to the richer part of England, where the benefits of industry are enjoyed. The novel develops the contrast between the values and habits of rural, southern England and industrial northern England. The novel describes the experiences of Margaret Hale in the industrial North. Margaret Hale is raised in fashionable London with her cousin Edith, but when Edith marries, Margaret returns to County of Hampshire in the South of England, to live with her parents. Her father, a country clergyman, decides to leave his comfortable position in the South and become a tutor of adult learners in the manufacturing, smoky town of Milton, modelled on Manchester. Margaret takes charge of the practical aspects of the move and then assumes charge of her mother’s illness. She becomes friendly with Nicholas Higgins, a textile worker, and his daughter Bessy, who is dying of consumption from inhaling textile dust (fluff). Margaret shows her sympathy for the conditions of the working class, her opinions and actions bring her in conflict with the factory owner, John Thornton. After Margaret shields John from a stone thrown by a striking worker, he declares his love for her. Before the ending brings Margaret and John back together and calms the tension between workers and factory owners, Margaret has to face a series of obstacles and also the suicide of one of the striking workers. 1 Who are the main characters of the novel? 2 Where is the setting of the novel? 3 What is the main theme of the novel?

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3 Read the extract from North and South and answer the questions below.

POISONED BY THE FLUFF

Margaret is talking to Bessy and becomes acquainted with the problems of the workers and the physical diseases caused by cotton spinning. ‘Fluff!’ said Margaret inquiringly. ‘Fluff’, ‘repeated Bessy. ‘Little bits, as fly off fro’ the cotton, when they’re carding it, and fill the air till it looks all fine white dust. They say it winds round the lungs, and tightens them up. Anyhow, there’s many a one as works in a carding-room, that falls into a waste, coughing and spitting blood, because they’re just poisoned by the fluff.’ ‘But can’t it be helped?’ asked Margaret. ‘I dunno. Some folks have a great wheel at one end o’ their carding-rooms to make a draught, and carry off th’ dust; but that wheel costs a deal of money – five or six hundred pounds, maybe, and brings no profit; so it’s but a few of th’ masters as will put’em up; and I’ve heard fluff: laniccio tell o’men who didn’t like working in places where there was a wheel, because they said as carding: cardatura how it made’em hungry, at after they’d been long used to swallowing fluff, to go without it, dunno: I don’t know and their wage ought to be raised if they were to work in such places. So between masters draught: corrente d’aria but: soltanto and men th’wheels fall through. I know I wish there’d been a wheel in our place, though.’ fall through: vanno in ‘Did not your father know about it?’ asked Margaret. fumo, sono dimenticate ‘Yes! And he was sorry. But our factory were a good one on the whole; and a steady likely na: not (forma dialettale) set o’ people; and father was afraid of letting me go to a strange place, for, though yo’ would gradely lass: bella ragazza na think it now, many a one then used to call me a gradely lass enough. And I did na like nesh and soft: paura del to be reckoned nesh and soft, and Mary’s schooling were to be kept up, mother said, and freddo (forma dialettale) father he were always liking to buy books, and go to lectures o’ one kind or another – all whirr: ronzio (delle which took money – so I just worked on till I shall ne’er get the whirr out of my ears, or the macchine) fluff out o’ my throat I’ this world. That’s all.’ ‘How old are you?’ asked Margaret. ‘Nineteen, come July.’ ‘ And I too am nineteen.’ She thought, more sorrowfully than Bessy did, of the contrast between them. She could not speak for a moment or two for the emotion she was trying to keep down. 1 What is fluff? 2 How could it have been prevented? 3 Why did some workers refuse to work with the wheels?

4 Why did Bessy work so hard? 5 How old is Bessy?

from BOOK to FILM In this scene we are introduced together with Margaret in the hard world of the working class. With the Industrial Revolution Britain went from being an agrarian economic system to an industrial one. However, life in industrial towns was very harsh: factory towns were dirty, crowded and polluted.

Watch the clip and answer these questions.

1 What is Margaret’s first impression of the factory? 5 How does Margaret react? 2 Can you describe in brief the place? 6 Does the factory owner follow Margaret’s request? 3 Who is controlling the work? 7 What was the real cause of Mr Thornton’s angry 4 What happens unexpectedly? reaction?

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LITERATURE Herbert George Wells The father of science fiction 1

Read the text about H.G. Wells and complete the biography card.

Date and place of birth: ______________________ Education: ____________ ______________________ Main works: __________ ______________________ Achievements: _________ ______________________ Literary achievements: ______________________ Date and place of death: ______________________

draper: venditore di tessuti scholarship: borsa di studio In spite of: nonstante novels: romanzi essays: saggi path: cammino

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Herbert George Wells was born in Bromley, England, in 1866. Wells developed an interest in reading beginning in his childhood. He would devote a lot of his time to reading everything that came his way. At fourteen he was forced to leave school and began working as an apprentice in a draper’s shop, where he gained experience and inspirations later reflected in his works. In 1883, Wells won a scholarship to the Normal School of Science in London where he discovered his interest in science: he studied Biology and Darwinism, but was eventually unable to complete the course of his studies. After trying teaching he became a professional writer. In 1891, he married his cousin, but the marriage lasted only four years. He married again in 1895 with one of his students and had two sons. In spite of being married, Wells kept relations with other women who also became inspirations for some of his characters. He wrote more than a hundred books, including novels, essays and histories. He wrote a number of science fiction and fantasy novels; among the most famous are The Time Machine (1895), The Wonderful Visit (1895), The Island of Doctor Moreau (1896), The Invisible Man (1897), The War of the Worlds (1898) and The Shape of Things to Come (1933). Wells supported socialism, science and progress, and was described as ‘an important liberator of thought and action’. H.G. Wells died in his home in London on August 13, 1946. Even though H.G. Wells is commonly referred to as the father of science fiction he also produced other numerous literary works under many other genres including history, social commentary, politics and contemporary novels and text books. It is his role as the founding father of modern science fiction for which he is perhaps best known, and it is a reputation welldeserved. Wells was the first to explore such themes as alien invasion, time travel, journeys to other worlds, and more. The Time Machine: an Invention (1895), which opens the path to every time-travel narrative written since, is a classic story of ideas coupled with adventure with many moments that inspire the sense of wonder which marks the best science fiction.

2 Read the description of The Time Machine: an Invention and answer the questions. The Time Machine: an Invention is a story within a story. The first two chapters make up the frame. What follows is the Time Traveller’s story. It is important to consider why Wells included a frame story. It lets the reader know that the story takes place in Victorian England, in a world of gas lamps, cigars, and gentlemen with enough leisure time to discuss topics like the fourth dimension. It also sets up a good deal of suspense. The small time machine that disappears opens the reader up to the idea that time travel might be possible. In the second chapter, we see the dishevelled Time Traveller stumble in. The reader recognizes that he must have been travelling in time. This makes the story seem more plausible. The Eloi are the first people of the future encountered by the Time Traveller. They seem to lead a happy and peaceful existence. However, the gentle Eloi are not the only inhabitants of the future. A further race is introduced: the menacing, nocturnal Morlocks. The social divide is much more worse in the year 802,701. However, the Morlocks are not the supposed subjugated underclass but are, to some extent, the masters of this society: it is the ‘aristocratic’ Eloi who are in a sense slaves. Yet, the Morlocks are not a good deal of: una in total control: they are constrained by the force of evolution to remain underground, buona dose di in darkness. The final outlook on society is undeniably pessimistic. It seems as if Wells dishevelled: arruffato cannot imagine a future society in harmony, but only in terms of oppressor social divide: divario and oppressed. sociale Wells presents a dystopia, a vision of a society where things were far from satisfying. 1 When does the story take place? 2 Where does the Traveller go with his time machine?

3 Who are the Eloi and the Morlocks? 4 What is Wells’s vision of future society?

3 Read the extract from The Time Machine and answer the questions. ‘Would you like to see the Time Machine itself?’, asked the Time Traveller. And therewith, taking the lamp in his hand, he led the way down the long, draughty corridor to his laboratory. I remember vividly the flickering light, his queer, broad head in silhouette, the dance of the shadows, how we all followed him, puzzled but incredulous, and how there in the laboratory we beheld a larger edition of the little mechanism which we had seen vanish from before our eyes. Parts were of nickel, parts of ivory, parts had certainly been filed or sawn out of rock crystal. The thing was generally complete, but the twisted crystalline bars lay unfinished upon the bench beside some sheets of drawings, and I took one up for a better look at it. Quartz it seemed to be. ‘Look here,’ said the Medical Man, ‘are you perfectly serious? Or is this a trick – like that ghost you showed us last Christmas?’ ‘Upon that machine,’ said the Time Traveller, holding the lamp aloft, ‘I intend to explore time. Is that plain? I was never more serious in my life.’ None of us quite knew how to take it. I caught Filby’s eye over the shoulder of the Medical Man, and he winked at me solemnly. 1 What does the Traveller show to the narrator and his friends? 2 Can you describe what they saw? 3 What does the Traveller want to do with his machine?

4 Work in pairs. Have you have seen a sci-fi film? What do you think of time-travelling? Will it be possible, one day?

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LITERATURE F. Scott Fitzgerald and the American Dream 1 Read the text about Francis Scott Fitzgerald and complete the biography card.

Date and place of birth: ______________________ Education: ___________ ______________________ His career: ___________ ______________________ His works: ____________ ______________________ Personal life: _________ ______________________ Literary achievements: ______________________ Date and place of death: ______________________

Francis Scott Fitzgerald was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, in 1896. He went to university but he did not graduate and entered the army in 1917. He was sent to Alabama, where he met Zelda Sayre, who became his wife in 1920. After the wedding, Fitzgerald’s first novel, This Side of Paradise, (1920) was published. It was a best-seller and Fitzgerald became a celebrity. This was followed by The Beautiful and Damned (1922). In 1922, he also published Tales of the Jazz Age, which gave its name to the period of moral laxity which followed the First World War and ended with the Great Depression. The Great Gatsby (1925), marks the peak of his art. The following years were difficult ones for Fitzgerald. His wife suffered a number of mental breakdowns and spent regular periods in hospital; he himself developed a drink problem. The Fitzgeralds travelled regularly between America and Europe but Fitzgerald’s rapid decline led to his early death in 1940 in Hollywood. He will be remembered as the chronicler of the aspirations and delusions of the generation that came to maturity in the ‘20s, a time of wealth and hedonism, known as the Jazz Age. All his work concentrates on recurrent themes like the theme of success, in the form of wealth and social position, closely linked with the aspects of American life usually referred to as the American Dream.

2 Read the description of The Great Gatsby and answer the questions. Bootlegging In 1919, Amendment 18 to the constitution prohibited the manufacture and sale of liquor. But many people resented the law, and drank in illegal clubs. Gangsters took over bootlegging, the illegal sale of liquor, and crime increased. Such figures as Al Capone rose to the top ranks of organized crime.

The story is narrated in the first person by Nick Carraway, one of the characters of the novel, who also takes part in most of the events. At the start of the story, in 1922, he is a newly arrived resident of West Egg, a fictional town on prosperous Long Island. Carraway is Gatsby’s next-door neighbour and he tells us about this self-made young man, whose dream of success and money is personified in a rich and beautiful young woman, Daisy, now the wife of the wealthy Tom Buchanan. Daisy and Gatsby had met and fallen in love during the war when Gatsby was a young officer with no money, education or position. Daisy married Tom, the husband chosen by her family. Four years later Gatsby reappears and tries to get her back. In the meantime he has made a great deal of money, partly from bootlegging liquor. Daisy has had a daughter, while Tom has a lover. Despite Daisy’s renewed attraction to Gatsby, she eventually refuses to leave her husband and follow her old lover. The novel is ended by a series of tragic events and the death of Gatsby. 1 How does Nick Carraway meet Gatsby? 2 Who is Daisy and why does Gatsby try to get her back? 3 How did Gatsby make money?

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PET Read the extract from The Great Gatsby and decide if the statements below are true (T) or false (F), then correct the false ones.

THE CAR IN THE DITCH

After attending one of Gatsby’s extravagant parties, the narrator sees a chaotic scene where a coupé has a wheel missing and has landed in a ditch two minutes after leaving Gatsby’s house. A man in a long duster had dismounted from the wreck and now stood in the middle of the road, looking from the car to the tire and from the tire to the observers in a pleasant, puzzled way. ‘See!’ he explained. ‘It went in the ditch.’ The fact was infinitely astonishing to him, and I recognized first the unusual quality of duster: spolverino (un wonder, and then the man — it was the late patron of Gatsby’s library. tipo di soprabito) ‘How’d it happen?’ He shrugged his shoulders. Owl Eyes: Occhi di ‘I know nothing whatever about mechanics,’ he said decisively. Gufo (soprannome dato al protettore della ‘But how did it happen? Did you run into the wall?’ ‘Don’t ask me,’ said Owl Eyes, biblioteca) washing his hands of the whole matter. ‘I know very little about driving — next to awed hush: silenzio nothing. It happened, and that’s all I know.’ impressionante ‘Well, if you’re a poor driver you oughtn’t to try driving at night.’ pawing: palpeggiando outa gas: (out of gas) ‘But I wasn’t even trying,” he explained indignantly, “I wasn’t even trying.’ senza benzina An awed hush fell upon the bystanders. ‘Do you want to commit suicide?’ ‘You’re lucky it was just a wheel! A bad driver and not even trying!’ ‘You don’t understand,’ explained the criminal. ‘I wasn’t driving. There’s another man in the car.’ The shock that followed this declaration found voice in a sustained “Ah-h-h!” as the door of the coupé swung slowly open. The crowd — it was now a crowd — stepped back involuntarily, and when the door had opened wide there was a ghostly pause. Then, very gradually, part by part, a pale, dangling individual stepped out of the wreck, pawing tentatively at the ground with a large uncertain dancing shoe. Blinded by the glare of the headlights and confused by the incessant groaning of the horns, the apparition stood swaying for a moment before he perceived the man in the duster. ‘Wha’s matter?’ he inquired calmly. ‘Did we run outa gas?’ ‘Look!’ Half a dozen fingers pointed at the amputated wheel — he stared at it for a moment, and then looked upward as though he suspected that it had dropped from the sky. ‘It came off,’ someone explained. T F n n n n n n n n

1 The man who dismounted from the wreck seemed terrified. 2 The narrator recognised the man. 3 He says the car ran into the wall. 4 Everybody was shocked when they saw another man stepping out of the wreck.

Watch the scene and answer the questions.

1 What does Nick accuse Gatsby of? 2 What is the truth? 3 Describe how the hit and run accident took place.

4 Compare this episode with the one you have just read about the car in the ditch.

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LITERATURE Sir John Betjeman and Social Satire

1 Read the text about Sir John Betjeman and complete the biography card.

Teddy Bear Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt, the 26th President of the United States, is the person responsible for giving the teddy bear its name. In 1902, he attended a bear hunt in Mississippi. During the hunt, Roosevelt came upon a wounded young bear and ordered the mercy killing of the animal. The event was illustrated in a cartoon where the bear was redrawn as a cuddly cub. The story became popular and the cartoon bear became a toy for children called teddy bear.

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John Betjeman was born in London in 1906 and educated at Oxford. An only child, he had a lonely childhood and took comfort from his teddy bear, Archibald, later to feature in his children’s story Archie and the Strict Baptists. In 1925, he went to Magdalen College, Oxford. However, he did not complete his degree. He became a teacher, before working as a private secretary, and started to write poems. After his marriage, he was given the job of film critic for the Evening Standard, but he continued to write poetry. By the 1950s, he had become a well-known figure. Auden and Larkin His Collected Poems (1958) was Wystan Hugh Auden immediately popular and reprinted (1907-1973) was the numerous times, selling close to a most brilliant member million copies, an enormous figure of a radical group of young poets who were for a modern poet. His popularity extremely concerned increased with his regular appearances with the social state on radio and television, and he was of Europe in the years made Poet Laureate, the official Poet between the wars. A poet of his times, he was of the Court, in 1972. Betjeman was much appreciated for his skilful use of conventional poetic forms and best loved for his humorous poems about the sadness, disappointments and bitterness of middle-class life. He could use the medium of light verse perfectly for a serious purpose. Although he was not always taken seriously as a poet because of his popularity, fellow poets such as W.H. Auden and Philip Larkin were great admirers of his work. Parkinson’s disease affected his last years. He died at his home in Trebetherick, Cornwall on 19 May 1984, aged 77.

also a poet who tended to use irony and humour even when considering serious aspects of modern life. Philip Larkin (1922-1985) was the embodiment of the poetic attitude associated with ‘The Movement’. His poems are anti-modernist and non-experimental and tend to express quiet emotions and thoughts in carefully crafted, plain-spoken, graceful poetry.

mercy killing: eutanasia cuddly cub: tenero cucciolo

2 Can you list some of the aspects of Betjeman’s poetry?

3 What kind of reflections may come to the mind of a driver?

46 Read and listen to the poem below.

MEDITATION ON THE A30

A man on his own in a car Is revenging himself on his wife; He opens the throttle and bubbles with dottle and puffs at his pitiful life

‘I’d like a nice blonde on my knee And one who won’t argue or nag. Who dares to come hooting at me? I only give way to a Jag.

She’s losing her looks very fast, she loses her temper all day; that lorry won’t let me get past, this Mini is blocking my way.

‘You’re barmy or plastered, I’ll pass you, you bastard – I will overtake you. I will!’ As he clenches his pipe, his moment is ripe And the corner’s accepting its kill.

‘Why can’t you step on it and shift her! I can’t go on crawling like this! At breakfast she said that she wished I was dead – Thank heavens we don’t have to kiss.

From The Rattle Bag, ‘Uncollected Poems’, Faber and Faber, 1982

Reading comprehension 5 Read the text and choose the theme of the poem from the following: 1 n The need for better roads. 2 n The need for better cars. 3 n The dangers of driving without concentration. 4 n How frustration and dissatisfaction with one’s life can lead to aggression and death.

6 How would you describe this poem? Explain your answer. a n tragic b n comic c n tragi-comic __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

opens the throttle: accelera (apre la valvola a farfalla) bubbles with dottle: fa bollicine con la saliva (sta fumando la pipa) step on it: accelerare nag: lamentarsi hooting: suonare il clacson Jag: Jaguar barmy or plastered: pazzo o ubriaco

7 Complete the rhyme scheme in the second and fourth verses. 8 What contrast does the rhyme highlight? 9 Read this text and find out more about A30, the road immortalised in this poem, and answer the questions below. The A30 road is a 284-mile road (457 km) from London to Land’s End, Cornwall. It was used to provide the most direct route from London to the South-West. Nowadays, much through traffic from the London area to south-west England uses the M3 motorway and the A303 and only parts of A30 now retain trunk road status. Much of the A30 has been in use as the main coaching route from London to Exeter for hundreds of years. This route starts in London and proceeds through the counties of Middlesex, Berkshire, Surrey, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorset, Somerset, Devon and finally Cornwall. The A30 provides links to many large towns of importance along the way, especially through the more rural areas of the West Country. If a few traffic jams can be tolerated through the towns along the way a trip along this road is a rewarding experience with a few stretches of mostly unaltered dual-carriage way still in existence. 1 How long is the A30 road? 2 Where does it start?

3 Which counties does it go through? 4 Is it a trafficated road? If so, where mainly?

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LITERATURE Big Brother is watching you George Orwell’s dystopia 1

The government power is divided between four ministries: the Ministry of Truth (news and education), the Ministry of Love (law and order), the Ministry of Peace (war) and the Ministry of Plenty (economic affairs).

Read the text about George Orwell and complete the biography card.

Eric Arthur Blair (1903-1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, is one of the most unorthodox and controversial literary writers of the 20th century. Son of a British civil servant abroad, Orwell was born in Motihari, India, but he went to England the year after. Growing up as a lonely child, he soon found writing appealing: he’s reported to have composed his first poem around the age of four, but his first literary successes was when, aged 11, he had a poem published in the local newspaper. After leaving Eton, Orwell enlisted in the India Imperial Police Force but, after five years in Burma, in 1922 he resigned his post and returned to England, intent on making it as a writer. His life and works are characterised by a deep sense of social injustice and an extreme opposition to all forms of totalitarianism. Orwell was a man of strong opinions who addressed some of the major political movements of his times, including imperialism, fascism and communism. His most famous works are the allegorical novella Animal Farm (1945), an anti-Soviet satire in a pastoral setting, and the dystopian novel 1984 (1949).

2 Read the plot of 1984 and underline the elements of Orwell’s totalitarian state. Which are the most disconcerting and alarming for you? Why?

1984 The world of 1984 is divided into three countries: Oceania, Eurasia, and Eastasia. Oceania includes the two Americas, the British Isles and Australia, where only one party is in power* with its undisputed leader Big Brother. Every move is monitored and privacy invaded by two-way television screens, thought is controlled, personal and critical thinking broken down and a powerful Thought Police brainwashes people into conformity. Winston Smith, the main protagonist, lives in London, a squalid and degraded city, and works for the Ministry of Truth, changing historical records to agree with the party’s current view. Winston meets Julia and they secretly fall in love and have a relationship. But love too is considered a crime. O’Brien, an inner party member, helps Julia and Winston and introduces them into the Brotherhood, a supposed rebel group. This is actually a trap. Winston and Julia are both sent to the Ministry of Love which is a sort of rehabilitation centre for criminals accused of thoughtcrime. Winston is separated from Julia, and tortured until his beliefs coincide with those of the Party. He denies everything he had believed in, even his love for Julia. 294

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3 Read the text and answer these questions. 1 How is Big Brother physically described? 4 Which details and expressions build up the Why do you think that is? feeling of hysteria and delirium? Are they 2 What do you notice in the slogans of the party? successful? 3 How is Winston different from the other workers? 5 How does the last sentence make you feel? In this excerpt Winston is at work and it is the conclusion of the Two Minutes Hate where the workers are shown images of the enemies of the state on a big TV screen. These images are calculated to work them up into an hysterical state of hatred against the Party’s enemies and to install complete belief in, and obedience to, Big Brother.

he Hate rose to its climax… But in the same moment, drawing a deep sigh of relief from everybody, the hostile figure melted into the face of Big Brother, black-haired, black-moustachio’d, full of power and mysterious calm, and so vast that it almost filled up the screen. Nobody heard what Big Brother was saying. It was merely a few words of encouragement, the sort of words that are uttered in the din of battle, not distinguishable individually but restoring confidence by the fact of being spoken. Then the face of Big Brother faded away again, and instead the three slogans of the Party stood out in bold capitals: WAR IS PEACE FREEDOM IS SLAVERY IGNORANCE IS STRENGTH

But the face of Big Brother seemed to persist for several seconds on the screen, as though the impact that it had made on everyone’s eyeballs was too vivid to wear off immediately. The little sandy-haired woman had flung herself forward over the back of the chair in front of her. With a tremulous murmur that sounded like ‘My Saviour!’ she extended her arms towards the screen. Then she buried her face in her hands. It was apparent that she was uttering a prayer. At this moment the entire group of people broke into a deep, slow, rhythmical chant of ‘B-B! ... B-B!’ -- over and over again, very slowly, with a long pause between the first ‘B’ and the second -- a heavy, murmurous sound, somehow curiously savage, in the background of which one seemed to hear the stamp of naked feet and the throbbing of tom-toms… Partly it was a sort of hymn to the wisdom and majesty of Big Brother, but still more it was an act of self-hypnosis, a deliberate drowning of consciousness by means of rhythmic noise. Winston’s entrails seemed to grow cold. In the Two Minutes Hate he could not help sharing in the general delirium, but this sub-human chanting of ‘B-B! ... B-B!’ always filled him with horror. Of course he chanted with the rest: it was

impossible to do otherwise. To dissemble your feelings, to control your face, to do what everyone else was doing, was an instinctive reaction. But there was a space of a couple of seconds during which the expression of his eyes might conceivably have betrayed him. And it was exactly at this moment that the significant thing happened -- if, indeed, it did happen. Momentarily he caught O’Brien’s eye… there was a fraction of a second when their eyes met, and for as long as it took to happen Winston knew – yes, he knew! – that O’Brien was thinking the same thing as himself. An unmistakable message had passed. It was as though their two minds had opened and the thoughts were flowing from one into the other through their eyes. ‘I am with you,’ O’Brien seemed to be saying to him. ‘I know precisely what you are feeling. I know all about your contempt, your hatred, your disgust. But don’t worry, I am on your side!’ And then the flash of intelligence was gone, and O’Brien’s face was as inscrutable as everybody else’s. That was all, and he was already uncertain whether it had happened. Such incidents never had any sequel. All that they did was to keep alive in him the belief, or hope, that others besides himself were the enemies of the Party… He had gone back to his cubicle without looking at O’Brien again. The idea of following up their momentary contact hardly crossed his mind. It would have been inconceivably dangerous even if he had known how to set about doing it. For a second, two seconds, they had exchanged an equivocal glance, and that was din: baccano the end of the story. But even throbbing: rimbombo that was a memorable event, in entrails: viscere the locked loneliness in which one had to live.

4 How do you think Orwell would feel about his idea of Big Brother being used in TV reality shows? Literature |

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Culture shock is the feeling of being confused or anxious that we get when we visit a foreign country or a place that is very different from the one we are used to.

Caxtons: William Caxton (1422-1491) il primo a stampare in inglese markings: segni indelebili to shriek: urlare perch: si posano bookish: statico engravings: incisioni to soothe: placare

LITERATURE Craig Anthony Raine and Culture Shock 1 Read the text about Craig Raine and complete the biography card.

The British poet Craig Raine was born in 1944 in Bishop Auckland, County Durham. Along with Christopher Reid, he is the best-known exponent of Martian poetry. The term derived from his poem A Martian Sends a Postcard Home, first published in 1977. The aim of this poetry is to express familiar concepts in unfamiliar ways. He was a Fellow of New College, Oxford, from 1991 to 2010 and is now Emeritus Professor. He married in 1972 and the couple has four children. Craig Raine is founder and editor of the literary magazine Areté. His works include a number of poetry collections, one of the best-known is How Snow Falls. He is also an essayist and a critic.

2 Imagine you are sending a postcard from Mars, what would you write? (15 words) 3

47 Read and listen to the poem and answer the questions on the following page.

A Martian Sends a Postcard Home

Caxtons are mechanical birds with many wings and some are treasured for their markings--

In homes, a haunted apparatus sleeps, that snores when you pick it up.

they cause the eyes to melt or the body to shriek without pain.

If the ghost cries, they carry it to their lips and soothe it to sleep

I have never seen one fly, but sometimes they perch on the hand.

with sounds. And yet, they wake it up deliberately, by tickling with a finger.

Mist is when the sky is tired of flight and rests its soft machine on the ground:

Only the young are allowed to suffer openly. Adults go to a punishment room

then the world is dim and bookish like engravings under tissue paper.

with water but nothing to eat. They lock the door and suffer the noises

Rain is when the earth is television. It has the properties of making colours darker.

alone. No one is exempt and everyone’s pain has a different smell.

Model T is a room with the lock inside -a key is turned to free the world

At night, when all the colours die, they hide in pairs

for movement, so quick there is a film to watch for anything missed.

and read about themselves -in colour, with their eyelids shut.

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4 The use of the Martian is an original device which shows ourselves as others see us and shows how some actions look strange if removed from their context. Match the familiar objects with the unfamiliar descriptions given by the Martian. 1 Caxtons mechanical birds 2 the sky resting its machine on the ground 3 the earth is television 4 a room with a lock inside 5 time tied to the wrist 6 ghost haunting a house 7 punishment room 8 reading about oneself in colour with eyelids shut

a n toilet b n watch c n dreams d n books e n cars f n mist g n telephone h n rain

5 Read this extract which tries to decipher what each item being described is; then complete with the words from the box.

talking − time − lock − mechanical − black − movement streets − dreaming − apparatus − dialling

First of all books are described as Caxtons 1 __________________ birds with multiple wings. The Martian has never seen their 2 ___________________. Then cars are referred to as rooms with the 3 ___________________ inside; the film being played is the 4 ___________________ zooming past as you drive along them. A wristwatch is the means to trap 5 ___________________ in a box tied to the wrist. What is the haunted 6 ___________________. Picking it up triggers its snoring; when it cries (rings) it is being soothed back to sleep by 7 ___________________ into it. This is undoubtedly a phone. Another element of humour is ‘ wake it up deliberately, by tickling with a finger’ which clearly refers to 8 ___________________. The punishment room is the toilet. What is interesting in the next lines is the description of getting into pairs at night and hide. All the colours are dead, meaning it is pitch 9 ___________________ outside (Does he want to say we are sleeping?). Then the Martian says we read about ourselves in our sleep, so this must be 10 ___________________ and we do it in colour.

6 Which is, in your opinion, the most intriguing puzzle in the poem? Why? 7 How many lines is the poem made up of? Are the lines in rhymed or unrhymed couplets? Do the use of the couplets make the poem easier or more difficult to read?

8 In this poem a Martian who is new to our planet and new to our life is shocked and interested in learning what we do. But are we sure we know everything about the different cultures in our planet? In pairs, read the questions and choose the correct answer. 1 In which of these countries do people avoid eye contact? b n Norway c n Japan a n Brazil 2 In which country is blowing your nose in public considered bad manners? b n Korea c n Russia a n Great Britain 3 If you invite to dinner a visitor from an Arab country, which of the following should you avoid serving? a n pork b n shellfish c n alcohol d n chips e n lettuce 4 Why do people from Saudi Arabia often wear two watches? 5 Which day is the day of rest in Arab countries? a n Wednesday b n Friday c n Sunday

d n Saturday

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LITERATURE

Multicultural Britain? Chris Cleave’s debut novel Incendiary was published in 2005 and was later adapted into a film starring Ewan McGregor. The inspiration for his novel The Other Hand (published as Little Bee in the USA) came from his experience of working for a few days in the canteen of an asylum detention centre whilst he was a university student. The Other Hand has two narrators: Little Bee, a Nigerian asylum seeker, and Sarah, an English magazine editor, wife and mother. The book begins in an immigration detention centre, where Little Bee is sent after escaping from the horrors of the Nigerian oil conflicts and entering the UK illegally. But the story starts on a Nigerian beach with a dramatic event involving Little Bee, her sister, Sarah, and her husband Andrew, which will profoundly affect all their lives.

Monica Ali is a British writer of Bangladeshi origin. Brick Lane, published in 2003, was her debut novel and it has since been made into a film. Brick Lane is a road in the heart of London’s Bangladeshi community, in the Borough of Tower Hamlets. Brick Lane follows the life of Nazneen, a girl who moves from Bangladesh to a cramped flat in Tower Hamlets at the age of 18 in order to marry the man chosen by her family. Her Bangladeshi husband, Chanu, is a lot older than her, a little pompous, full of plans which never come to anything and extremely fond of quoting from Shakespeare. Nazneen, whose English consists of ‘sorry’ and ‘thank you’, has to adapt to her new life with this man and to her new countr y with its strange ways.

Read the descriptions of these two novels and answer these questions.

1 What do the two novels have in common? 2 Which countries are the two immigrants from? 3 Why did they go to the UK? 4 Are they both in the country legally?

2 Read the extract from the first chapter of The Other Hand and answer the questions. I am only alive at all because I learned the Queen’s English. Maybe you are thinking, that isn’t so hard. After all, English is the official language of my country, Nigeria. Yes, but the trouble is that back home we speak it so much better than you. To talk the Queen’s English, I had to forget all the best tricks of my mother tongue. For example, the Queen could never say, ‘There was plenty wahala, that girl done use her bottom power to engage my number one son and anyone could see she would end in the bad bush.’ Instead the Queen must say, ‘My late daughter-in-law used her feminine charms to become engaged to my heir, and one might have foreseen that it wouldn’t end well.’ It is all a little sad, don’t you think? Learning the Queen’s English is like scrubbing off the bright red varnish from your toe nails, the morning after a dance. It takes a long time and there is always a little bit left at the end, a stain of red along the growing edges to remind you of the good time you had. So, you can see that learning came slowly to me. On the other hand, I had plenty of time. I learned your language in an immigration detention centre, in Essex, in the south eastern part of the United Kingdom. Two years, they locked me in there. Time was all I had. But why did I go to all the trouble? It is because of what some of the older girls explained to me: to survive, you must look good or talk even better. The plain ones and the silent ones, it seems their paperwork is never in order. You say, they get repatriated. We say, ‘sent home early.’ Like your country is a children’s party – something too wonderful to last forever. But the pretty ones and the talkative ones, we are allowed to stay. In this way your country cramped: angusto becomes lively and more beautiful. heir: erede scrubbing off: togliersi, strofinare stain: macchia go to the trouble: davo da fare plain: bruttine

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1 Why does Little Bee say that Nigerians speak better English? 2 What image does she use to compare the two languages? Do you think it is successful? 3 Where and why did she learn the ‘Queen’s English’? 4 Compare the Nigerian English sentence with its version in the Queen’s English.

DO S S I E R 4 | Literature

3 Read the extract from Brick Lane and answer the questions. Razia smiled… ‘Any news of the promotion?’ ‘My husband says they are racist, particularly Mr Dalloway. He thinks he will get the promotion, but it will take him longer than any white man. He says that if he painted his skin pink and white then there would be no problem.’ Chanu had begun, she had noticed, to talk less of promotion and more of racism. He had warned her about making friends with ‘them’, as though that were a possibility. All the time they are polite. They smile. They say ‘please’ this and ‘thank you’ that. Make no mistake about it, they shake your hand with the right, and with the left they stab you in the back. ‘Well,’ said Razia, ‘this could be true.’ Nazneen turned the words over. This could be true. She waited for more. Razia was unpicking a thread from her jumper. Nazneen said, ‘My husband says its discrimination.’ ‘Ask him this, then. Is it better than our own country, or is it worse? If it is worse, then why is he here? If it is better, then why does he complain?’ These were questions she had neither asked nor thought of asking. She was in this country because that was what had happened to her. Anyone else, therefore, was here for the same reason. ‘I don’t know if he complains,’ she found herself saying. ‘He just likes to talk about things. He says that racism is built into the “system”. I don’t know what “system” he means exactly.’ ‘My son’s teacher, she’s a good one. She helps him a lot, and he likes her. My husband has a work colleague, he gives us things. Clothes that his children have grown out of. A machine for drying hair. A radio and stepladders. All sorts of things. There are good ones and bad ones. Just like us. And some of them you can be friendly with. Some aren’t so friendly. But they leave us alone, and we leave them alone. That’s enough for me.’

1 What is Chanu’s view of the white people he works with? 2 Does Razia share his view? 3 What ‘system’ do you think Chanu is referring to? 4 What evidence is there to suggest Nazneen’s feeling of alienation with her situation?

stab: pugnalano unpicking: sfilando grown out of: che non entrano più

4 Compare Little Bee’s statement ‘In this way your country becomes lively and more beautiful’ with Razia’s ‘There are good ones and bad ones’. How do you interpret them? Do they suggest similar or different views of the UK?

5 Thinking about what Razia says – ‘If it is worse, then why is he here? If it is better, then why does he complain?’ – discuss the reasons why people decide to, or have to, leave their own countries. At what risk? For what benefits?

VIDEO 6 Watch this video about multicultural London and answer these questions. 1 What is Tower Hamlets? 2 How does Praxis help migrants and refugees? 3 Why did the organisation choose the name Praxis? 4 According to Franco, what are the most common problems they deal with at the centre? 5 What was Alex’s experience when he arrived in the country? 6 Why do people like living in London?

Literature |

DO SSI ER 4

299

TEC H N I C A L GLOSS ARY MODULE 1 assembly: assemblaggio assessing: valutare (to) carry out: effettuare coating: rivestimento designer: progettista detrimental: dannoso, nocivo earmuffs: paraorecchie elevator: ascensore emergency cut-out: interruttore di emergenza escalator: scale mobili feasibility: fattibilità fitter: installatore forging: contraffatto forklift: carrello elevatore frayed: logorato grinding: molatura hand tool: utensile manuale hands-on: pratico hazard: pericolo injury: lesione insurance: assicurazione layer: strato layout: impostazione machine tool: macchina utensile melting: fusione piping: tubature power-driven machine: macchina elettrica power-generating machine: macchina produttrice di elettricità protective gear: equipaggiamento antinfortunistico prototype: prototipo servicing: far la revisione di shutdown: chiusura simulation: simulazione slippery: scivoloso tune-up: messa a punto welding screen: schermo da saldatura workplace: posto di lavoro

MODULE 2 boundaries: limiti, confini carbon dioxide: biossido di carbonio (to) cluster: raggruppare cooling tower: torre di raffreddamento (to) crush: frantumare dam: bacino idrico, diga (to) drill: trivellare environmentally friendly: rispettoso

300

TE C HNI C AL G L OS S A RY

dell’ambiente fossil fuels: combustibili fossili (to) give off: emettere global warming: riscaldamento della temperature terrestre (to) harvest: raccogliere livestock: bestiame mammals: mammiferi non-renewable: non rinnovabile plant: (botanico) pianta; (industriale) stabilimento, centrale, impianto pollutant: sostanza inquinante pollution: inquinamento (to) power: alimentare (to) release: rilasciare (to) store: immagazzinare straw: paglia timber: legname wildlife: flora e fauna windmills: mulini a vento/aerogeneratori

MODULE 3 (to) bend: piegare brittle: fragile canning: inscatolamento carrier bag: borsa di plastica coating: rivestimento composites: composti corundum: corindone fillings: materiale di riempimento fittings: attrezzature hardness: durezza harmful: dannoso insulation: isolamento polymers: polimeri rope: corda rubber: gomma rust: ruggine (to) shatter: frantumare (to) shear: spezzare sheet: lamina sleeves to package food: involucri per impacchettare cibo soapstone: steatite stainless steel: acciaio inossidabile strength: forza (to) stretch: allungare (to) undergo: subire wax: cera weight: peso wrought iron: ferro battuto

MODULE 4 (to) compute: calcolare cross-section: sezione trasversale depth: profondità (to) devise: ideare, inventare (to) dimension: dimensionare features: caratteristiche/aspetti freehand: a mano libera height: altezza (to) intersect: intersecare length: lunghezza (to) mirror: riflettere prospective buyer: potenziale compratore protractor: goniometro range: gamma (to) rely on: basarsi su scale: scala, gradazione shading: ombreggiatura, sfumatura shape: forma size: misura skills: abilità (to) store: immagazzinare task: mansione, incarico width: larghezza

MODULE 5 anvil: incudine axle: asse bar: barra bed: banco di fissaggio bench grinder: panchina smerigliatrice blacksmith: fabbro ferraio camshaft: albero a camme cross slide: slitta trasversale cutting edge: bordo tagliente cutting tool: utensile da taglio drop forge: maglio a caduta libera drop hammer: maglio a caduta libera glassblowing: soffiatura del vetro headstock: testa motrice hobbing machine: dentatrice keyway cutting: taglio chiavetta jig grinder: rettificatrice a coordinate line shaft: linea d’asse lathe: tornio lock knob: blocco motore metal spinning: filatrice del metallo milling macine: fresatrice (to) overheat: surriscaldare presses: presse press brakes: presse piegatrici

TE CHNICAL G LO S S ARY punch presses: presse di punzonatura sanding: levigatura sandpaper: carta vetrata stationary: fisso (to) stick out: sporgere tailstock: controtesta toolpath: percorso utensile versatile: multiuso welding equipment: attrezzatura per saldatura wooden: di legno woodturning: tornitura del legno workbench: banco di lavoro

MODULE 6 binder: legante blade: pala brazing: brasatura brittle: fragile blowtorch: cannello casting: fusione; colata cold rolling: laminazione a freddo cutting tool: utensile da taglio die: stampo die-casting: pressofusione edge: orlo, bordo electric arc welding: saldatura ad arco elettrico engine block: blocco motore (to) float: galleggiare heat-resistant brick: mattone refrattario lubricant: lubrificante machining: lavorazione a macchina metalworking industry: industria metallurgica open-hearth furnace: forno a focolare aperto paper clips: graffette propeller shafts: assi propulsori punch: punzone sand casting: fusione in terra soldering iron: saldatore elettrico shielded arc welding: saldatura ad arco schermato thumbtacks: puntine da disegno top die: matrice superiore (to) withdraw: ritirare

MODULE 7 air intake: presa dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;aria belt drive: trasmissione a cinghia battery lead: cavetto della batteria

clutch: frizione connecting rod: biella cranshaft/crank: albero a manovella/ gomito defroster: sbrinatore drive train: trasmissione meccanica exhaust pipe: tubo di scappamento flywheel: volano gearbox: scatola del cambio grip: presa, stretta, morsa grit: graniglia (residuo) inflated: gonfio, gonfiato lightweight: leggero mileage: chilometraggio in miglia nozzle: ugello, boccaglio (to) overcharge: sovraccaricare (to) oversteer: sovrasterzare percentage: percentuale pipe: tubo, condotto, conduttura rear: parte posteriore (to) refuel: rifornire di carburante skid: slittata, sbandata (to) slide: sdrucciolare (to) spark off: scatenare spark (plug): candela di accensione (to) steer: condurre, pilotare tail pipe: tubo di scappamento tank: serbatoio tread: battistrada worn out: consumato

MODULE 8 anti-lock braking system: sistema freni antibloccaggio assembly line: catena di montaggio bandwidth: larghezza di banda (to) boot up: avviare (computer) (to) bridge the gap: colmare una lacuna businesses: aziende, imprese circuit board: circuito stampato data: dati data bank: banca dati data processing: elaborazione dei dati (to) detect: rilevare device: dispositivo, periferica digit: cifra factory: fabbrica FTP (file transfer protocol): protocollo di trasferimento di file (to) handle: maneggiare hacker: pirata informatico high resolution: alta risoluzione income: reddito, entrata

input: ingresso (to) install: installare item: elemento keyboard: tastiera kinematics: cinematica memory bank: banca dati microprocessor: microprocessore output: uscita password: chiave di identificazione peripheral devices: periferiche (to) rely on: basarsi su seamless: continuo source: fonte unmanned: automatico user-friendly: facile da usare wireless: comunicazione senza fili, radio

MODULE 9 absorption: assorbimento air-conditioning system: sistema di climatizzazione appliance: apparecchio, elettrodomestico (to) burst: scoppiare car-cooling system: sistema di raffreddamento per auto (to) chill: refrigerare compressor: compressore concrete: calcestruzzo, cemento condenser: condensatore conduct: condotto, tubo coolant loop: ciclo di raffreddamento (to) deliver: consegnare, trasferire devices: congegni discharge outlet: sbocco di scarico drawback: svantaggio duct: conduttura, tubo, tubatura encasement: rivestimento (to) give off: emettere hay fever: febbre da fieno household: domestico hydronic: a trasmissione di calore per circolazione chiusa di fluido kinetic: cinetico (to) lower: abbassare overheating: surriscaldamento ozone layer: strato di ozono pressure: pressione roof overhangs: sporgenze dei tetti running costs: costi di gestione (to) suck out: aspirare tank: serbatoio thermostat: termostato TECH N ICA L GLO SSARY

301

W O R D BA NK The nuclear power plant: la centrale nucleare

cooling tower

torre di raffreddamento

steam generators

generatori di vapore

warm water inlet

stream lines

ingresso dellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;acqua calda

condotti del vapore

transformer

turbine

control rods

trasformatore

turbina

barre di controllo

electricity

generator

elettricitĂ

generatore

pump

pompa

uranium fuel

uranio (combustibile)

reactor vessel reattore

302

W O R D B ANK

condenser

pump

condensatore

pompa

cooling water

acqua di raffreddamento

cold water basin

bacino di acqua fredda

WO RD BAN K The lathe: il tornio

gear box

scatola del cambio

cone pulley cover

start

rivestimento della puleggia

tool post

avvio

portautensili

headstock

feed reverse lever

testa

leva inversione

saddle sella

tailstock

contropunta

face plate mandrino

bed

bancale

clutch knob

apron

pomello del cambio

grembiale

motor

motore

feed change lever

leva di cambio avanzamento

lead screw

vite di comando

WO RD BANK

303

W O R D BA NK The car: lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;automobile

rear-view mirror

seat

specchietto retrovisore

roof

windshield

sedile

tetto

lunotto parabrezza

dashboard cruscotto

boot

baule

window

finestrino

tail light

display

faro posteriore

monitor

windshield wiper

bumper

tergicristalli

paraurti

windshield washer liquido tergicristalli

spare wheel

ruota di scorta

air filter

handle

filtro dellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;aria

maniglia

battery batteria

wheel rim cerchione

wheel

oil filter

transmision

filtro dellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;olio

trasmissione

muffler

marmitta

radiator

radiatore

body side moulding fiancata

licence plate

line shaft

asse del cambio

targa

disk brake

engine distribution distribuzione

disco del freno

alternator

headlight

alternatore

faro anteriore

blinker freccia

304

W O R D B ANK

steering wheel volante

ruota

WO RD BAN K The cylinder: il cilindro cooling fins dissipatori

spark plug candela

cylinder cilindro

fuel in

ingresso del carburante

exhaust out uscita fumi

reed valve

valvola lamellare

piston

pistone

crankshaft

albero a gomito

camshaft

albero a camme

exhaust valve

valvola di scarico

suction valve

valvola di aspirazione

connecting rod biella

WO RD BANK

305

W O R D BA NK The four-stroke internal combustion engine: il motore a quattro tempi

INTAKE

ASPIRAZIONE

COMPRESSION COMPRESSIONE

rocker arm bilancere

COMBUSTION COMBUSTIONE

EXHAUST SCARICO

spark plug candela

valve spring

valvola a molla

exhaust valve

valvola di scarico

intake valve

valvola di aspirazione

water jacket

camera dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;acqua

compression rings

anelli di compressione

push rod puntale

piston

oil ring

pistone

lubrificante

camshaft

albero a camme

cam

camma

timing gears

cinghie di distribuzione

connecting rod crankshaft

albero a gomiti

306

W O R D B ANK

biella

WO RD BAN K The refrigeration system: il sistema refrigerante heat absorbed by water or air

calore assorbito dall’acqua o dall’aria

coolant in

ingresso del liquido refrigerante

coolant out

uscita del liquido refrigerante

condenser

condensatore

expansion valve

valvola di espansione

evaporator evaporatore

discharge nozzle ugello di scarico

casing impeller

AIR CONDITIONERS

CONDIZIONATORI D’ARIA

bearings

corpo

cuscinetti

girante

air inlet

bocchette dell’aria

recirculation duct

air-conditioned room

condotto di ricircolo

stanza con condizionamento dell’aria

seal

suction nozzle ugello aspirante

tenuta

main air heater

shaft

albero

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP POMPA CENTRIFUGA

air intake

riscaldatore d’aria principale

ingresso dell’aria

cooling coils

bobine refrigeranti

heater boiler

plates to remove excess moisture piastre anti umidità

refrigerant compressor compressore refrigerante

expansion valve

valvola di espansione

condenser cooler condensatore

water pump

pompa dell’acqua WO RD BANK

307

THE IM PER I A L SY S TE M

The Imperial System The British Imperial System is the traditional system of weights and measures used officially in the United Kingdom from 1824 until 1995, when the metric system was adopted in most cases. Back in the 19th century, the system was extended to all countries of the British Empire but nowadays most of these too have officially adopted the metric system as their main system of measurement. In the United Kingdom the Imperial System is still used in road signs (miles and yards instead of kilometres). Office space and industrial units are usually advertised in square feet. Although official figures always include litres per 100 km equivalents, fuel consumption for vehicles is commonly stated in miles per gallon.

Sign of the former Weights and Measures office in London.

UK Units of Length 1 inch ( in. or " ) 12 inches ( ins.) 3 feet ( ft. ) 1760 yards (yds)

= = 1 foot = 1 yard = 1 mile ( m )

about the width of a thumb about the length of a size 10 shoe about from nose to stretched finger about 15 minutes walking

= = = =

25.4 mm 305 mm 0.91 m 1.61 km

UK Units of Area 144 square inch (sq.in) 9 square feet ( sq.ft) 4840 sq.yards (sq.yds)

= 1 sq.foot = 1 sq.yard = 1 acre

about a paper napkin about the size of a card table about a football pitch

= = =

0.093 m2 0.84 m2 4047 m2

a tablespoon of sugar a bag of sugar used in body weight less common unit 112 lb; bag of cement. 2240 lb.; about 14 men

28 grams 0.45 kg 6.35 kg 12.7 kg 50.8 kg 1.016 tonne

UK Units of Mass or Weight 16 drams (dr) 16 ounces (ozs.) 14 pounds (lbs) 2 stone 4 quarters 20 hundredweight (cwt)

= = = = = =

1 ounce 1 pound 1 stone 1 quarter 1 hundredweight = 1 ton =

= = = = = =

UK Units of Capacity 5 fluid ounces 20 fluid ounces 2 pints (pts.) 4 quarts (qrt)

308

AP P E NDI C E

= = = =

1 gill 1 pint an English beer 1 quart a German beer 1 gallon a large can of paint, maybe

= = = =

142 ml 568 ml 1.1 L 4.546 L

IRRE G ULAR V E R B S Base form

Past simple

Past participle It meansâ&#x20AC;Ś

arise awake be bear beat become begin bend bid bind bite blow break breed bring broadcast build burn burst buy cast catch choose cling come cost creep cut deal dig do draw dream drink drive dwell eat fall feed feel fight find flee fly forbid forecast foresee forget forgive freeze get give go grind grow hang have hear hide hit hold hurt keep kneel know lay lead lean leap learn

arose awoke was/were bore beat became began bent bid bound bit blew broke bred brought broadcast* built burnt* burst bought cast caught chose clung came cost crept cut dealt dug did drew dreamt* drank drove dwelt* ate fell fed felt fought found fled flew forbade forecast* foresaw forgot forgave froze got gave went ground grew hung had heard hid hit held hurt kept knelt* knew laid led leant* leapt* learnt*

arisen awoken been borne/born beaten become begun bent bid bound bitten blown broken bred brought broadcast* built burnt* burst bought cast caught chosen clung come cost crept cut dealt dug done drawn dreamt* drunk driven dwelt* eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flown forbidden forecast* foreseen forgotten forgiven frozen got given gone ground grown hung had heard hidden hit held hurt kept knelt* known laid led leant* leapt* learnt*

sorgere svegliare/(si) essere portare, generare battere diventare iniziare piegare(rsi) offrire legare mordere soffiare rompere(rsi) allevare portare trasmettere costruire bruciare scoppiare comprare gettare, fondere afferrare scegliere aggrapparsi venire costare strisciare tagliare trattare scavare fare trarre, disegnare sognare bere guidare abitare mangiare cadere nutrire sentire(rsi) combattere trovare fuggire volare proibire prevedere anticipare dimenticare perdonare gelare, congelarsi ottenere, ricevere dare andare macinare crescere, coltivare appendere, pendere avere sentire, udire nascondere colpire, battere tenere, contenere far male, ferire tenere, conservare inginocchiarsi conoscere, sapere posare, deporre condurre, guidare appoggiarsi, inclinarsi saltare imparare, apprendere

Base form

Past simple

leave lend let lie light lose make mean meet mistake overcome pay put quit read ride ring rise run say see seek sell send set sew shake shed shine shoot show shrink shut sing sink sit sleep smell speak spell spend spill split spoil spread spring stand steal stick strike strive swear swell swim swing take teach tear tell think throw thrust tread understand wake wear weave weep win write

left lent let lay lit* lost made meant met mistook overcame paid put quit* read rode rang rose ran said saw sought sold sent set sewed shook shed shone shot showed shrank shut sang sank sat slept smelt* spoke spelt* spent spilt* split spoilt* spread sprang stood stole stuck struck strove swore swelled swam swung took taught tore told thought threw thrust trod understood woke wore wove wept won wrote

Past participle It meansâ&#x20AC;Ś lasciare, partire left prestare lent lasciare, permettere let giacere, sdraiarsi lain illuminare, accendere lit* perdere lost fare, fabbricare made significare meant incontrare(rsi) met fraintendere, sbagliare mistaken superare, vincere overcome pagare paid mettere put abbandonare quit* leggere read andare in bici/moto ridden suonare, squillare rung alzarsi, sorgere risen correre run dire said vedere seen cercare sought vendere sold mandare, spedire sent porre, fissare set cucire sewn* scuotere, tremare shaken versare shed splendere shone sparare, girare un film shot mostrare shown ritirarsi, restringersi shrunk chiudere shut cantare sung affondare, calare sunk sedere(rsi) sat dormire slept odorare, avere odore smelt* parlare spoken scrivere, compitare spelt* spendere, passare spent versare spilt* spaccare(rsi) split sciupare, viziare spoilt* diffondere(rsi) spread saltare, scaturire sprung stare in piedi, sopportare stood rubare stolen attaccare(rsi), incollare stuck colpire, fare sciopero struck lottare, sforzarsi striven giurare, imprecare sworn gonfiare(rsi) swollen* nuotare swum oscillare, dondolare swung prendere, accompagnare taken insegnare taught strappare, lacerare torn dire, raccontare told pensare thought gettare, buttare thrown ficcare, spingere thrust pestare, calpestare trodden capire, comprendere understood svegliare(rsi) woken indossare, consumare worn tessere woven piangere wept vincere won scrivere written

*The regular form is also possible

IR R EGU LAR VERBS

309

P H R ASA L V ER BS bail sb out: help sb out with money |salvare finanziariamente|

look after: take care of |prendersi cura di, badare a|

bank on: count/rely on |fare affidamento|

look forward to: wait for something pleasant |aspettare con trepidazione, non veder l’ora di|

bring back: make somebody remember something |rammentare|

make off: hurry away to escape |scappare, fuggire|

bring out: produce or publish something |portare alla luce; far emergere|

make out: manage to see or hear clearly |distinguere|

bring up: care for and educate a child |formare, educare, crescere|

make up: invent |inventare, comporre|

build on: use a basis or foundation |costruire su|

make up with: become friendly again after an argument |fare pace con|

call back: return a phone call |richiamare|

pass on: deliver (a message) |trasmettere, passare (un messaggio)|

call off: cancel |cancellare, sospendere|

pick up: go and collect someone in a car |dare un passaggio, far salire qualcuno, andare/venire a prendere|

carry on: continue |andare avanti, continuare| carry out: do or complete something |realizzare, completare|

play up: malfunction |funzionare irregolarmente|

come across: meet somebody by chance |imbattersi in, incontrare per caso|

point out: make someone notice something |far notare, portare all’attenzione|

come round/around: visit somebody for a short time |fare visita|

put off: postpone |posticipare|

come up with: find a solution or have a brilliant idea |farsi venire in mente; proporre, venir fuori con|

put on: a) gain (usually weight) b) wear clothes |ingrassare, mettere su peso; indossare, mettersi|

do without: succeed in living without something |fare a meno di, rinunciare a|

put out: stop something from burning |spegnere|

drop out: quit school or a course |non terminare la scuola, ritirarsi da|

put up: let somebody stay at your home |ospitare (temporaneamente)|

fall out: quarrel with somebody |litigare con|

run across/into: meet somebody by chance |incontrare, imbattersi in|

fill in: complete a form by writing information |compilare|

run out of: finish a supply of something |esaurire, rimanere senza|

find out: discover, learn |scoprire, venire a sapere|

run over: a) knock somebody down (with a vehicle) b) read something quickly |investire; scorrere, leggere rapidamente|

get back: return to a place |tornare, ritornare| get back to sb: reply |rispondere|

put through: connect by telephone |passare/inoltrare una chiamata|

set off: begin a journey |mettersi in viaggio, partire|

get off: leave a train, bus, plane |scendere|

set out: start a journey |partire|

get on/along with: like each other and have a good relationship |andare d’accordo, essere in buoni rapporti|

set up: open (a business) |aprire, fondare (un’attività)| sort out: organise, plan |preparare, organizzare|

get over: overcome a problem and start feeling well |riprendersi, guarire|

stand for: represent, advocate |rappresentare, sostenere|

get rid of: throw away |sbarazzarsi, liberarsi di|

talk over: discuss a problem |parlare di|

get through to: contact somebody by telephone |contattare (per telefono)|

take after: look like a member of your family |somigliare a, prendere da|

give in: admit you have been defeated |arrendersi|

take off: leave the ground and fly (plane) |decollare|

hold on: wait to talk to somebody (on the phone) |restare in linea|

turn on/off: start/stop a machine (pressing a button) |accendere; spegnere|

keep away: avoid going near somebody or something |rimanere a distanza, stare alla larga|

turn out: a) happen in a particular way b) prove to be |andare a finire; risultare|

keep in: restrain |trattenere|

turn up: arrive |arrivare, venire|

keep on: continue |continuare a|

work out: find a solution or an answer |risolvere, trovare una soluzione|

310

look into: examine deeply and carefully |esaminare a fondo, investigare|

PHR AS AL V E R BS

VE RB S + TO AND - ING Verbs + -ing form

Verbs + infinitive with to

Verbs + to and -ing (change in meaning)

admit: ammettere adore: adorare apologise for: scusarsi per appreciate: apprezzare avoid: evitare be afraid of: aver paura di be busy: essere indaffarato, occupato be keen on: essere appassionato di be tired of: essere stanco di be used to: essere abituato a be worth: valere la pena di can’t bear/stand: non poter sopportare can’t help: non poter fare a meno di carry on: continuare a consider: considerare delay: rimandare, ritardare deny: negare detest: detestare, odiare dislike: detestare, non gradire enjoy: essere felice di, godere feel like: sentirsi disposto a, aver voglia di finish: finire forgive: perdonare get used to: abituarsi a give up: rinunciare, smettere hate: odiare imagine: immaginare, inventare insist on: insistere nel involve: coinvolgere, implicare it’s no use/no good: è inutile, non serve keep (on): continuare (a) like: piacere look forward to: non veder l’ora di love: amare, adorare, voler bene mention: accennare, menzionare mind: dispiacere, avere qualcosa in contrario miss: mancare, non riuscire postpone: posticipare, rimandare, rinviare practise: esercitarsi, praticare prefer: preferire prevent someone from doing something: impedire a qualcuno di fare qualcosa put off: rimandare, posticipare report: riferire, riportare resist: resistere risk: rischiare spend/waste time: passare, sprecare tempo a suggest: suggerire, consigliare thank someone for: ringraziare qualcuno di/per think of: pensare di, a

afford to: permettersi di agree to: essere d’accordo, acconsentire appear to: sembrare arrange to: predisporre, programmare ask to: chiedere di attempt to: provare, tentare choose to: scegliere decide to: decidere deserve to: meritare, meritarsi determine to: determinare, stabilire expect to: aspettarsi di fail to: mancare, omettere; fallire forget to: dimenticare grow to: crescere (per diventare qualcosa) happen to: capitare help to: aiutare hesitate to: esitare hope to: sperare hurry to: sollecitare invite to: invitare, esortare a learn to: imparare, apprendere long to: desiderare fortemente, bramare manage to: riuscire neglect to: mancare, dimenticarsi di fare qualcosa offer to: offrire, proporre plan to: avere intenzione; pensare, progettare prepare to: prepararsi pretend to: fingere di promise to: promettere refuse to: rifiutarsi resolve to: decidersi, avere l’intenzione di seek to: cercare di seem to: sembrare, apparire struggle to: sforzarsi, lottare tend to: tendere a threaten to: minacciare wait to: aspettare, attendere want to: volere wish to: desiderare di would like to: volere (condizionale)

be sorry + to: dispiacersi (per qualcosa che sta per accadere) be sorry for + -ing: dispiacersi (di un’azione compiuta) forget + to: dimenticare (un’azione futura) forget + -ing: dimenticare (un’azione compiuta) go on + to: proseguire, andare avanti (con un’altra azione) go on + -ing: continuare a mean + to: intendere, volere mean + -ing: richiedere, significare remember + to: ricordare (un’azione futura) remember + -ing: ricordare (un’azione compiuta) regret + to: rincrescere regret + -ing: pentirsi (di aver fatto qualcosa) stop + to: fermare, fermarsi (per un motivo) stop + -ing: smettere, sospendere (conclusione di un’azione) try + to: provare, tentare, cercare di (tentativo, non necessariamente riuscito) try + -ing: provare (tentativo, esperimento volto alla soluzione di un problema)

Verbs + to and -ing (same meaning) begin: iniziare, cominciare continue: continuare a, andare avanti intend: avere intenzione di start: inziare, avviare

MORE ABOUT... The verb like is mainly followed by –ing. We can use like + to if we wish to say choose to, be in the habit of. I like watching sports on TV. I like to get up early so that I can go jogging before work. The verbs love, hate and prefer are usually followed by -ing, although there is not much difference in meaning if we use them followed by the infinitive.

V ER BS + TO AND -ING

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Acknowledgements

Editorial project and coordination: Simona Franzoni Editorial dept: Simona Bagalà, Michela Bruzzo Language consultant: Gillian Arger Art director: Marco Mercatali Page design: Sara Blasigh Picture editor: Airone Comunicazione Production manager: Francesco Capitano Page layout: ABC, Milano (Roberto Colombo)

Illustrated by: Pesciblu

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